Set Theory PDF

Notation Set Membership Finite and Infinite Sets Equality of Sets Empty Set Subsets Power Set Venn
Diagrams Union In
Set Theory
Jim Woodcock
January 2010
Notation Set Membership Finite and Infinite Sets Equality of Sets Empty Set Subsets Power Set Venn Diagrams Union In
Outline
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Notation
Set Membership
Finite and Infinite Sets
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Generalised Operations
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Outline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Notation
Set Membership
Equality of Sets
Empty Set
Subsets
Power Set
Venn Diagrams
Union
Intersection
Difference
Russells Paradox
Summary
Examples
The numbers 1, 3, 7, 4 and 10.

The solutions of the equation x 2 3 x 2 = 0.
The vowels of the alphabet: a, e, i, o, and u.
The people living on the earth.
The students Robert, Catherine, and Jonathan.
The students who are absent from the class.
The countries England, France, and Denmark .
The capital cities of Europe.
The numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .
The rivers in England.
Notation
set extension
A = {1, 3, 7, 10}
set comprehension
B = { x | x is even }
B = { x : N | x is even }
N denotes the set of counting numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Convention: lower case (a, b, c) for elements, capitals (A,B,
Person, River ) for set names
Examples
A1 = {1, 3, 7, 10}
A2 = { x : N | x 2 3 x 2 = 0 }
A3 = {a, e, i, o, u}
A4 = { x : Person | x is living on the earth }
A5 = {Robert, Catherine, Jonathan}
A6 = { x : Student | x is absent from class }
A7 = {England, France, Denmark }
A8 = { x : CapitalCity | x is in Europe }
A9 = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}
A10 = { x : River | x is in England }
Set Membership
x A
x
/A
Example
let A = {a, e, i, o, u}
then a A, b
/ A, e A, f
/A
let B = { x : N | x is even }
then 3
/ B, 6 B, 11
/ B, 14 B
Examples
The set of nonnegative integers less than 4.

The set of books in the Bodleian Library at the present
time.
The set consisting of people who spoke to Bertrand
Russell on the 7 June 1906.
The set of live dinosaurs in the Pitt-Rivers Museum.
Examples
The set of integers greater than 3.

The set of all C++ programs that can be displayed on a
single screen.
The set of all C++ programs that would halt if run for a
sufficient time on a computer with unbounded storage.
The set of true propositions about the integers.
The set with two members, one of which is the set of even
integers, and other the set of odd integers.
Examples
let M be the set of the days of the week
then M is finite
let N = {2, 4, 6, 8, . . .}
then N is infinite
let P = { x : River | x is on Earth }

although it may be difficult to count the number of rivers in
the world, P is still a finite set
Examples
suppose that statement labels in a (rather old-fashioned)
programming language must be either a single alphabetic
symbol or a single decimal digit
{A, B, C, . . . , Z }
{0, 1, 2, . . . , 9},
a variable name in the programming language BASIC must
be either an alphabetic symbol or an alphabetic symbol
followed by a single decimal digit
Example
consider the four cubes puzzle
this involves four cubes each of whose faces is painted in
one of four different colours
the puzzle is to stack the cubes in such a way that each
vertical side of the stack contains squares of all four
colours
there are 3 123 = 5, 184 different arrangements
Equality of Sets
Example
{1, 2, 3, 4} = {3, 1, 4, 2}
{5, 6, 5, 7} = {7, 5, 7, 6}
{ x : N | x 2 3 x = 2 } = {2, 1} = {1, 2, 2, 1}
Equality
The formal statement of when equality holds between sets is

A = B ( x : X x A x B)
Example Suppose that we have the following definitions:
Zeroes = { x : N | x 2 3 x + 2 = 0 }
SmallNums = {1, 2}
Zeroes = SmallNums
( x : Z
x Zeroes x SmallNums)
Empty Set
The empty set is denoted by

Example
let A be the set of people in the world who are older than
200 years
let B = { x : N | x 2 = 4 x is odd }
Subsets
AB
Example
{1, 3, 5} {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}
{2, 4, 6} {6, 2, 4}
{ x : N | ( n : N x = 2n ) } { x : N | x is even }
the set of women is a subset of the set of all humans
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} { x : Z | 0 < x < 6 }
A B ( x : X x A x B)
we can also write
BA
B is a superset of A
B contains A
Four Theorems
1
two sets A and B are equal if they each contain the other
A=B ABBA
the subset relationship is reflexive

for any set A, A A
since the empty set has no members, it is trivially a subset

of every other set
for any set A, A
the subset relation is transitive

ABBCAC
Proper Subset
A B A B A 6= B
Example
the set of natural numbers is a proper subset of the set of
integers
the set of even integers is a proper subset of the set of
integers
Sets of Sets
it sometimes will happen that the objects of a set are sets

themselves
for example, the set of all subsets of A
the set {{2, 3}, {2}, {5, 6}} is a set of sets
its members are {2, 3}, {2}, and {5, 6}
it is not possible that a set has some members which are
sets themselves and some which arent
the type system will make sure that all the members of a
set are the same kind of object
Power Set
the family of all the subsets of any set S is called the power
set of S
PS
M = {a, b}
P M = {{a, b}, {a}, {b}, }
T = {4, 7, 8}
P T = {T , {4, 7}, {4, 8}, {7, 8}, {4}, {7}, {8}, }
A=
P A = {}
Examples
A = {1}
P A = {, {1}}
A = {1, 2}
P A = {, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}
if A is any (finite or infinite) set of natural numbers, then
A PN
if A is finite, then P A is also finite
otherwise, P A is infinite
Disjoint Sets
A and B are disjoint iff they have no elements in common

Examples
A = {1, 3, 7, 8} and B = {2, 4, 7, 9}
the set of positive numbers and the set of negative
numbers
E = {x, y , z} and F = {r , s, t}
Venn Diagrams
Example
suppose that A B
A
B
Example
suppose that A and B are not comparable
let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d, e, f }
c
b
e
f
Union
we denote the union of A with B by

AB
Example
in the following Venn diagram, the union of the two sets A and
B contains every point marked
c
b
e
f
Examples
let S = {a, b, c, d} and T = {f , b, d, g}, then

S T = {a, b, c, d, f , g}
let P be the set of positive real numbers and let Q be the
set of negative real numbers
then P Q consists of all the real numbers except zero
Intersection
the intersection of set A with set B is the set of elements which

are common to A and to B
it is denoted by
AB
Examples
in the following Venn diagram, the intersection of the two

sets A and B contains only the points c and d:
c
b
e
f
let S = {a, b, c, d} and T = {f , b, d, g}, then

S T = {b, d}
Let V = {2, 4, 6, . . .}, and let W = {3, 6, 9, . . .}, then
V W = {6, 12, 18, . . .}
Difference
the difference between two sets A and B is the set of elements

which belong to A but not to B; we denote it by
A\B
which is read A minus B, or A without B
Examples
The difference between the two sets A and B contains only
the points a and b:
Let S = {a, b, c, d} and T = {f , b, d, g}, then
S \ T = {a, c}
c
b
e
f
let R be the set of real numbers and let Q be the set of

rational numbers
then R \ Q consists of the irrational numbers
Formal Definitions
A B = {x : X | x A x B}
A B = {x : X | x A x B}
A \ B = {x : X | x A x
/ B}
Properties of Set Operations
the operations of union and intersection are commutative and

associative
for arbitrary sets A, B, and C,
AB =BA
AB =BA
(A B) C = A (B C)
(A B) C = A (B C)
Theorems
the set operations of union and intersection distribute over each

other; that is, for arbitrary sets A, B, and C,
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
AA=A
AA=A
A=A
A=
A\B A
AB C D AC BD
AB C D AC BD
AAB
AB A
AB AB =B
AB AB =B
A\=A
A (B \ A) =
A (B \ A) = A B
A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C)
A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C)
S
T A = { x : X | ( S : A x S) }
A = { x : X | ( S : A x S) }
Russells Paradox
the men of a certain town can be divided into two groups:

those who shave themselves
and those who do not
the barber shaves all those who do not shave themselves

so who shaves the barber?
Russells Paradox
S = {x : Person | (x shaves x)} = {x : Person | barber shaves x}

barber S
(barber shaves barber )
barber
/S
barber
/S
barber shaves barber
barber S
Russells Paradox
S = {x : Person | x shaves x}
B = {x : Person | barber shaves x}
Person \ S = B
barber
/S
(barber shaves barber )
barber
/B
barber S
barber S
barber shaves barber
barber B
barber
/S
Summary
sets, extension and display; finite and infinite; sets of sets

membership and non-membership
/
equality: extensionality
empty set
subsets, powersets, proper subsets, disjoint sets
Venn diagrams
union, intersection, difference (minus)
generalised union and intersection
algebraic laws
axiomatic set theoryavoid the paradoxes

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Notation Set Membership Finite and Infinite Sets Equality of Sets Empty Set Subsets Power Set Venn

The numbers 1, 3, 7, 4 and 10.

The set of nonnegative integers less than 4.

The set of integers greater than 3.

Finite and Infinite Sets

let P = { x : River | x is on Earth }

Finite and Infinite Sets

Finite and Infinite Sets

The formal statement of when equality holds between sets is

The empty set is denoted by

the subset relationship is reflexive

since the empty set has no members, it is trivially a subset

the subset relation is transitive

it sometimes will happen that the objects of a set are sets

A and B are disjoint iff they have no elements in common

suppose that A and B are not comparable

let A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d, e, f }

we denote the union of A with B by

let S = {a, b, c, d} and T = {f , b, d, g}, then

the intersection of set A with set B is the set of elements which

in the following Venn diagram, the intersection of the two

let S = {a, b, c, d} and T = {f , b, d, g}, then

the difference between two sets A and B is the set of elements

let R be the set of real numbers and let Q be the set of

Properties of Set Operations

the operations of union and intersection are commutative and

the set operations of union and intersection distribute over each

the men of a certain town can be divided into two groups:

the barber shaves all those who do not shave themselves

S = {x : Person | (x shaves x)} = {x : Person | barber shaves x}

sets, extension and display; finite and infinite; sets of sets

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