POLITICS, SOCIETY, ECONOMY

AND CULTURE IN THE 18TH CENTURY

1. THE POLITICAL CONTEXT

⇒ The Hanover Dinasty

• 1701 Act of Settlement: the succession would pass to the family of
Hanover, on the death of Queen Anne (Stuart)
• 1714, death of Queen Anne:
o Sophia of Hanover had died two months before
o The elector of Hanover was Sophia’s son: George I
• The dynasty provided six British monarchs:
Of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland:
 George I (r.1714-1727)
 George II (r.1727-1760)
 George III (r.1760-1820)
Of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland:
 George III (r.1760-1820)
 George IV (r.1820-1830)
 William IV (r.1830-1837)
 Victoria (r.1837-1901)
• On the death of Queen Victoria, the Crown passed to Edward VII (House
of Windsor)

⇒ The Jacobite Rebellions

• George I: his accession to the throne was peaceful
although controversial. Little interest in Britain, he preferred Germany.
The beginning of political stability.
• The inheritance was a political issue (see The Political
Parties, below)
• Some Tories wanted a return to the direct line of the
Stuarts: James Stuart (the “Old Pretender”) was James II’s
son, he was living in France. He was a catholic. Under the
‘Divine Right’ to rule he would embrace Protestantism
• His supporters were the Jacobites (from the Latin
Jacobus = James): a small but passionate group, mainly in
Scotland
• Jacobites rebellions:
a. 1715: failure
b. 1745: failure, this time led by Charles Edward
Stuart (son of the previous James)
• The House of Hanover was ensured on the throne
• As a consequence for the Scottish support to the
Jacobites, the British had a cruel attitude towards them

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 ⇒ The Political Parties: in the 18th century a dual party system was
developed:

THE WHIGS THE TORIES

Interests of the cities and towns Interests of the Anglican Church
and landowners
Industrial and commercial Conservatives
development
Vigorous foreign policy
Religious toleration No religious toleration
Opposed to any interference in Divine Right to rule
politics by the monarchy
Origin: Parliamentarians Origin: Royalists

• Hanoverian period: decline of the Tories because of the

Jacobite cause. The Whigs had the power for 56 years
• Robert Walpole: a Whig, first British Prime Minister
• In power for over 20 years (from 1715 onwards)
• Cabinet: group of ministers who met without the king, actual power,
limitation to the Crown
• Foreign policy: The Free Marke and Wage Economy, expansion.
Removal of duties on export and import of raw material, luxuries
were taxed (chocolate, coffee). War with Spain in 1739 because of
the War of the Austrian Succession
• Policy in Britain: formation of a home market: transportation
infrastructure, capitalist methods, clth-making and coal mining
industry
• Lord Chatam (William Pit “the Elder”): a Whig, Prime
Minister 1756- 61
• Seven Year War: major military conflict that lasted from 1756, as a
result of the French and Indian War that erupted in North America
in 1754, until the conclusion of the treaties of Hubertusburg and
Paris in 1763. It involved all of the major European powers of the
period
• War with France: the British took Quebec and Montreal (control of
wood, fur and fish trade).
• Treaty of Paris 1763, under George III, Britain gained Canada,
Mississippi and India
• Young William Pit: Prime Minister 1784, a Tory
• Mercantilist policy, competitive country
• Possessions in India, North America and the Caribbean
• Role of Ireland: it was united with England in 1801.
Parliament in Dublin was closed. George III refused to give equal voting
rights to Catholics with the support of most Tories and Protestant Irish
landlords

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 2. COLONIAL EXPANSION AND THE FORMATION OF THE BRITISH
EMPIRE IN NORTH AMERICA

2.1. The origins of the rise of the British Empire

⇒ In the 18th century Great Britain became a major power in the
world, the dominant colonial power in North America and India
⇒ Causes: several wars and treaties (Utretch), trade, politics,
religion, ambition and adventure
⇒ 1497 John Cabot called Newfoundland to the northern part of
Canada. By 1600 the settlement was well established. From
Virginia they establishede a series of colonies along the eastern
coast.
• Hudson’s Bay Company: exploration of the lands around
Hudson Bay: furs, timber, contact with natives
• France did the same aong the Saint Lawrence River
⇒ 1600s: expansion through the Caribbean
⇒ Seven Years War (1756-1763) and Treaty of Paris: France ended
as an important colonial power. Britain emerged as the main force
in North America

2.2. Immigration and population in the American Colonies

⇒ 16th century: first settlements on the northeast coast
(Newfoundland)
⇒ 17th century: Jamestown (Virginia) managed firstly by the Virginia
Company (founded by Captain John Smith) and by the crown
afterwards. The Company traded with tobacco.
⇒ Population by 1700: 64500
⇒ Mayflower 1620: a group of Puritans, called Pilgrims landed in
America: New England. The purposes were to found a refuge for
Separatists but also economic: rights to a “particular plantation”.
Earliest known case in American history of people establishing a
government for themselves by mutual agreement (one of the
principles of independence). In the beginning they were supported
by American Natives, they shared corn, they showed them where
to fish and where and how to plant crops. 1621: first Thanksgiving:
the harves feast where the survival Pilgrims invited the Indiands.
Later on, they developed trade (mainly exporting grain).
⇒ Other foundations due to fleeing from religious persecution:
Roman Catholics (Maryland, 1634), all tolerant colonies (Rhode
Island 1636) and Congregationalists (Connecticut 1639)
⇒ Other territories: Carolina (1663), New Amsterdam = New York
(1664), Pennsylvania (1681, as a refuge of English Quakers)
⇒ Agriculture was easier because of the climate, and it attracted
many English immigrants
⇒ Slavery for labour: first Europeans captured in wars or sentenced
as criminals, afterwards they used African slaves

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 ⇒ In conclusion, a series of colonies along the eastern coast of what
now is the United States and Canada were developed for several
reasons: settlers who wanted to practice their religion freely,
people who wanted to farm without the control of English
landowners, deported criminals... By the 18th century there were
British traders, soldiers, sailors, administrators, etc
⇒ Land was plentiful and labour was scarce: small farms in the north
and large plantations worked by black slaves. Slavery was
abolished in 1807, by that time, black people reached 40% of
population
⇒ Urban centres: Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston
⇒ Th Governors: some were appointed by the crown (the King
granted lands to his favourites), others by Proprietors (a pseudo-
feudalist system)
⇒ 1733: there were 13 colonies along the Atlantic coast
⇒ After the Seven Years’ War (1763) it was not allowed to settle
West of the Appalachian Mountains in order to avoid conflict with
the Native Americans

2.3. The loss of the American colonies

⇒ 1760s – 1770s: worsening of the relations between the British
government and the Thirteen colonies: Britain wanted more
control and taxes over American colonists.
⇒ The government decided to tax for the defence fo the colonists
charging sugar, coffee, textiles and other imported goods
⇒ Sugar Act 1764: special tax on molasses (melaza)
⇒ Stamp Act 1765: special stamps had to be attached toall
newspapers, legal documents, pamphlets and licenses
⇒ Townshend Duties 1767: taxes on paper, plaints, glass, tea and
other goods imported from Britain
⇒ It was compulsory to house and supply English soldiers sent to aid
officers to collect the taxes, since th colonists refused to pay
⇒ Commissioners sent by Britain to control illegal trade and
corruption of local officials
⇒ Many colonists started to assert that only an elected legislative
body could tax, they had no representation in British Parliament
⇒ 1765: Stamp Act Congress, representatives of nine colonies
protested against the new taxes
⇒ After 1765 colonists denied Parliament’s power to tax for the
purpose of raising funds
⇒ 1768: boycott of goods subject to Townshend Duties, followed by
merchants from Boston, New York and Philadelphia. Britainposted
troops in Boston
⇒ 1770 British Parliament revoked the Townshend Duties except on
tea.
⇒ 1773 Boston Tea Party and Boston Massacre (five Bostonians
were killed), it was seen as a sign of repression

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 ⇒ Britain passed the “Intolerable Acts”: closing of the port of Boston,
restructuring the Massachusetts government, restricting town
meetings, etc...
⇒ 1774 First Continental Congress urged Americans to disobey the
“Intolerable Acts” and boycott English trade
⇒ 1775 Britain passed the “Prohibitory Acts” which declared Britain’s
intention to force American colonists into submission
⇒ July 4, 1776 Thomas Jefferson’s formal Declaration of
Independence was accepted; some alterations were made by
John Adams and Benjamin Franklin
⇒ Influences on the Declaration of Independence:
 Virginia Bill of Rights (George Mason): “all men are by
nature equally, free and independent”
 John Locke: “the basic reason of government isto
guarantee life, liberty and property”
 Chomas Paine’s Common Sense: “the naural right of the
continent to independnce, her interest in being
independent, the necessity, the moral advantages arising
there from”
⇒ 1776: War of Independence. The colonists were helped by the
French, the Spanish and the Netherlands. Britain was dfeated,
becomeing the United States of America in 1783
⇒ First two years of war: superiority of th British because of their far
superior sea power, the war took place mainly in the North
⇒ 1778 French-American alliance
⇒ 1778-1781: British operations focusen on the South, where there
was a large percentage of loyalists. The British were successful in
most battles. However, American generals turned to guerrilla
⇒ 1781 Yorktown (Virginia) was a signal victory for the Americans.
The British asked for peace
⇒ George Washington continued military preparations to keep the
Army intact, ready to fight if necessary. During these last two
years of war, battles took place on the thigh seas and on the
Caribbean
⇒ 1782: preliminary peace treaty
⇒ 1783: Peace of Paris, quite favourable to the United States
⇒ The nation gained all the territory North of Florida, South of
Canada and East of the Mississippi River
⇒ The loss of the thirteen colonies was the end of the “Frists British
Empire”. Britain kept on ruling in the Caribbean and in Canada
and paid attention away from the Americas shifting to Asia, The
Pacific and later Africa

3. SOCIETY, CULTURE AND RELIGION

3.1. Society and Culture

⇒ Enlightment: defiance of tradition and pre-established thoughts of
the past such as pessimistic values of Puritanism; believing in

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 human knowledge, free will, salvation for all, the goodness of
mankind, and its capacity of progress. In Arts there was an
imitation of nature
⇒ Intellects:
• John Locke in philosophy
• Thomas Paine in politics: The Righst of Man
⇒ Principles of 18th century society: individualism, initiative,
progress, enrichment, right to personal fulfilment and fun,
bnevolence towards oneself and others, culture of the heart,
sensibility and private judgement
⇒ Population
• Early 18th century: 5.5 million in England and Wales
• Late 18th century: 8.8 million in England and Wales, 13
million if Scotland and Ireland were included
• 1/3 of total population lived in Southeastern England
• Birth rate rose slowly because of diseases affecting
especially the poorest areas
⇒ Living conditions
• Some improvementes were achieved due to increased
production of food (potatoes, cheese, fresh meat –
considered as a luxury), availability of coal, clothing and
soap were cheaper
• 80% remained poor: shortage of food, inadequate
housing conditions, excessive drinking of cheap gin
⇒ Social hierarchy in the countryside
• Nobility
• The gentry: landowners. The chief landowner of a village
was the squire (who was also the local Justice of Peace).
Anther importante person was the parson
• Freeholders, mainla smallholders
• Landless labourers who worked in large farms, especially
in summer
⇒ Migration from the countryside into the towns: in the late 18th
century as a result of enclusures: the land used by peasant for
grazing was taken over by private landowner for more intensive
agriculture. Although there was an improvment of farming
methods, many labourers had to move to towns to become urban
proletariat
⇒ Social structure in towns:
• Wealthy merchants
• Ordinary traders and merchants
• Skilled craftsmen
• Unskilled workers
⇒ Expansion of middle classes:
• The wealthy merchants gained prestige and control
• The artisans and craftsmen filled the gap between
aristocracy and the poor

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 • Growing of individualism due to the political and
economic strength: trade, industry, desire for privacy
⇒ Conditions in urban settings:
• Most towns were small an centres of diseases (there
were not drains and no lightening)
• London had a lightening system from 1734
• From 1760 citizens were taxed for services such as
cleaning and lightening
• Entertainment: coffehouses mainly in London
⇒ Family life:
• Parents used to decide about the marriage of their
children
• Women: they depended on their husbands, they had no
rights. However, there was an increase in the importance
of affection as a result of the idea of kindness. No access
to education; Mary Wollstonecraft published in 1972 her
Vindication on the Rights of Woman, advocating equality
of sexes
⇒ The poor:
• Half the population lived at subsistence level
• They had no rights, they were the most affected by
diseases (50% children died before they were 5 years
old)
• There was force labour, salve labour, bonded labour,
convit labour, incarcerated labour, craft labour, pressd
labour and child labour
• Workhouses sprung up as centers of work even for small
children
⇒ Capital accumulation in the hands of the elite in the late 17th and
early 18th centuries:
• Abolition of holidays, longer working days, longer working
weeks, mechanization, low wages
• New morality: labour was a duty, poverty was not a holy
state any longer
• When industry began to develop from 1750 on, the
population had to accept these standards, there were
many riots and insurrections
⇒ Repression was reflected in legislation:
• The Riot Act 1715: no ritght to assemble under
accusation of felony
• The Transportation Act 1719: felons could be sent to the
colonies to satisfy the demands of forced labour
• Thanatocracy: the poverty reached alarming proportions
in the late 17th century, starving people, prostitution,
shortages of coal and food, crime booms... The death
penalty became a standard to ensure social control

3.2. Religion: John Wesley and Methodism

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• Methodism: new religious movement founded by John Wesley (a
clergyman of the Church of England) which encouraged people to
experience Christ personally
• John Wesley (1703-1791), educated in Oxford, ordained as anAnglican
clergyman, leader of the Sacramentarians (society dedicated to the
moral and spiritual improvement of its members). Powerful preacher,
fluent writer, not interested in politics (although he opposed slavery),
teacher, thinker, etc.
• Since the Church of England was not able to control this new movement,
Wesley began a new Methodist Church: they wanted not only to save
their own souls but also helped the poor, filled the lack of schooling, etc.
• On the other hand, Wesley remained within the Church of England and
insisted that his movement was well within the bounds of the Anglican
Church. Initially Wesley merely sought reform, by way of a return to the
Gospel, within the Church of England, but the movement spread
with revival and soon a significant number of Anglican clergy became
known as Methodists in the mid eighteenth century.The movement did
not form a separate denomination in England until after John Wesley's
death
• Early Methodists were drawn from all levels of society, including the
aristocracy, but the Methodist preachers took the message to labourers
and criminals who tended to be left outside of organised religion at that
time
• Organisation and features:
o organised in small groups (chapels) all over the country
o spreading through areas wih a long dissenting tradition (Bristol,
Manchester, Newcastle...)
o Methodism was identified with the religious life of the lower and
middle classes
o Sense of community and social structure forming circles for
several activities such as money-raising
o Wesley helped to organise many of these societies throughout
England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland
o Utility of Methodism as a work discipline: the Methodist was taught
to bear his cross of poverty and humiliation; the Cross was
obedience and Work

4. THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION

• Antecedents and causes
⇒ Fast growth of population, they had to be fed
⇒ Enclosure of fields: it started in 16th century, the land was
parcelled and divided, there was no free land to work
⇒ Several Acts of Enclosures were passed from 1750 onwards,
affecting nearly 30% of the land
• Features and consequences
⇒ Gradual process which took place during the 18th and 19th
centuries
⇒ Improvement in crops and crop rotation. The introduction of cole
seed, sainfoin, legumes and clover (trébol) avoided fallow

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 (barbecho). Up and down system: the lands were used alternatelly
to crop and to pasture
⇒ Development of agricultural machinery
⇒ Better production in quantity
⇒ Better production in variety: fruits, vgetables
⇒ Excess of workers who moved to towns to develop new industries
⇒ Improvement in the infrastructure of roads and barns, the
landlords were obliged to do it
⇒ Development of trains, factories, steam ships, exchanging within
the Isles and with other countries
⇒ Shift in production to meet the demand for textiles: cultivation of
raw material instead of food in well organized industrial lines
⇒ The process was not followed equally all over the country, but it
would lead to the Industrial Revolution
• Scotland: similar enclosure process but to a lesser degree than in
England; a large part of the land continued being used to pazing
• Ireland: the economy tended to dairy products, beef, butter and salted
pork, which were sent to colonies. However, it was the poorest part of the
British Islands, the introduction of the potato relieved the situation but it
was also the cause of serious famine in times of blight (plaga de la
patata), as it happened in the 1840s