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Many practical real flow problems in fluid mechanics can be solved by using
equations and analytical procedures.
Also, some dimensionless parameters and scaling laws are introduced in order to
predict the prototype behavior from the measurements on the model.
Dimensional Analysis
The analytically derived equations in engineering applications are correct for any
system of units and consequently each group of terms in the equation must have
the same dimensional representation. This is the law of dimensional homogeneity.
The first step is to list out the variables that affect the pressure drop per unit
length pl . These variables may be pipe diameter D , fluid density , fluid
viscosity and mean velocity V at which the fluid is flowing through the pipe.
Thus, the relationship can be expressed as,
pl g D, , , V
(1)
At this point, the nature of the function is unknown and the experiments are to be
performed to determine the nature of the function.
2
V
(2)
Now, the working variables are reduced to only two instead of five. The necessary
experiment would simply consist of varying the dimensionless product VD
and determining the corresponding value
DP
l
Fig. 2: Illustrative plot of pressure drop in a pipe flow using dimensionless parameters.
Example II
Consider a problem to determine the drag force on a smooth sphere moving with
certain velocity in a viscous fluid.
The first step is to list out the variables that affect the drag force (say F ). These
variables are diameter of sphere D , velocity of the sphere V , fluid density and
viscosity of the fluid . It can be represented by some unknown function as,
F f D, V , ,
(3)
3
Fig. 3: Illustration of factors affecting the drag force on a sphere; (a) Vary density
holding viscosity constant; (b) Vary viscosity holding density constant;
In order to eliminate these difficulties, the drag force can be expressed as functional
relation between two dimensionless groups as,
VD
F
2 2
V D
(4)
where the nature of the function is not known. However, by experiment, a single curve
may be obtained by relating the dimensionless groups as shown in Fig. 4.
L and
1 2
gt . Each term in this
2
hence it is dimensionally
homogeneous.
p 1 2
V gz C . Each term in
2
2
2
this equation including the constant has dimension of velocity squared L .T
1
arises from mathematical manipulation. The other common
2
Buckingham pi Theorem
k r
independent dimensionless
The dimensionless products are frequently referred to as pi terms and the theorem
is named accordingly after famous scientist Edgar Buckingham (1867-1940). It is
based on the idea of dimensional homogeneity.
(5)
such that the dimensions of the variables on the left side of the equation are equal
to the dimensions of any term on the right side of equation, then, it is possible to
rearrange the above equation into a set of dimensionless products (pi terms), so
that
1 2 , 3 .........., k r
(6)
The required number of pi terms is less than the number of original variables by r
, where r is determined by the minimum number of reference dimensions
required to describe the original list of variables. These reference dimensions are
usually the basic dimensions M , L and T (Mass, Length and Time) .
Determination of pi Terms
Several methods can be used to form dimensionless products or pi terms that arise in
dimensional analysis. But, there is a systematic procedure called method of repeating
variables that allows in deciding the dimensionless and independent pi terms. For a given
problem, following distinct steps should be followed.
Step I: List out all the variables that are involved in the problem.
Amongst the original list of variables, select those variables that can be combined
to form pi terms.
Each repeating variable must be dimensionally independent of the others i.e. they
cannot themselves be combined to form dimensionless product.
a b c
combination dimensionless. It usually takes the form of xi x1 x2 x3 where the exponents
Illustration of Pi Theorem
In order to illustrate various steps in the pi theorem, following examples are considered.
Example 1 (Pressure drop in a pipe flow)
Consider a steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through a long, smooth
walled, horizontal circular pipe. It is desired to measure the pressure drop per unit length
of the pipe without the use of experimental data.
(7)
where D is the pipe diameter, is the fluid density, is the viscosity of the
fluid and V is the mean velocity at which the fluid is flowing through the pipe.
Next step is to express all the variables in terms of basic dimensions i.e.
M , L and T . It then follows that
pl ML2T 2 , D L , ML3 , ML1T 1 and V LT 1
(8)
Third step is to apply pi theorem to decide the number of pi terms required. Since
there are five variables (including the dependent variable p ) and three reference
dimensions, so k 5 and r 3 . So, only two k r pi terms are required.
The repeating variables to be used to form pi terms (Step IV) need to be selected
from the list D, , and V . It is to be noted that the dependent variable should
not be used as one of the repeating variable. Since, there are three reference
dimensions involved, so we need to select three repeating variable. These
repeating variables should be dimensionally independent i.e. dimensionless
product can not be formed from this set. In this case, D, and V are chosen as
the repeating variables.
Now, first pi term is formed between the dependent variable and the repeating
variables. It is written as,
1 pl D a V b c
(9)
ML
T 2 L
LT ML
1 b
3 c
M 0 L0T 0
(10)
(11)
pl D
V 2
(12)
(13)
and
ML T L LT ML
1
1 e
M 0 L0T 0
(14)
(15)
VD
(16)
Now, the correct numbers of pi terms are formed as determined in step 3. In order
to make sure about the dimensionality of pi terms, they are written as,
ML2T 2 L
pl D
1
M 0 L0T 0
2
3
1
V 2
ML
LT
ML1T 1 L
M 0 L0T 0
3
1
V D ML LT L
Finally, the result of dimensional analysis is expressed among the pi terms as,
D pl
2
V
V D
(17)
10
11
12
Ahora, las variables de trabajo se reducen a slo dos en lugar de cinco. El experimento
sera necesario consistir simplemente variando el producto adimensional y la
determinacin del valor correspondiente. Los resultados del experimento podran
entonces ser representados por una sola curva, universal, como se ilustra en la fig. 2.
Sera vlido para cualquier combinacin de tubo de pared lisa y fluido newtoniano
incompresible.
Higo. 2: diagrama ilustrativo de la cada de presin en un flujo tubera usando parmetros
adimensionales.
ejemplo II
Considere un problema para determinar la fuerza de arrastre sobre una esfera lisa en
movimiento con cierta velocidad en un fluido viscoso.
El primer paso es hacer una lista de las variables que afectan a la fuerza de arrastre
(por ejemplo). Estas variables son de dimetro de la esfera, la velocidad de la esfera, la
densidad del fluido y la viscosidad del fluido. Se puede representar por una funcin
desconocida como,
(3)
El siguiente paso es determinar esta relacin experimentalmente mediante la variacin
de un parmetro a la vez en los parntesis del lado derecho de la ecuacin. (3)
manteniendo constantes los otros. Estos resultados pueden ser representados en forma
grfica como se muestra en la figura. 3. Tambin dara lugar a tipos similares de
situaciones, que son extremadamente mucho tiempo y caro investigacin.
Higo. 3: Ilustracin de los factores que afectan a la fuerza de arrastre sobre una esfera; (a)
Variar densidad constante viscosidad explotacin; (b) Vare densidad celebracin
viscosidad constante;
A fin de eliminar estas dificultades, la fuerza de arrastre se puede expresar como relacin
funcional entre dos grupos adimensionales como,
(4)
13
14
Buckingham pi Teorema
Se establece que si una ecuacin que implica variables es dimensionalmente
homognea, que puede reducirse a una relacin entre los productos adimensionales
independientes, donde es el nmero mnimo de dimensiones de referencia necesarios para
describir la variable.
Los productos sin dimensiones se refieren con frecuencia como trminos pi y el teorema
es nombrado en consecuencia despus famoso cientfico Edgar Buckingham (18671940). Se basa en la idea de homogeneidad dimensional.
Matemticamente, si se supone una ecuacin fsica significativa que involucra las
variables,
(5)
de tal manera que las dimensiones de las variables en el lado izquierdo de la ecuacin son
iguales a las dimensiones de cualquier trmino en el lado derecho de la ecuacin,
entonces, es posible reorganizar la ecuacin anterior en un conjunto de productos
(trminos adimensionales pi), de modo que
(6)
donde es una funcin de travs.
El nmero necesario de trminos pi es menor que el nmero de variables originales,
donde se determina por el nmero mnimo de dimensiones de referencia requeridos para
describir la lista original de variables. Estas dimensiones de referencia son por lo general
las dimensiones bsicas (masa, longitud y tiempo).
Determinacin de Condiciones pi
15
16
Puesto que existe una posibilidad de repetir las variables que aparezca en ms de un
trmino pi, as variables dependientes no deben ser elegidos como uno de la variable de
repeticin.
Paso V: Formacin de trminos pi
Esencialmente, los trminos pi se forman multiplicando una de las variables no repetidos
por el producto de las variables repitiendo cada planteadas a un exponente que har que
el adimensional combinacin. Por lo general toma la forma de que los exponentes, y se
determina de modo que la combinacin es sin dimensiones.
Paso VI: Repita el Paso V para cada una de las variables que no se repite restantes. El
conjunto resultante de los trminos pi se corresponder con el nmero requerido obtenido
en la Etapa III.
Paso VII: Verificacin de los trminos pi
Asegrese de que todos los trminos pi deben ser sin dimensiones. Se puede comprobar
simplemente sustituyendo la dimensin de base () de las variables en los trminos pi.
Paso VIII: Forma definitiva de la relacin entre los trminos pi
Por lo general, la forma final entre los trminos pi se puede escribir en la forma de la
ecuacin. (6) donde contendra la variable dependiente en el numerador. La relacin
funcional real entre los trminos pi se determina a partir experimento.
17