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Graz University of Technology, Institute of Technology and Testing of Building Materials, Inffeldgasse 24, 8010 GRAZ, Austria
Technische Universitt Darmstadt, Fachgebiet Massivbau, Franziska-Braun-Strae 3, 64287 DARMSTADT, Germany
c
Graz University of Technology, Institute of Applied Geosciences, Rechbauerstrae 12, 8010 GRAZ, Austria
d
OBERMEYER Planen + Beraten GmbH, Niederlassung Wiesbaden, Biebricher Allee 36, 65187 Wiesbaden, Germany
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 March 2014
Received in revised form 24 September 2014
Accepted 28 September 2014
Available online 13 October 2014
Keywords:
Durability
Degradation
Sulfate attack
Thaumasite
Supplementary cementitious material
Superplasticizer
a b s t r a c t
Two newly developed cement-reduced eco-friendly concretes with high limestone powder content and
low water/powder ratio were tested for sulfate resistance. Mortar samples with a paste composition of
eco- as well as conventional concretes were immersed in 30 g l 1 Na2SO4 and saturated Ca(OH)2 reference solutions for 200 days at 8 C. To evaluate the reaction mechanisms of progressing sulfate attack
a combined approach of mechanical, mineralogical, and microstructural methods was applied.
Gypsum and bassanite neo-formations related linearly to the expansion during sulfate exposure,
except for one sample where ettringite co-precipitated. Thaumasite formation was not observed in spite
of potentially favorable conditions. This is considered to be related to the evolution of the experimental
solutions, kinetic effects, and the competing formation of CaCO3 polymorphs triggered by the usage of
superplasticizer. Both eco-friendly mixes exhibited a better sulfate resistance than their corresponding
reference samples and are therefore suggested to be applicable in low sulfate-loaded environments
according to DIN EN 206-1. Eco-friendly concrete based on CEM III/B performed superior against sulfate
attack and is expected to withstand even severe sulfate exposure despite a much higher water/cement
ratio than required by the standard.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
1.1. Principles of eco-friendly concretes
Recent cement production accounts for approximately 5% of the
global anthropogenic CO2 emissions and thus is a major driving
force for global warming and ocean acidication [1,2]. The majority
of the produced cement is currently consumed by the concrete
industry. Hence, the short- to medium-term decrease of the cement
clinker content in concrete mixtures is suggested to be essential for
the reduction of CO2 emissions connected to the concrete industry.
Such alternative mixtures are referred to as eco-friendly concretes.
They are typically developed based on a promising concept which
includes (i) the application of highly reactive cements, (ii) the
reduction of the water volume and (iii) the introduction of highly
efcient superplasticizers as well as non-reactive, pozzolanic and
latent hydraulic supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
Corresponding author. Tel.: +43 316 873 7159; fax: +43 316 873 7650.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.09.020
0958-9465/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
and DIN 1045-2 [15]. Results have shown that these eco-friendly
concretes exhibited similar (or even better) mechanical properties
than the conventional concretes as well as an acceptable durability
against freezethaw attack, water penetration and carbonation
[3,9,13]. Compared to conventional concrete containing ordinary
PC, the global warming potential of the eco-concretes is reduced
by more than 30% and up to 60% [3]. However, the durability of
these concretes against sulfate attack is still in question and therefore the aim of the present study.
1.2. The inuence of sulfate attack on concretes with limestone
During service life concrete elements often come into contact
with sulfate ions that are present in e.g. soil solutions or ground
water. In such sulfate-loaded environments, the formation of
ettringite {3CaOAl2O33CaSO432H2O}, gypsum {CaSO42H2O} and
thaumasite {CaSiO3CaCO3CaSO415H2O} is considered to cause
severe damage on concrete structures [16,17]. At temperatures
P15 C ettringite (Ett) is typically formed and is known to cause
microstructural damage to the cement paste by generating expansive forces, particularly in small pores due to high crystallization
pressure [18,19]. It is generally accepted that aluminate phases
that occur in the cement clinker (C3A and C4AF) support the formation of Ett and hence have a strong inuence on the sulfate-resistance of concrete [20,21]. Ett is often accompanied by gypsum
(Gp) formation which results in further expansion and destruction.
Gp typically forms in high sulfate-loaded environments that are
frequently used for testing of concrete and mortar in the lab
[22,23].
The sulfate resistance of concrete can be strongly improved by
using cement with a low C3A and C4AF content and/or with reactive
SCMs. For instance, Skaropoulou et al. [24] have reported that based
on lab tests mortar specimens with BFS or metakaoline showed a
better performance against sulfate attack than PC based ones independent from their limestone content. Gutteridge and Dalziel [25]
have shown that limestone additives can enhance the concrete
strength by improving the hydration rate and Bonavetti et al. [10]
suggested that limestone may react with alumina phases to form
stable calcium monocarbonate aluminate hydrate. Furthermore,
Matschei et al. [26] have demonstrated that limestone has a significant inuence on the distribution of lime, alumina and sulfate
phases during concrete hydration. Although the addition of limestone can improve the concretes performance, cements with high
amounts of calcium carbonate llers are known to be prone to
the thaumasite form of sulfate attack (TSA). Numerous experimental studies have shown that cementitious materials with limestone
llers are susceptible to TSA, especially at low temperatures
(<10 C) and in high sulfate-loaded environments [2733]. Thaumasite (Tha) formation is typically attributed to progressing decomposition of CSH-phases, but the precipitation rates are expected to
be signicantly lower compared with that of Ett and Gp. Severe
damage of concrete due to intense TSA has also been reported from
various eld sites, where it typically occurs in cold environments
and in underground structures [3441]. In order to evaluate the
resistance of the two newly developed cement-reduced ecoconcretes with high limestone powder contents against sulfate
attack, laboratory experiments were performed by aging standard
test specimens in 30 g l 1 Na2SO4 solution at 8 C for 200 days.
2. Mix design, experimental procedure and methods
2.1. Materials and mix design approach
The sulfate resistance of the aforementioned cement-reduced
eco-friendly concretes and conventional concretes was tested on
365
mortar specimens that were stored under well-dened lab conditions. The mortar mixes are in accordance to the original concrete
mixes without using the aggregate fractions 28 mm and
816 mm [3,9,13]. The mix design of the mortars is shown in
Table 1. In total, four cement-reduced mortars containing limestone powder and y ash as well as three conventional reference
mortars were tested. In order to investigate the effect of the
cement type on sulfate resistance, three normative cements,
namely (I) PC (CEM I 32.5R), (II) Portland-slag cement (CEM II/A-S
52.5 N), and (III) BFS cement (CEM III/B 42.5 N) were used. The
applied limestone powder had a calcium carbonate content
of > 98 wt.%, a median diameter value (D50 volume based) of
15 lm and a Blaine value of 330 m2/kg. The y ash had a similar
grain size but a slightly lower Blaine value of 300 m2/kg. In all
mixtures the CEN standard reference sand (EN 1961 [42]) with
a maximum grain size of 2.0 mm was used.
Mixtures Ref I, Ref II and Ref III, made of the respective cement
types (I), (II) and (III), represent conventional reference mortars
with a water/cement (w/c) ratio of 0.60. This is the maximum value
according to the German standard for concrete (DIN EN 206-1/
DIN 1045-2) for exposure class XA1 with a sulfate concentration
in groundwater of 200 < SO24 6 600 mg l 1. The cement
content of these reference mortars was in accordance with EN
196-1 Methods of testing cement. Mixtures Ref II and Ref III
reect semi-reference mortars which both have a w/p ratio of
0.60 but correspondingly higher w/c ratios of 1.07 and 0.76, respectively. The mix designs of the cement-reduced eco-mortars were
characterized by high limestone powder content and a low w/pratio of 0.35 (Eco II and Eco III). The lower w/p-ratio was chosen
to fulll the concept of clinker-reduced concretes and to attain a
sufcient durability [3]. To maintain the aimed table ow of
180 mm according to DIN 1015-3 [43] the use of a superplasticizer
was necessary for the Eco-mixes. The percentage of cement reduction in these eco-mortars was up to 35% compared to the
corresponding concretes [3].
2.2. Casting, curing, and test procedure
Mortar specimens prisms (40 40 160 mm) and thin
prisms (10 40 160 mm) were fabricated according to EN
196-1 and demolded after 48 2 h. On the basis of the German
Building Authority (DIBt) testing procedure for sulfate resistance
[44], the specimens were pre-cured for 14 days at 20 C in saturated Ca(OH)2 solution. Afterwards, the mortar specimens were
divided into two aliquots, each of which was stored in 30 g l 1 Na2
SO4 and in saturated Ca(OH)2 reference solution at 8 C for
200 days. Distilled water was used for the preparation of the experimental solutions. During the immersion period the volume ratio of
the Na-sulfate and the Ca-hydroxide solutions to the samples was
xed at 6:1. The specimens were placed on plastic spacers about
2 cm above the bottom of the tank. The test solutions were
renewed regularly every four weeks. In order to study the effect
of hydration, the pre-curing time of three specimens of the Eco III
type was extended to 28 days (Eco III-28d), followed by immersion
in Na2SO4 and Ca(OH)2 solutions at 8 C as described above. The
strain development of the thin prisms was measured by means
of a strain gauge with an accuracy of 0.001 mm/m. Two measuring
steel points were xed on both sides of the specimens by using a
chemically resistant epoxy resin. In order to determine changes
in the expansion rate of mortar samples over time, strain measurements were carried out every two weeks on three samples of each
mix.
According to the SVA-guideline [44], mortars with an expansion
60.5 mm/m after 91 days of reaction time indicate a high sulfate
resistance. However, the w/c-ratio of the reference mixes with
regular cement contents was 0.60, instead of a required w/c-ratio
366
Table 1
Mix design for the mortar samples. Cement types are commercially available in accordance to EN197-1.
Mix ID
Ref I
Ref II
Ref III
Ref II
Water/cement
Water/powder
Cement
0.60
0.60
CEM I 32.5R
450
450
450
270
1350
0.60
0.60
CEM II/A-S 52.5 N
405
45
450
450
270
1350
0.60
0.60
CEM III/B 42.5 N
135
315
450
450
270
1350
1.07
0.74
0.60
0.36
CEM II/A-S 52.5 N
262
293
28
32
290
325
80
90
80
256
450
671
270
233
2.9
1350
1350
Type
Clinkera
Slag
Total
Fly ash
Limestone
Total powder
Water
PCE-SP
Sand 02 mm
a
[g]
[g]
[g]
[g]
[g]
[g]
[g]
[g]
[g]
Eco II
Ref III
Eco III
0.76
0.61
0.60
0.35
CEM III/B 42.5 N
102
112
252
286
354
398
48
55
48
236
450
689
270
241
1.6
1350
1350
Denotes all constituents of the cement except for slag. (PCE-SP): polycarboxylatether superplasticizer.
of 0.50. This higher w/c-ratio was used to enable a direct comparison to the Eco-mixes. Furthermore, the temperature was set to
8 C using a climate chamber, instead of 20 C, in order to trigger
TSA. The compressive strength of the mortar prisms was determined after 56 days of storage in the experimental solutions, in
accordance with EN 196-1. Visual inspection and subsequent mineralogical and microstructural investigations were conducted on
the mortar prisms that were immersed for 200 days.
2.3. Mineralogical and microstructural analyses
Prior to the analyses the mortar prisms were dried at 40 C.
Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were recorded for mineral
identication. Representative samples were taken and nely
ground in a ball mill for 15 min, together with 10% zincite {ZnO}
as an internal standard. Randomly oriented preparations were
made using the front loading technique and subsequently X-rayed
from 3 to 90 2h with a step size of 0.008 and a count time of 40 s
per step using a PANalytical XPert PRO diffractometer operated at
40 kV and 40 mA. Phase identication was made with the PANalytical XPert HighScore Plus software.
For microstructural analyses, representative sample pieces
were impregnated with epoxy resin under vacuum, followed by
cutting of the samples with a diamond saw and subsequent grinding with diamond grinding wheels, using ethanol cooling and polishing with 3 and 1 lm diamond oil suspensions. Back-scattered
electron (BSE) images were recorded on polished carbon-coated
specimens using a Jeol JXA-8200 SuperProbe electron probe micro
analyzer. For mineral identications semi-quantitative single spot
analyses were performed using the implemented energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) system operated at 15 kV and 10 nA.
3. Results
3.1. Visual inspection
Typical appearances of mortar samples that were stored in
30 g l 1 Na2SO4 solution for 200 days are pictured in Fig. 1 and
classied in Table 2. In order to evaluate the deterioration level,
the samples were divided into four categories, reecting no damage (0), minor damage (Mi), major damage (Ma), and destroyed
(D). The Ref II and Ref II mortar mixes suffered severe damage
due to intense sulfate attack and were completely decomposed,
while Eco II and Ref I mixes developed a major degree of damage.
Ref III and Ref III showed only some, but rather less pervasive
visual cracks on the surface and were therefore classied into the
minor damage category. Eco III and Eco III-28d offered no
macroscopic damage, suggesting an outstanding sulfate resistance.
Ref I
Damage level
(Ma)
(D)
Ref II
367
Ref II*
(D)
Eco II
(Ma)
Ref III
(Mi)
Ref III*
(Mi)
Eco III
(0)
Eco III-28d
(0)
5 cm
Fig. 1. Mortar prisms after 200 days of immersion in 30 g l 1 Na2SO4 solution at
8 C; Damage levels: (0) no visible damage, (Mi) minor damage, (Ma) major
damage, (D) destroyed.
368
Table 2
Damage level degree from visual inspection (see Fig. 1). The D-expansion rate, D-compressive strength, D-sulfate phases (ettringite, gypsum and bassanite) and D-carbonate
phases (calcite and vaterite) were calculated by subtracting the individual parameters of Ca(OH)2 immersed samples from Na-sulfate ones. Negative D-values reect losses and
positive D-values reect gains.
Duration [d]
Damage
200
D Sulfate [wt.%]
200
D Carbonate [wt.%]
200
D Expansion [mm/m]
91
D Strength [N/mm2]
56
Mix ID
Ref I
Ref II
Ref II
Eco II
Ref III
Ref III
Eco III
Eco III-28d
Major
Destroyed
Destroyed
Major
Minor
Minor
No damage
No damage
4.6
2.8
1.7
3.8
1.9
0.3
1.0
0.6
3.9
3.8
0.1
3.7
2.1
1.1
4.6
0.6
1.46
1.01
4.78
0.98
0.55
0.31
0.10
0.05
0.1
2.1
1.5
4.1
3.4
0.9
0.7
0.8
50
5.0
pre-storage Ca(OH)2 14d 20C
after pre-storage Ca(OH)2 56d 8C
after pre-storage Na2SO4 56d 8C
4.5
-expansion [mm/m]
60
40
30
20
Ref I
Ref II Ref II* Eco II Ref III Ref III* Eco III Eco III
28d
Ref II
Ref II*
Eco II
Ref III
Ref III*
Eco III
Eco III-28d
1.5
1.0
SVA-guideline limit
0.5
10
Ref I
0.0
0
14
28
42
56
70
84
98
curing
(28 + 56d)
CEM I
curing
(28d)
20
CEM I
30
CEM II/A-S
CEM III/B
50
40
60
CEM III/B
CEM II/A-S
Ref I
Ref II
Ref III
Ref III*
Ref II*
Eco II
Eco III
Eco III-28d
4. Discussion
4.1. Mechanical properties
The increase of compressive strength between 14 days of prestorage and after 56 days of storage in Ca(OH)2 solution can be
attributed to the proceeding formation of hydrate phases in the
matrix. This effect was distinctive for all mortars that contained
latent hydraulic and puzzolane additives like BFS and y ash. After
56 days of sulfate exposure, slight improvements in compressive
strength were recognized for some mortars, i.e. Ref I, Ref II and
Ref II (see Fig. 2), which reected the microstructural densication
of mortars due to the development of expansive products such as
Gp, Ett and Bas [16]. Our results revealed that specimens which
showed increasing compressive strength values after sulfate exposure exhibited also a higher expansion rate after 56 and 91 days.
This behavior leads us to suggest that the initial improvements
in strength went along with negative effects of excessive expansion
of the neo-formed sulfate minerals. Consequently, the compressive
strength results after Ca(OH)2 exposure can be used for the characterization of the mechanical properties of mortars. However, the
evolution of compressive strength of specimens during 56 days of
sulfate attack did not provide reliable information about their sulfate resistance.
Until 56 days of sulfate exposure, all mortar mixes had expansion rates below the SVA-guideline limit [44] of 0.5 mm/m (see
Fig. 4). After 56 days, a signicant expansion was observed for Ref I,
Ref II, Ref II and Eco II mortars whereas the Ref III, Ref III, Eco III,
and Eco III-28d mixes still displayed insignicant expansion until
91 days of sulfate exposure. These observations clearly indicate
that both Portland (CEM I) and Portland slag composite
(CEM II/A-S 52.5 N) cement based mortars were more susceptible
to sulfate attack, compared to BFS based (CEM III/B) ones. From
other studies it is also known that reactive hydration products such
as CH, Ett and other AFm phases can be effectively reduced when
using proper SCMs such as BFS and y ash containing cementitious
materials and thus lowering the risk of the formation of secondary
expansive phases during sulfate attack like Gp and secondary Ett
[5,45]. In our samples Gp had mainly developed in the interface
transition zone (ITZ) around aggregates and in cracks parallel to
369
Fig. 5. XRD patterns of Ref I (top) and Eco III (bottom) mortars after immersion in 30 g l 1 Na2SO4 and saturated Ca(OH)2 solution for 200 days, respectively. The difference
diffractograms, shown in the inserted boxes, indicate mineral gains and losses related to mineral precipitation versus dissolution during sulfate exposure. The calculated Dsulfate and D-carbonate values are reported in Table 2.
the sample surface (see Fig. 6). Commonly, the ITZ contains the
highest CH contents and a higher porosity than the rest of the
cement paste [46].
The reduction of the cement content and the addition of limestone powder generally did not increase the expansion rates of
the mortars, despite the increase of the w/c-ratio (compare Eco II
vs. Ref II and Eco III vs. Ref III in Fig. 4). Elevated w/c-ratio resulted
in weaker and potentially more porous cementitious matrixes
which were more vulnerable for SO24 ion penetration followed
by the formation of expansive phases [47]. In contrary, the reduced
cement clinker content combined with limestone and y ash led to
an increased resistance against sulfate attack (e.g. Ref III
compared to Ref III). It is suggested that the low w/p-ratios resulted
cr
ac
ki
ng
Ref I
Na2SO4
in
te
ns
e
Gp
sample surface
sample surface
370
Eco II
Ca(OH)2
ne
d zo
ache
le
Qz
Qz
Ccsec
Ccsec
Qz
Cal
Ccsec
Qz
Gp
Ccsec
Qz
Qz
Ref II
Gp
Na2SO4
375 m
Eco II
sample surface
sample surface
375 m
Na2SO4
Ccsec
Qz
Pore Gp
Pore Cc
cra
Qz
intense cracking
cki
ng
Ccsec
Cal
Qz
Qz
Ref III
leached zone
Gp
Na2SO4
200 m
Eco III
sample surface
sample surface
375 m
Gp
Na2SO4
Qz
Slag
Ccsec
Qz
Cal
Slag
Fsp
Ccsec
Gp
Qz
Gp
Qz
275 m
Ccsec
crack
425 m
Fig. 6. Back-scattered electron images of Ref I, II, III and Eco II, III obtained after 200 days of exposure in 30 g l 1 Na2SO4 solution. Eco II, stored in saturated Ca(OH)2 solution,
is shown for comparison. Mineral phases identied by EDX: (Gp): gypsum, (Cal): calcite, (Ccsec): secondary calcium carbonate, (Qz): quartz, (Fsp): feldspar (Slag): blast
furnace slag grains. Note that the mortar damage degree is mainly attributed to intense cracking, leaching and widely coincided with the visual degree of damage (Fig. 1).
illustrated in Fig. 7. Ref II was the only mortar where Ett was
formed. This mix had also the highest expansion of 4.78 mm/
m, which was due to the more destructive effect of Ett compared
to Gp [51]. The generally good performance of CEM III/B is
considered to be attributed to a denser microstructure and the
4.78 mm/m
ettringite + gypsum attack
-expansion [mm/m]
4.5
Ref I
Ref II
Ref II*
Eco II
Ref III
Ref III*
Eco III
Eco III-28d
1.5
R = 0.90
1.0
ck
ite
san
nd
a
sum
0.5
atta
bas
gyp
0.0
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
evidence for Tha formation was found in any of the samples. The
lack of Tha can be explained by (i) its slow reaction rates, (ii) the
chemical composition and the evolution of the experimental solution, which promoted the precipitation of other Ca-sulfates and Cacarbonate minerals, and (iii) the role of polycarboxylate-ether
superplasticizer (PCE). In the following these assumptions are
elucidated.
In contrast to Tha formation, large amounts of neo-formed
CaCO3 polymorphs (Cal and Vtr) were identied. These carbonates
are commonly found in association with high pH solutions (up to
13) that occur in e.g. tunnel drainages [54]. Tha is stable at high
pH but also at lower pH values (down to about pH 8) but it possess
slow reaction kinetics and is therefore known to occur particularly
during the last stages of sulfate attack [27,32,55,56]. In the present
study, the 200 days of sulfate exposure were possibly not sufcient
to trigger Tha formation.
Another critical point is that under real eld exposure conditions, pure sodium sulfate solutions are never present. In natural
surroundings, mixtures of solutions containing different aqueous
complexes, speciations and dissolved cations and anions are considered to have decisive effects on Tha formation and sulfate attack
in general [55,5759]. Furthermore, cyclic events such as multiple
drying and wetting cycles induce strong enrichments in major and
trace element concentrations within the interstitial and pore solutions. Such processes typically enhance the formation of destructive mineral phases such as Tha and thus result in the more
rapid degradation of concrete, as demonstrated by thermodynamic
calculations, lab experiments and eld observations [47,48,55].
We can only speculate about the pore solution compositions
and crucial ion content of Ca2+, SO24 , CO23 , and silica, which are
required for Tha precipitation, but it is evident that Ca-sulfate minerals and carbonate minerals were formed and Tha formation was
suppressed. For this reason, the absence of Tha in our samples is
expected to be also attributed to the evolution of the chemical
composition of the experimental solution (i.e. ion leaching, -xation and changes in pH). Additionally the formation of CaCO3 polymorphs such as Cal, aragonite and Vtr [6062] and Tha [6366] is
strongly inuenced by organic substances. In our case, it is suggested that the PCE used in the Eco-mixtures had played an important role on controlling CaCO3 versus Tha formation.
PCEs are well known to strongly attach to positively charged
cement particles but also interact with negatively charged ions
such as SO24 in the pore solution, thereby affecting e.g. Ett formation during early hydration [6770]. Lothenbach et al. [53] did not
nd Tha in CEM III/B-SiO2 based paste samples after 3.5 years
371
where PCE was used, even though Tha formation was predicted
by thermodynamic modeling. Blanco-Varela et al. [64] investigated
the effect of organic admixtures during Tha synthesis. In the four
experiments where PCEs were used, Tha was inhibited while other
organics favored its formation.
Since in our experiments all mortar specimens were placed
together in the same containers with Na2SO4 and Ca(OH)2 solutions, it is assumable that organic molecules from the PCE were
present in the solutions and pore uids during the whole immersion period [53]. In these highly alkaline immersion solutions even
small amounts of organics can affect dissolved silica speciation
[7173]. For example partial removal of aqueous silica from the
experimental solution by adsorption onto organic molecules might
have interfered with the formation of Tha. Additionally the formation of CaCO3 polymorphs has acted as a competing reaction for
Tha precipitation that lowered the Ca2+ and CO23 concentration
in the experimental solution. Consequently it seems doubtful that
dissolution of limestone ller can occur, which would serve as a
potential carbonate source for Tha formation, because we had
found neo-formations of CaCO3 [28,74,75].
4.3. Exposure classication and application
The prediction of the performance of concrete in real practice
exposure based on laboratory-controlled accelerating tests on mortar specimens could be associated with some uncertainties. Potential variations are, for example, the higher SO24 concentrations
and/or the dened temperature prole used in conventional accelerating tests, which commonly leads to the formation of mineral
phases others than that observed in the eld and consequently noncomparable expansion rates and deterioration mechanisms. Thus,
the suitability for accurate prediction of the sulfate resistance of
concrete based on accelerating tests is challenging and should be
veried. The results presented in the previous chapters indicate that
Gp and in particular Ett were the driving forces for the deterioration
in the presence of sulfate-rich solutions, as seen in Figs. 1 and 7. Their
formation is known to cause severe damage on concrete structures.
Portland and Portland slag cement based mixtures Ref I, Ref II
and Ref II exhibited a generally low resistance against sulfate
attack. Thus, the application of these mixtures in highly sulfate
loaded environments is not recommended. However, the application in low sulfate environments (XA1) with 200 < SO24 6
600 mg l 1 is acceptable according to DIN EN 206-1/DIN 1045-2.
The cement-reduced mortar Eco II had shown a better sulfate resistance than the reference mortar Ref II with w/c = 0.60. According to
the equivalent performance concept for concrete properties
(DIN EN 206-1), a mixture like Eco II, with a w/p-ratio lower than
0.35, a compressive strength of more than 40 N/mm2 and a limestone content lower than 35% of powder, should be acceptable
for exposure class XA1.
In spite of a higher w/c-ratio than specied by the SVA-guideline
[44] Ref III, Eco III and Eco III-28d developed less than 0.5 mm/m
expansion and thus passed the test. Consequently, these concretes
are suggested to withstand moderate sulfate attack (XA2) with sulfate concentrations from 600 < SO24 6 3000 mg l 1, according to
DIN 1045-2/EN 206-1. Since the expansion rates of Eco III and
Eco III-28d were exceptionally low, concretes with such a paste
composition (w/p 6 0.35; slag P 40% of powder; limestone 6 35%
of powder; fc P 45 N/mm2) are probably suitable for application
in concrete structures that can be exposed to severe sulfate attack
(XA3), with concentrations from 3000 < SO24 6 6000 mg l 1.
5. Conclusion
Based on the results from cement-reduced eco-friendly mortars
(Eco II and Eco III) and reference mixes the following conclusions
372
373