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FLOW MEASUREMENT
Transitional
T
iti
l flow:
fl
which
hi h is
i b
between
t
th
the
laminar and turbulent flow profiles. Its
behaviour is difficult to predict and it may
oscillate between the laminar and turbulent
flow profiles.
Flow-straightening devices
These devices are used to improve
p
the flow-pattern
p
from
turbulent to transitional or even to laminar.
There are three common elements; tubular element, radial Vane
element and aerodynamic straightening vanes.
k is the discharge
g coefficient of the element ((which also reflects
the units of measurement),
A is
i th
the cross-sectional
ti
l area off th
the pipe's
i ' opening,
i
and
d
D is the density of the flowing fluid.
ORIFICE FLOWMETERS
The components of a typical orifice flowmeter
installation are:
Orifice plate and holder
Orifice taps
Differential pressure transmitter
Flow indicator / recorder
ORIFICE PLATES
o Are metal plates have an
equal outer diameter of the
pipeline. These plates have an
opening orifice bore smaller
than the pipe inner diameter.
o The typical orifice plate has a
concentric, sharp edged
opening.
i
B
Because off the
th
smaller area the fluid velocity
increases, causing a
corresponding decrease in
pressure.
The concentric orifice plate has a sharp (squareedged) concentric bore that provides an almost pure
line contact between the plate and the fluid. The beta
(or diameter) ratios of concentric orifice plates range
from 0.25 to 0.75. The maximum velocity and
minimum static pressure occurs at some 0.35 to 0.85
pipe diameters downstream from the orifice plate.
E
Eccentric
i orifice
ifi plates
l
are typically
i ll used
d ffor di
dirty
liquids/ gases. Liquids containing vapour (bore above
pipeline flow axis). Vapours containing liquid (bore
below pipeline flow axis).
Segmental orifice plates are used for heavy fluids, in
preference to eccentric bore p
p
plates,, because it allows
more drainage around the circumference of the pipe.
Orifice Holders
The orifice is inserted into the pipeline between the two flanges of
an orifice union. This method of installation is cost-effective, but it
calls for a process shutdown whenever the plate is removed for
maintenance or inspection.
inspection
In contrast, Senior orifice fitting allows the orifice to be removed
from the process without depressurizing the line and shutting
down flow.
Orifice taps
There are 4 common arrangements of pressure taps:
1.Flange taps are located 1 inch from the orifice plate's surfaces.
They are not recommended for use on pipelines under 2 inches
in diameter.
2. Vena contracta taps are located one pipe diameter upstream
from the plate, and downstream at the point of vena contracta.
This location varies from 0.35D to 0.8D. The vena contracta taps
provide the maximum pressure differential,
differential but also the most
noise. Normally are used only in pipe sizes exceeding 6 inches.
4.
Pipe
p taps
p are located 2.5 p
pipe
p diameters upstream
p
and 8
DP Flow Measurement
When a DP cell is used to
transmit a flow
measurement the output
of the transmitter is not
linear. To solve this
problem some form of
signal conditioning is
needed to condition the
signal for use with a linear
scaled indicator.
DP Flowmeter Installations
Advantages
They are easy to install.
One differential pressure transmitter applies for any pipe size.
Many DP sensing materials are available to meet process
requirements.
Orifice plates have no moving parts and have been
researched extensively; therefore, application data well
documented (compared to other primary differential pressure
elements).
Disadvantages
The process fluid is in the impulse lines to the differential
transmitter may freeze or block.
Their accuracy is affected by changes in density, viscosity,
and temperature.
They require frequent calibration
VENTURI TUBES
o Venturi tube consists of a section of pipe with a conical entrance,
a short straight throat, and a conical outlet. The velocity
increases and the pressure drops at the throat. The differential
pressure is measured between the inlet (upstream of the conical
entrance) and the throat.
o Venturi tubes are available in sizes up to 72", and can pass 25
to 50% more flow than an orifice with the same pressure drop.
F th
Furthermore,
the
th total
t t l unrecovered
d head
h d loss
l
rarely
l exceeds
d
10% of measured d/p.
3)
) MECHANICAL FLOWMETERS
Mechanical flow meters that measure flow
using an arrangement of moving parts,
either by passing isolated known volumes of
a fl
fluid
id through
th
h a series
i off gears or
chambers
c
a be s (positive
(pos t e d
displacement
sp ace e t meters)
ete s)
OR by means of a spinning turbine or rotor
(Turbine Flowmeters)
k Factor
A turbine flowmeters K factor is determined by the manufacturer by
di l i
displacing
ak
known volume
l
off fluid
fl id through
th
h the
th meter
t and
d summing
i
the
th
number of pulses generated by the meter.
4) ELECTRONIC FLOWMETERS
MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS
Base principle of magnetic flowmeter
The magnetic flow meter design is based on Faradays law of magnetic
induction which states that: "The
induction,
The voltage induced across a
conductor as it moves at right angles through a magnetic field
proportional to the velocity of that conductor.
That is, if a conductor is moving perpendicular to its length through a
magnetic field, it will generate an electrical potential between its two ends
(E)
E=BxLxv
Where:
B = the strength of the magnetic field (induction)
L = the length of the conductor (distance of electrodes)
y of the conductor (average
(
g flow velocity)
y)
v = velocity
Di d
Disadvantage
t
The sensor may detect some sound energy travelling in the causing
interference reading errors.
Its accuracy depends on the difference in velocity between the particles, the
fluid, the particle size, concentration, and distribution.
o where K is a calibration factor for the volume and time units used, dt is
the time differential between upstream and downstream transit times,
and TL is the zero-flow transit time
o The speed of sound in the fluid is a function of both density and
temperature. Therefore, both have to be compensated for. In addition,
g in sonic velocity
y can change
g the refraction angle
g "a", which
the change
in turn will affect the distance the signal has to travel. In extreme cases,
the signal might completely miss the downstream receiver.
It can be installed bi
bi-directional
directional
Disadvantages
This type of meters are highly dependent on the Reynolds number (the
velocity profile)
It requires nonporous pipe material (cast iron, cement and fibreglass should
be avoided)
5) MASS FLOWMETERS
Traditionally fluid flow measurement has been made in
terms of the volume of the moving fluid even though the
meter user may be more interested in the weight (mass) of
the fluid. Volumetric flow meters also are subject to ambient
and process changes, such as density, which changes with
temperature and pressure.
There are three ways to determine mass flow:
1. The application of microprocessor technology to
conventional volumetric meters.
2. Use of Coriolis flow meters, which measure mass flow
directly.
3. The use of thermal mass flow meters that infer mass flow
by way of measuring heat dissipation between two points
in the pipeline.
pipeline