No Struggle For Existence, No Natural Selection

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No struggle for existence, no natural se
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No Struggle for Existence

No Natural Selection
No Struggle for Existence

No Natural Selection
A
Critical Examination of the
Principles of the
Fundamental
Darwinian Theory
By
GEORGE PAULIN
Edinburgh
T.
&
T.
CLARK,
1908
38 George Street
C-
Printed by
Morrison
&
Gibs Limited,
for
T.
LONDON
&
T.
CLARK, EDINBURGH.
S1MPEIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT,
HEW YORK CHARLES

:
AND
SCRIBNER's SONS.
CO. LIMITED.
PREFACE
rpO
the majority of those
*-
this hook, it
may
who
glance at the
title of
appear that I have undertaken
a useless labour in writing
But no one
it.
willingly
or intentionally sets himself to the task of writing a
book which he
not himself convinced will serve
is
They
some useful purpose.

which
has
become
the
me
tell
creed
that the theory
Science
of
having
obtained the general consensus of the civilised world
and in view
of its long
undisputed acceptance,
it is
much
too late in the day to examine into its founda-
tions
and place them under
me
however, encourages
to
critical review.
been too late in entering upon this
and
of
what Science
subjecting
critical investigation, is
no one, so
into
am
far as I
my
not
field of inquiry,
calls its creed
to a
perception of the fact that
aware, has ever before inquired
and examined the fundamental
Darwinian Theory.
What,
think that I have
This
may
principles of the
seem, at this time of
day, to be a most extraordinary statement to make,
but
it is
one which, I
due consideration
Even when the
is
am
assured, will be found,
given to
conflict
it,
raged at
Darwin and the opponents
of
when
to be absolutely true.
its
hottest betwixt
Evolution, the latter,
PREFACE
vi
being in truth too
much
occupied with assailing other
points of his doctrine, did not attack his fundamental

principle of the Struggle for Existence, while the
science
of
the
who were
principle
as
in
an axiomatic statement requiring

It has therefore
neither investigation nor verification.

fallen to
me
to
men
agreement with him accepted
do what
scientists
neglected to do, namely, to inquire
if
have
all
along
there really
in Nature, such a struggle for existence as
is,
Darwin has
formulated and stated to be the universal experience

of
my
In proceeding to
life.
me no
upon which Darwin based

"
inquiry,
what caused
small surprise was the very insufficient grounds

his
struggle for existence," he
from the high rate at which

"
increase."
all
universal
struggle.
pronounces, " follows
organic beings tend to
Hence, as more individuals are produced
than can possibly survive, there must, in every
case,
be a struggle for existence, either one individual with

another of the same species, or with the individuals of
distinct
life."
species, or
with
the physical
I looked for the signs
struggle as
conditions of
and evidences
sign or evidence of its being in progress I

I
perceived
of such a
But
here affirmed to be inevitable.
is
nowhere the reign
of
saw none.
tooth and claw,
except in the single case where carnivorous creatures

are seeking their food from God, where no fear
is
felt
by
saw
their
prey,
and death
is
ever prompt.
nowhere starvation working havoc among creatures

unable to obtain sustenance from being less fitted than
their fellows
to
find food
and
live.
Neither did I
PREFACE
vii
perceive the inevitableness of a struggle for existence

so terrible
and
from the
fact of there being
so universal as
Darwin has
duced than can possibly survive.
described,
more individuals proIn asserting such a
struggle to be inevitable from such a cause,
Darwin
altogether left out of account the possibility that, in
order to avert so fearful a state of matters as he has
Nature might have some arrangement
described,
for
eliminating her excess of reproduction, without suffer-
But
ing and without internecine conflict.
to credit
Nature with any arrangement or plan having a bearing upon the wellbeing of her children was opposed
to the first principles of Darwin's mind.
He regarded
Nature as a blind agent uninformed by any principle

of
intelligence
action
endeavour,
haply
or
design, or rather, as
upon which the individual
it
its
fateful struggle for death
might be found the
lieving, as I do; in a
therefore
the field of
fought, in agonised
fittest
or
life
if
Be-
to survive.
moral basis to the universe, and
convinced that Darwin's conception of the
cruelty of Nature to her sentient offspring
is
wholly
mistaken, and that she must have some principle of

elimination of
her excessive reproduction that
is
in
harmony with a considerate regard for her offspring's

wellbeing and happiness, I set myself to the task of
discovering in what this principle of elimination consists.
Darwin supported
existence
by bringing
his belief in his struggle for
forward
vigorous carnivora are very
by which
their
prolific,
the
fact
that the
and that the means
numbers are kept within due bounds
PREFACE
viii
are so obscure that in no single instance have they
of
what checked the growth
he considered a
struggle
life
must in every ease be
there
my
That
existence.
for
endeavour to
method
of elimination in regard to
prolific vertebrates is
founded upon the amplest
discover Nature's
all
the prolific carnivora
sufficient justification for his assertion
that in regard to all
of
come
This ignorance
within the scope of man's knowledge.
possible evidence, can scarcely, I think, be disputed.
Neither can
which
it
be disputed that in the elimination
have shown to be Nature's method
of averting
a Darwinian struggle for existence the survival

of the fittest but of the average,
and
is
in
is
not
no sense
dependent upon individual qualities or the presence of

fortunate variations.
might
Darwin's
have rested
theory
of
my
Natural
whole
case
Selection
against
upon
the
ascertained fact that Nature exhibits no principle of

selection,
and makes no use
of individual variations,
whether fortunate or injurious, in
eliminating
her
excess of reproduction, while she preserves in every

case a sufficient
number
of individuals to continue her
various species in undiminished numbers.
But it appeared to me that an elaborated theory

whose fundamental and vivifying principle was a
demonstrably
examined in
false
detail,
assumption
must
itself,
when
be found to be an extraordinary
concatenation of weird concepts, of sins against logic
and common
known
laws,
sense, of criminal violations of Nature's
and
of audacious
and indefensible
asser-
PREFACE
My
tions.
investigation proved
tenement tottering in
its
ix
to be so, a rotten
it
every joint
a ship tumbling
helplessly on the brine, leaking at every plank.
In the chapter entitled
my
stated
"
Natural Selection
"
I have
belief in the doctrine of Evolution, accord-
ing to which the higher forms of
life
have been evolved
from lower forms, and I have accepted the received

opinion
forms
that
the higher vertebrates were once fish
disporting in the tepid waters
of
an
earlier
world.
Short as the time
body
of this
and the writing

and
ing
is
that has elapsed between the
work having passed through the press

of this Preface, I
have found strong
to myself incontrovertible reasons for reconsider-
my
views in regard to the doctrine of a material
evolution from lower to higher forms of
What
life.
these reasons are which have constrained me, a
now
long evolutionist,
span of
state
life,
in
to alter
terms
as
life-
touching upon man's allotted
my
previous convictions, I will
concise
as
possible with a due
regard to necessary clearness.
The only evolutionary power

that which
of
Nature known
exerted by
true Science
is
environment,
when by any compelling
of animals (for
only)
is
forced
I
to
external conditions.
according
from
its
to
am
is
its
to
changed
cause a group
dealing with animated Nature
migrate
This
is
and come under
new
the principle of Lamarck,
which the new material
environment,
every several feature, from the form and
configuration of the country, from the nature, colour,
PREFACE
x
and formation
of
rocks, deserts,
its
plains,
moun-
and elevated plateaus, from the wealth or

want of vegetation with its lights and shadows, from
its climatic conditions, even from the food which it
tains
furnishes, is constantly exerting
upon the
modifying influences
migration has newly come under

in a uniform
so
that
no
manner
single
all
and raining down

that by its
species
it,
and
is
changing
the individuals of the species,
can
individual
escape
from
its
established specific bond.
Lamarck
and rightly held, that under the new
held,
environment into which a migrated species was brought

certain changes in its habits
new
to call into play
must take
the suspension of some old functions.

structural elements
from want
of use
place, so as
functional activities, and entail
Thus certain
would be developed, while others
would become atrophied and dwindle
into rudimentary proportions.
It
was
whether rightly or wrongly I cannot
his belief also,

say, that this
modifying potency of changed external conditions was

sufficient to
organisms
account for the differentiation of
into
upon the surface
No
the
diverse forms
of the globe.
reasonable doubt, in
tained that
external
to
all living
which now exist
the
conditions
my
opinion, can be enter-
modifying influence of changed

are
due
all
the
differentiations
that exist between the several species that have been
derived from a
common
ancestor, to wit, the generic
form which was the origin of the family to which

the related species belong.
all
PREFACE
xi
Let us suppose a group or section of the old form

severed from the main body by changes of the earth's
surface
and
removed
so
to a
new
would
habitat, it
at
once be encompassed and laid hold of by the modifying

influences of its changed material surroundings,
would in
this
manner be adapted
When we
ment.
the
that
to its
new
and
environ-
think of the innumerable changes
has
surface
earth's
depressions and elevations,
undergone,
now
owing to
turning seabeds into
dry land, now sinking dry land so as to form seabeds,

it
will at once
seem probable that
of a family derived
species
extinct genus
owe
all
the various
from an old and now
their existing specific differentiations
to having been frequently compelled to migrate,
frequently brought under
new
and
external conditions.
According to this principle of evolution (the only

one,
repeat,
which
of
Science
has
any certain
knowledge), organic beings are mere passive recipients

of the
modifying forces of Nature, without possessing
in themselves the slightest
own account what
is
power
good
or
of choosing
beneficial
on their
for
their
particular organic development.
But
while,
experience,
from the
we can
results
thus
evolutionary power of
of
observation
and
that
the
reasonably infer
Nature has acted from the
genus that founded the family group modifying the

species derived
so far as
from
we can
it,
Nature's evolutionary agency,
trace its effects, appears unable to
pass beyond the bounds of a family so as to originate
new
generic type.
PREFACE
xii
We
see in every geological era evidence of ascent
in the scale of organic being,
until
ends in man.
it
and we can trace
Darwinians
speak
to
It
But
ance of man.
in truth there
to say, of a
should connect
it
scale of
new
unbroken
up
to the appear-
is
no such chain.
generic type, the link that
with an antecedent lower form,
From bottom
wholly wanting.
of
to a critical point, the appearance,
Wherever we come
is
the
of
confidently
habit
the
been
has
chain of life from Palaeozoic forms
that
it
upward, from geologic age to geologic age,
rising ever
is
to top of the ascending
the geologic record does not convey to
life
our mind the slightest hint or suggestion that higher
forms of
This
have been evolved from lower forms.
life
especially remarkable
is
when some
absolutely
different and, in respect to the older forms, entirely
heterogeneous form appears, such as a true fish in the
midst of molluscs and crustaceans.

so appears
is,
in regard to its external
The
first fish
that
form and internal
structure, as perfectly developed as are the later fish
forms, having no correspondence with
form
of
life,
phetic of
its
It is the
from their
any antecedent
and preceded by no half-way form proemergence.
same with respect
existence exhibit all
the
the developed bird.
Some
was discovered
to bird forms,
appearance on the stage of
first
essential
characteristics of
years ago a fossil feather
in a rock system
which at the time
the discovery was supposed to have been

of feathered life,
which
organic
of
destitute
but in which a few bird forms have
PREFACE
since been found.
xiii
This feather
as perfect as are
is
those of the present-day eagle.
"We are informed that mammals have been developed

from
It is pointed out that fishes, birds,
fish forms.
mammals are all

same
built
on the same plan, and have
and
all
the
skeleton, modified only so far as to be adapted in
each case to the requirements of their mode of existence.

This
is,
of course, important
the absence of
all
other signs
endeavour to ascertain
our
and
it
does not help us in
how
one form to another took place.
any Darwinian has attempted

process
of
evolution
towards
have begun in a
could
fish
interesting, but in
the evolution from
know that
explain how the
I do not
to
mammal
structure
and continued
to
scientific point
of
consummation.
It
would be interesting from a
view to peruse an
intelligent,
even
if
purely conjec-
how much was done under

water and how much was left to be finished on
tural, disquisition as to
the
and at what point of development and in what

manner the organism left the water to begin its life
There is not by any means the same
on the land.
perplexing problem when we seek to account for the
land,
transference of
a land existence to a
in the deep sea, such as has happened in the case
life
of
mammals from
whales and porpoises.
that
certain
evolved
amphibious
whose
habitats
gradually became
habits,
We
have only
mammals were
were
by the
assume
to
created
which
sea,
more and more aquatic
in
becoming thereby more adapted to a
or
their
life
in
PREFACE
xiv
and under the

and plunged
sea, until
they
into the water,
the land altogether
left
where their forms became
mode
further modified to suit their
of
life.
But
in
the case of these organic forms their original structure,

adapted primarily for life on land, is still preserved in
more or
fishes,
less
rudimentary fashion, whilst, unlike true
they cannot live without rising at short intervals
to inflate their lungs with fresh supplies of air,

still
alive
and
remain true mammals, bringing forth their young
and suckling them.
But the
forms of
earliest
perfectly finished forms,
mammal
vertebrates are
and do not smell
of the sea.
Beyond
the skeleton they have no structural or other
affinities
with any kind of
who
now
fishes.
address myself to the orthodox Darwinian,
believes in Natural Selection as the evolutionary
power
of Nature.
him to solve the hopelessly insoluble

how mammal forms were developed from
I do not ask
problem
of
fish forms,
earliest
but I
on his explaining how the
insist
mammalia came
to
manifestation,
without
father or mother, without having their appearance
the stage of organic
life
on
heralded by a series of forms
in the making, from the fish to the
mammal.
Let us take into intelligent consideration Darwin's

doctrine of Natural Selection
and
its
long-drawn-out
processes.
The individual
path
of
further
of a species
who
development,
is
by
starting on the
reason
of
possessing a variation superior to those possessed
its
by
PREFACE
the
common
numerical
xv
form, acquires in the course of ages a
ascendancy over what] was
form until
the
latter
finally
is
common
the
exterminated, and
become
individuals possessed of the superior variation
common
themselves the
Thus one form super-
form.
sedes another.
But
which one form has been
in the ages during
superseded by another the evolutionary gain has only
been an infinitesimal accretion of something that
is
beneficial to the organism alone which, possessing it
from the beginning, had the intelligence to
A long
follows,
adding
secular
of
all
many
perhaps
it.
duration.
After
hundreds,
hundreds, of such secular periods, each
its infinitesimal accretion,
and
sufficiently distinct
we have
select
succession of similar infinitesimal accretions
the result
differentiated
a form
is
from that which
seen starting on the path of development to
new species.
Now, how vast must have been the number,
not say of new forms each with its infinitesimal
entitle it to be considered a
tion,
but of
new
specific forms,
I will
accre-
each the resultant of
the hundreds of infinitesimal accumulations that were

required to give
from which
it
it its
differentiation
was evolved, that followed each other
in succession while the fish
the
mammal
number
of
How
distinct
period of evolution
Some
hundred
b
from the species
geologists
million
was being developed into
vast, I ask,
specific
must have been the
forms that marked this
have averred that a period

years,
which they are
of
of
one
opinion
PREFACE
xvi
must be regarded as the utmost limit

can be assigned to
became
it
kind of
life
upon the
earth's surface since
sufficiently refrigerated to
life
existing,
would be
of time that
admit
of
any
far too short for the
action of Natural Selection to achieve the enormous
amount
that
differentiation
of
multitudinous forms of
When we
life
exists
upon the
the
set ourselves to consider the slowness of
the processes of Natural Selection,
who hold
that those
between
globe.
this
we cannot but think
opinion
are
more
than
justified.
In a
letter written
on the 29th January 1906 to
Orr of Glasgow, Lord Kelvin says
Professor
will find a good deal
more on the subject
than the passage to which you
volume
ii.,
of
my
refer, in
Popular Lectures
and in Phil. Mag., 1899,
first
"
You
of later date
pages 10 to 131,
and
Addresses,
half-year, page 6 6,
making
a strong body of evidence that the age of the earth

as an abode fitted for life cannot probably be vastly
greater than twenty million years."

If
we
accept Lord Kelvin's estimate of the prob-
able lapse of time from the
first
beginning of
life
till
the present day, and also give credence to Darwin's
account of the processes of Natural Selection, and take

into consideration the vastness of the space necessary
to
be traversed in the evolution of the fish into a
mammal by
a series of infinitesimal accretions, each
of secular duration, the period of
twenty million years
seems scarcely too long for the achievement of this one

evolution.
PREFACE
But
let
us assume that a period of one million
years sufficed to accomplish

if
xvii
it
is it
possible, I ask,
such evolution really took place, to believe that the
geological record should contain no evidence or indica-
tion of its having taken place,
and should not show
occasional intermediate forms to intimate the advance
that was in progress while the one form was being
developed into the other

It
is
posterous to believe
explain
not possible to believe
When Darwin
it.
away the import
to higher forms were represented
imperfection of
that
attempted to
of the fact that
mediate forms showing the ascent of
in the geological record,
were pre-
It
this.
by
life
no
inter-
from lower
fossil
specimens
by directing attention
record,
the
acceptance
to the
his
of
explanation was a monumental evidence of his ascend-
ancy over the minds

For,
according
number
Natural
of
of his contemporaries.
to
Darwin's
Selection
must
own
the
showing,
due to the action
intermediate forms
have
been
vastly
of
more
Now
the imperfec-
tion of the geological record does not tell
more strongly
numerous than the
finished forms.
against the preservation of intermediate forms than
does against the preservation of finished forms.
would therefore be not

while
finished
forms
less
were
than miraculous
yielded
to
it
It
that
geological
research in large and growing numbers, not a single
intermediate form pointing to the origin of a finished

generic form should emerge,
forms had ever existed.
if
Darwin's intermediate
PREFACE
xviii
this is
record
reveals
yet
Nothing
forms.
whence and how the

between
nothing
and the
mammals
first
fish
the
understand
to help us to
first
fishes
between
intervenes
and crustaceans
molluscs
times
remains a tabula rasa in regard to inter-
it still
mediate
it
geological
the number of
Darwin wrote,
when
contained
many
to-day
which
finished forms
The
what has happened.
Yet
forms were evolved,
and the
to indicate
forms
bird
first
how they were
built up.
The condition
of the geological record shrieks out
the most emphatic refutation of Darwin's doctrine of
Natural Selection as the evolutionary power of Nature.
There are no means of evading or escaping from

the
conclusion
that
there
if
has
been a
physical
evolution from lower to higher forms of organic

its processes
as to leave
must have been
no impress
of
of so
them on the sands
But even the most rapid form

which I can conceive or conjecture
for,
or
even
life,
rapid a character
of time.
evolution of
of
fails
to account
render remotely explicable, the sudden
appearance
among
finished
forms, finished bird forms, and finished
fish
heterogeneous
organisms
of
mammals.
These considerations to me, a lifelong evolutionist,
have proved of a highly disconcerting nature
for I
have always taught myself to regard the doctrine

evolution
from lower
to higher organic
more elevated conception
of
creative
would be the direct intervention
of
of
forms as a
energy than
Deity through
PREFACE
special acts of creation
xix
and even now
unable to depart from this
I find myself
Nature most clearly
belief.
and with no uncertain voice proclaims that
if
been evolution from lower to higher forms
been by slow and gradual processes
it
has not
such processes
for
there has
could by no possibility have left the geological record
a tabula rasa in the matter of intermediate forms.

If I
be asked in what conclusion, then, do I
can only answer, in
way
the
this,
that I
mode
must
of evolution
Nature
know
me by
of G-od in creation baffles
tells
rest, I
nothing.
its
mystery.
The
Of
us nothing.
in all honesty confess that logically, as the
matter presents
favour of those
itself to
who
my
mind, the argument
is
in
believe in the doctrine of special
creations as our fathers believed in
it.
Though the doctrine does not recommend itself to

me and I am unable to accept it, I am nevertheless
constrained
more
to
acknowledge that
difficult to
accept
it
parting of the principle of

bit of
protoplasm
it
does not seem
than to believe in the im-
life to
for this
the
first
monocellular
was nothing
less
than a
special act of creation.
The graduated
scale in
the ascent of being from
the earliest organic forms to
man,
its
crowning point in
reveals to a certain degree the thought of
in His
scheme of
God
creation, while it still leaves
deepest obscurity the method
and processes
in
of the
Divine action.
One thing stands

wit, that the
clear
and
certain to
reason, to
Deity did not intervene to suspend the
PREFACE
xx
regular operation of the forces of Nature with a view

to
prevent the preservation
He
while
them
suffered
to
of
intermediate
those
preserve
forms,
finished
forms which are contained in the geological record.
The Second Book
Law
of Population,
tion of
my
of this work,
is,
which deals with the
properly understood, a continua-
argument against Natural Selection or the
Survival of the Fittest
from the wild
life of
the arena being transferred
Nature
to
mankind joined together
in the social bond.
The demonstration
related to
its
of the fact that population is so
food supply that
former
the
cannot
increase without an antecedent increase of the latter,

is
not only destructive of the pessimism of the Mal-
thusian theory, but lends itself to the most optimistic
hopes entertained of
human
progress.
I have also endeavoured to demonstrate that the
competition which
ments
of
human
we
witness in the various depart-
activity has not only
no correspond-
ence with Natural Selection or the Survival of the

Fittest,
but
is
Nature's ordinance for developing and
making the most

raising
the
status
of
the individual to the end of
and elevating
comfort of the whole community.
the
standard
of
CONTENTS
BOOK
I.
CHAP.
I,
II.
FAGB
THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE
NATURAL SELECTION, OR THE EVOLUTIONAL VALUE

OF THE INDIVIDUAL VARIATION
.
BOOK
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
60
II.
THE MALTHUSIAN THEORY
115
THE LAW OF POPULATION
146
THE LAW OF POPULATION ILLUSTRATED
169
RETROSPECT AND FORECAST
199
226
BOOK
I.
CHAPTER
I.
THE STEUGGLE FOE EXISTENCE.
THE
Darwin
evolutional theory of
rests
upon the
doctrine of the struggle for existence as he has
formulated
it.
My
purpose
in
chapter
this
to
is
demonstrate that such a struggle for existence, as
is
required to render his principle of Natural Selection

effective
the work which he imposes upon
for.
not found in Nature, and
phenomena
of
how
intense,
is
repudiated by
the organic world.
and
relentless
How
life,
as
all
the
severe and
unintermitting
that great and complex battle of
it, is
must be
Darwin may
well call his struggle for existence, in regard to which
he
feels himself justified
follows
"
in using such language as
Can we doubt (remembering that many
more individuals are born than can possibly survive)

that individuals having
over others
would have
feel sure
injurious
slight,
the oest chance of surviving
kind
of procreating their
may
any advantage, however
On
the other hand,
and
we
that any variation in the least degree
would be
rigidly destroyed.
tion of favourable individual differences
and the destruction
of those
This preserva-
and
which are
variations,
injurious, I
have called Natural Selection, or the Survival of the
NO STRUGGLE NO SELECTION
What
Fittest."
a picture
the conditions under which
is
here given of
life
and
of
all living creatures subsist
The over-production of living beings, that from their

numbers in a congested world cannot possibly survive,
are doomed in the terrible struggle for existence,
in the fierce competition for food and life, to perish
they can procreate their kind, because they
before
differ
slightly
from those who are fortunate enough
to survive in the matter of their individual differences
or variations.
It
becomes understandable how the author
concept of organic
strained
of a
so pessimistic felt himself con-
life
by the exigences
of his hypothetical creed to
wage unrelenting war against the notion of a benevolent Creator and

against
action
of
any principle
Nature,
of
or
a designing Intelligence, and

of
beneficent
in
any
of
purpose in any
her developmental
results.
Defining his struggle for existence, Darwin says

"
Hence
as
more individuals are produced than can
possibly survive, there

for existence, either
must
one
in every case be a struggle
individual with another of
the same species, or with the individuals of distinct

species, or
with the physical conditions of
doctrine of
life.
It
is
the
Malthus applied with manifold force to the
whole animal and vegetable kingdoms
for in this case
there can be no artificial increase of food, and no prudential restraint from Marriage."
I trust to demonstrate that this appalling picture of
all
organic
life is
lived
is

not only overcharged with gloom, hut
true, not
wholly un-
merely without support and corroboration from
the actual
all
is
phenomena
points by these
of Nature,
phenomena
but
;
contradicted at
is
and that universal
misery and an unremitting struggle for
life
are neither
the essential, nor the prevailing, conditions of organic

existence.
"The
causes,"
Darwin
writes,
"which check the
natural tendency of each species to increase are most
Look
obscure.
much
as
it
swarms
tend to increase
most vigorous species
at the
in numbers,
still
further.
what the checks are even
by
We
much
know not
so
by as
will it
exactly
in a single instance."
In this chapter I shall deal only with the most vigorous species, or the class of vertebrate animals, the checks
upon whose increase seemed to Darwin so mysterious

and obscure and in so doing, I shall show Nature,
;
averting from
them a
struggle for existence such as
he imagines to be their
lot,
by the manner in which
she eliminates their excess of reproduction without

calling to her aid the
instrumentality of individual
variations, either advantageous or injurious.
chapter which follows
this, I
In the
shall demonstrate that
she cannot and does not use such variations for any
evolutional purpose, while in this I confine myself to
making
it
clear that they play
what individuals
shall survive
no part in deciding
and what
shall perish.
In this work I aim at dispelling the pessimistic

view of Nature in her dealings with her sentient
creatures, according to which, with
the followers of
Darwin, she
represented as contemplating not their
is
but merely their slow evolution through
happiness,
indefinite time, in the course
well-being
is
which their material
of
ever being offered up and sacrificed upon
the shrine of far remote developmental issues, while
present misery must be the lot of everything that
my
I desire, as far as lies in
the minds of young men,

as
to
power, to revive in
are prone to
accept
reverence for the Divine in Nature,
the moral and spiritual forces of the
belief in
Universe;
the current beliefs that prevail in
authoritative
scientific coteries, a
and a
who
lives.
counteract,
in
short,
that
and
gross
degrading materialism which Darwin has gone far to
make
the recognised stamp of
thought.
being
am
present-day scientific
not turned aside from
my
task by
constrained
to
acknowledge that there
consensus
of
opinion that
general
Darwin
founded on the
is
the
is
doctrine
solid rock, that it
a
of
has stood
the test of time, and come triumphantly out of the

fiercest
fires
controversy
of
that
it
has
won
enthusiastic assent of the scientist as of the
the street
am
in
that the whole literature of two generations
has pronounced
I
the
man
it
inviolable
sufficiently
and
irrefutable.
acquainted
with
the scientific
speculations of past ages, and with the various Nature-
creeds that have had their day, and obtained during

their currency the universal assent of thinking
men
as
well as of the multitude from the time of Anaxagoras
up
to the present hour, to be well assured that the
concurrence of mankind, embracing
all its intelligence,

all
wit and wisdom,
its
where a
purely
worth absolutely nothing
is
speculative
Nature-creed
con-
is
cerned.
Between that
which since the
science
practical
beginning of the nineteenth century has transformed

the earth, and quickened the heart-beat, and raised the
hopes of humanity, and the speculative science of the
same
there
period,
a great gulf fixed.
is
Practical
science has advanced from point to point, ever taking
from the knowledge
start
its
of
phenomena already
acquired, employing in its progressive stages legitimate
inductive
and
and thereby,
that
the
deductive
processes
and
therefore
gives promise of future developments
it
imagination of
the
present day feels
its
inadequacy to forecast.
But what
of the other
own
of our
science
times
What of the speculative

What of that boastful
excursion into the realms of pure theory which
known
of
as the creed of science,
and which
assumptions resting upon no material basis
To deal with
its
two fundamental
are the struggle for existence
possible
dream,
competent
to
life
is
discharge
task
in
which
principles,
the
and that the second

the
and the evolutional value
of the individual variation, to prove that
not the law of
is
a series
is
which
this
first is
is
an im-
feel
myself
and the following
chapters.
In
the animal kingdom
the individuals
of
each
species reproduced in each generation far exceed the
number that
could,
if
they
all
survived, find main-
many
In the case of
tenance.
account for the
fact
undue numbers, as
species
instance in
for
is
it
easy to
they do not increase in
that
of the
the case
antelope and other herbivorous animals that are non-
and as a rule produce but one offspring at a
prolific,
These creatures are born for two ends
time.
own
being to enjoy their
first
their kind
existence
the
and propagate
the second being to afford sustenance to
the carnivorous
animals to
whom
they supply
the
necessary amount of food.

It is obvious
that
such herbivorous animals are
if
those ends, the creatures that prey upon

them must not be too numerous, otherwise the prey
would in process of time be exterminated while, on
to fulfil
the other hand,
if
few, the herbivora

It
is
evident,
definite plan
would increase
therefore,
to
an undue extent.
that Nature
must have a
by which she maintains from generation
to generation a
the
the carnivorous devourers were too
carnivora
natural food.
due proportion between the numbers
and the creatures which form
of
their
Of the manner in which Nature keeps
true the balance of
life
between them, I shall speak
at the close of this chapter.

If
we ask what
eliminate
the
are the causes of destruction
excess
of
which
Nature's reproduction, and
contemplate her various higher or vertebrate types,

is
of
it
obvious at a glance that the carnivora hold the key
the
position
for
they
are
Nature's
agents
keeping within due bounds the numbers of

herbivorous forms of
life,
even
such
for
all
the
forms as
the

elephant and
down
them a
the hippopotamus, paying to
tribute
sufficient
of
their
numbers
their
infant
and
offspring
prevent
keep
to
undue
their
increase.
It is sufficiently well established that in their native
haunts the carnivora do not, as a
rule,
make war upon
each other, and that they prefer as food the more

succulent flesh of their natural herbivorous prey
as that
always in sufficient plenty, there prevails
is
a certain comity and comradeship

tenants
carnivorous
They
are,
of
the
the purely
and the
jungle.
moreover, careful of their skins, and prefer
The
possible.
is
among
desert
to get their food with as little
he
and
lion
danger to themselves as
and leopard
will not face, unless
caught at great disadvantage, either an adult
wild boar or a full-grown buffalo, but they will readily

carry off a straggling pigling or an infant buffalo.
When
battles occur
between individuals
of the
same
when one has struck

and another coming up covets it. If
species, it is almost invariably
down a
quarry,
the new-comer
will
abandon
thinks that
is
manifestly the stronger, the weaker
its kill
it
to
it
can maintain
killed, a fierce battle will
but
its
if
the original killer
right to
ensue, ending,
the death of one of the combatants.
it
what
it
may
But such
has
be, in
battles
are necessarily very infrequent.
That there
is
a prevailing comity and not a mutual
antipathy between the strong denizens of
haunts
ments
is,
of
I think, conclusively proved
Nature's
by the
experi-
Mr. Hagenbach, the well-known proprietor
io
of the Zoological
He
Gardens at Hamburg.
the idea, which for
many
conceived
has put in practice,
years he
of not confining the larger carnivora in separate cages,
but
of
placing the
several
together,
species
tigers, leopards, hyaenas, bears, wolves, etc., in
enclosed space, where they have
The animals have not been
freely.
for
room
such companionship, and
to the collection immediately
lions,
a large
move about
to
specially trained
many have been added

Mr.
on being imported.
Hagenbach's idea was to assimilate as far as possible

the
life
of the various species to the conditions
The
obtain in their native habitats.
which
result of
the
comradeship thus established has been most happy.
They
live longer, look better,
have
glossier coats than
the same animals kept in solitary confinement.
Let us now seriously consider the applicability

Darwin's doctrine of
and phenomena
ditions
Let
carnivora.
of
Natural Selection to the conof feral
life
as regards the
us endeavour to look squarely in
the face the facts of the case, and draw such conclusions as appear inevitable.
one of the larger
Take a certain area

of adult
attains
tigers.
is
it
purpose
to
breeds,
100
pairs
which a
tiger
of jungle enclosing
The average age
supposed
which period
my
I select for
felidse.
be
we
about
to
thirty
years,
in
will say, seven times, pro-
ducing on an average three offspring at a birth.
The
exact figures are immaterial, but let us take them as

I
have given them.
tigers
are born,
and
In each generation, then, 2100

of these only
200
individuals,

or
100
and
pairs, survive to
take the place of their parents
to procreate their kind.
Let
me
here give
the outlines of a
conversation
which took place between myself and a

still
a young
man and
who
but I think he
only
is
and because he entertains the
so,
is
imagines himself to be a con-
firmed disciple of Darwin

conventionally
friend,
belief
that a doctrine accepted by all scientific thinkers must
be true.
I asked
him
if
he found
possible to believe that in
it
the above mentioned area of the jungle there survive
each generation from the struggle for existence
in
200
by virtue
tigers
of possessing individual variations
which give them some
who
less
to the
slight
advantage over the others,
1900
of
perish from possessing
advantageous variations.
My
so
number
friend answered
seems to
me
to be
" Surely.
The
fact that it is
You
an inevitable conclusion.
admit that the necessary elimination takes place in the

great and terrible struggle for existence.
obvious that the
200 who
from having proved themselves the
They are therefore naturally

happens
all
throughout
Is it not
survive can only survive

fittest to
selected
survive
realm of organic
the
the weakest, as
life,
having gone to the wall and perished."

"Softly," I
replied.
"Let us leave out
for
the
present what I admit or do not admit, and consider the

actual conditions of the feral
we have 200
naturally
tigers
selected
to
life of
which you
survive
as
the tiger.
tell
me
being
Here
have been
the
fittest,
12
and 1900 which have perished because their variations

were inferior.
But how did they perish ? They did
not pass out of existence like a dream of the night,
nor without material means being employed.
then ask how they perished.
It is well
Let us
known
to
those familiar with their haunts that tigers do not
attack
or
kill
one
kill
when
occasions
which one
them has made.
of
from the amount 50
strike off
necine
strife,
on
except
another,
the
rare
two, equally matched, fight over a
Accordingly,
if
tigers killed in inter-
you must admit that I have made you
a generous gift
for I
that perish in this

I have said.
do not imagine that the number
manner amount
There
still
to a tithe of
remain 1850
what
tigers to be
eliminated in the course of a generation before any of
them survive
to
procreate
kind.
its
They do not
destroy each other, and they have no other enemies

that can destroy
come
enough
to
protect
them
them
when the young
for
too effectually to permit of
any other
How,
then, does
carnivorous beast attacking them.

their elimination take place
To
this
my friend
replied
"
Their elimination must
be constantly taking place, so that
would be
are old
forth from their dens, their parents
it is
improbable there
any one time as many as 1000 young

Darwin says the causes which check the
alive at
tigers in all.
natural tendency of each species to increase are most

obscure.
He
resolves
the question of surviving or
perishing into a matter of the food supply:
and
should imagine that in an area which has been fully

stocked with
13
animal tenants for generations,
its
normal population
of adult tigers
if
the
be 200, there cannot
be a sufficient supply of their natural food to maintain,

say,
the
1000
200
It
perish.
amount
800 doomed to
additional tigers, including in that
destined to
survive and
would appear, then, that the progeny who
who from
survive are those
possessing superior in-
dividual variations or differences are able to get food
and
live,
amount
"
and that the others
fail to
get the necessary
of food."
But,
my
good
sir,"
I replied, "
you must look
at
things in the concrete, lest by thrusting your mental
eyes into a cloudbank of plausible abstract phrases,
you act
has escaped
power
when hard
like the proverbial ostrich which,
pressed, thrusts its

its
of seeing
head into the sand and fancies
pursuers by depriving
Make
them.
common
sense and
limited area of
of view,
come within
You assume
the sphere of the possible.
of the
itself
sure that your words,
however admirable from a Darwinian point

are consonant with
it
that in a
jungle which can comfortably maintain
in the aggregate only
400
adult and young tigers,
there perish from inability to get the necessary food
1900
tigers
tigers
that
in
each
appear
Yet the young
generation.
as
food
seekers
are
preserved,
and have their maintenance assured to them so long

as
they are feeble and
immature, by the
protect-
ing guardianship of their parents, and are only

<
to their
and
kill
own
for
resources
their
own
when they
left
are able to hunt
subsistence.
quite
agree
14
with you that our limited tract of jungle would not

contain a sufficiency of their natural food for
1200
even for
tigers,
any length
for
of time,
but
it
Nature
let
or
would certainly do so
for a space until their necessary food
You must
vanishing point.
2300
young and parents together,
surely
was reduced
to a
perceive that
if
upon them such a multitude
loose
of
devourers, their natural prey would be exterminated,
and the end would be the extermination by famine

all
of
the tigers themselves, parents and progeny."

" But,"
exclaimed
my interlocutor, " I
what conclusion you are making
do not perceive
You admit
for.
that
the offspring of the hundred pairs of tigers amount

in a generation to
1900 must be
2100
individuals,
and that
of these
eliminated before they begin to pro-
create their kind.
Yet you appear
to be arguing at
one time against the very possibility of their being

eliminated,
and
at another against the very possibility
of their existing at all in
"
Your
such numbers."
inference," I answered, " is perhaps not un-
1900 doomed tigers enter into the

then when we look at the conditions and phenomena of their feral existence we are
constrained to admit that very few of them are
destroyed by individuals of their own species or by
individuals of other species.
Sufficient is known and
reasonable.
If the
competition of
testified
felidse
to
life,
by the numerous hunters
of
the larger
and other big game, to convince us that these
creatures
undergo no measurable
numbers by internecine warfare.
thinning of
While, again,
their
if
we

assume that
the progeny of the hundred pairs
all
become food-seekers along with

would indeed be
for
present
the
for
made an end
I do not think that
from such
escape
their parents, the result
them a famine-stricken
but not until they had

natural prey.
15
is
conclusion,
this
existence,
all
their
possible to
However,
conclusion.
ignore
it
of
let us
and adopt
your assumption that by reason of their possessing
inferior
tigers
individual variations the
In this case you
starvation.
1900 doomed
and therefore die
are unable to find food
admit that I
will
of
am
very moderate when I say that three out of every

four
met with should be found
But
as yet
young
no hunter of big game has encountered
tiger that
was not in robust and lusty
Mr. Kipling, indeed, in
his
described in his graphic
the
in
lair
in a starving condition.
romance
way a
morning, after
of
health.
Naidahka, has
tiger returning to his
an unsuccessful night's
hunting, coughing out his angry and hungry disgust
But while I admit the right
at his non-success.
of
the romancist to romance, I do not allow his doing so to

affect
ence.
unless
my
belief that
No
it
Here
no tiger ever had such an experi-
sportsman ever killed an emaciated
had become mangy and
my
friend
exclaimed:
matters to an impasse.
tiger,
lean from old age."
"You
Tell me, do
are
bringing
you believe that
the normal population of 100 pairs of tigers produce

in their generation
2100
-offspring
"
?
"
Yes," I replied, " there or thereabout."
"
Do you
believe,"
he asked again, " that in the great
16
competition for
none perish from
existence,
"Not
struggle
constant
the
food, in
for
"
internecine strife
very few, an
that," I
said, "but
amount when their numbers are taken
account.
The known phenomena of feral life
quite
inappreciable
into
me in saying
Do you believe,
warrant
"
much."
so
asked
then,"
my
friend, " that
starvation does not act as an eliminating factor in the
haunts of the tiger
" Neither," I replied, " in the
in the haunts of
on your
it
part,
haunts of the tiger nor
any carnivorous
answer
me
Will you,
creature.
this question
If
you think
to be really the case that a struggle for existence
prevails such as
Darwin
place
life,
in
striving
feral
either with
kinds, and
if,
affirms
must
struggle
others of
of
his
necessarily take
each
own
individual
or of
other
as the inevitable result of this struggle,
nine out of every ten of carnivorous animals perish

either
own
by
starvation, or
by the claws and teeth
of their
or of other species, do you not suppose that every
haunt
of wild animals
and signs
of such dire
would exhibit manifold traces
and continuous slaughter
was being enacted in them

be possible that
the
Can you conceive
it
as
to
testimony of every observant
the forest, the jungle, and the desert
frequenter of
would be that they come upon no cases
of
famished
animals, and but very few of carnivora done to death
by carnivora
every jungle,
Would not every mountain tract,

every desert home of feral life, abound
?
in such visible evidences of the
demoniac struggle
for

make it
phenomena
existence as would
observer
the
of
which
causes
the
check
impossible for an acute

of
the
Nature to say that

natural
carnivorous animals are very obscure
would be thrust upon
17
increase
of
These causes
his observation, so that, in almost
every single instance, he would perceive the checks
which prevent the carnivora from increasing unduly.

I
you
ask
consider
to
also
The young
situation.
another
more
to the adults than are
young
adults in a community.
You
numerous in proportion
human
admit that in the case

produced
offspring
number
of
those
before
perish
in
tribes
their native habitats are never observed to be
children to the
the
aspect of
Nature's wild
of
of the carnivora the
is
that
times
ten
can
procreating,
greater
survive,
except
so
number
than
and that
many
as
of
the
all
are
required to take the place of their parents in the
Ought not therefore the number
next generation.
of
young
tigers, in
relation
to adults, to be always
more numerous than they ever are

In fact, the young never appear
observed to be?
upon the stage of life to be more numerous than
several
would
times
suffice to
death.
take the place of the parents at their
In a word, we behold only survivors vigorous,

happy survivors. But where is the
healthy, and
struggle for existence
dead
Above
all,
Where
are the dying
and the
where are the carnivorous swarms
that should be rending each other in pieces, or falling

faint in the grip of famine
" If I
follow your argument," said
my friend, " this is
18
your
position.
your
200
2100
You
tigers
individuals,
their
in
which
of
the production of
that
affirm
amounts
generation
200
but
all
to
are
eliminated before they become producers of offspring.
You deny
that there
such an intercidal struggle
is
for existence as
Darwin has
could not
be visibly in evidence in the case of
fail to
posited,
which you say
carnivorous species, and which you affirm
all
You
in the case of none of them.
starvation
normally
is
never normally
an
is
visible
affirm, too, that
presume you mean
for I
agent in the elimination of the excess of
reproduction."
"
You have
stated
my
position correctly," I returned,
" to wit, that the elimination of
food-seekers, as Darwin's
of
such a vast number
theory of the struggle
for existence requires to be eliminated, is absolutely
contradicted
by the phenomena
and moreover that

the
conditions
obvious
fact
in
species
remains
it
that
the jungle,
constantly
young carnivora
at
at
of
existence
feral
manifest variance with
at
in
prevail
the
that
is
it,
and with the
normal population
the
forest,
the
same
p,nd
point,
each
of
the
desert
while
the
no time seem to be more numerous
than the adults."
My
friend here broke in
"
When
you interrupted
me, I was going to remark that you have brought the
argument
to this pass, that but one conclusion
to wit, that the only carnivorous offspring that
food-seekers are those
who
kind, and
others,
that
the
is left,
become
survive to propagate their
being
many
times the

numbers
19
become food-seekers, perish in

immaturity in the dens and lairs which saw their
Do
birth.
such as
of
they die of infantile diseases, or are they
devoured by their parents
My
"
asked this question sneeringly, but I
friend
replied to
him
seriously.
Assuredly they must perish in their immaturity by
one or other of these agencies.

infancy can
and
Nature,
Their elimination in
alone explain the actual phenomena of

is
the
only
explanation
that
is
accordance with the facts and phenomena of feral
Adopt
it,
in
life.
and the causes which check the natural
tendency of each .species to increase are no longer most

'
Darwin found them most
obscure.'
obscure, because he
began to look for them after they had fully acted.
They had done

observation
their
perfect
work before his keen

the phenomena of
was directed upon
Nature with a view to discover them."

"
Then," said
form
my
me how you
reproduction
before the
seems to
is,
interlocutor, " kindly deign to in-
imagine the
excess of
in the case of the carnivora, eliminated
young that perish become
me
Nature's
food-seekers.
It
to be a very absurd thing to believe that
Nature reproduces her offspring in such numbers only

to kill them off before they have begun to enjoy life."
To this I replied " Do you then believe that Nature's

action would be wiser and less cruel if she sent her
:
enormous reproduction into the struggle for existence

to be starved to death from being unable to find food,
or to be mangled to death by tooth and claw in their
20
youthful prime?
It
struggle for existence,
from such a
indeed
is
and
to
As
in the earliest stage of existence.
her offspring in numbers
that
of
upon any
its
any sudden destruction
lessness
life is of
is
means
of her species, to provide the
speedily recovering
waste of
for reproducing
appear unnecessarily
very practical and important end to
serve, namely, in the case of

falling
them
that she painlessly eliminates
fate,
large, she has a
prevent such a
to preserve her offspring
its
numbers
no moment, and
discounted by the fact of
while the
seeming heart-
its
its
entailing no
You do not exclaim against her

when you gee Nature producing from, a
misery or suffering.
waste of
life
plant thousands of seeds of which only one will come

maturity.
to
The same
principle
prevails
animal kingdom as in the vegetable, and

is
accompanied with as
is
little
Such a principle
other.
how
"
now endeavour
action
pain in the one as in the
as the struggle' for existence
one which Nature with
I shall
the
in
its
to
all
her divine heart abhors.
answer your question as to
the immature offspring are deleted.
When
first
turned
endeavouring to ascertain,
my
attention to the task of
if it
were possible
to
do
so,
the manner in which Nature deletes her excess of reproduction, I was not long in perceiving the force of the
considerations which
we have passed under
review, and
in arriving at the inevitable conclusion that there must
be some check imposed by Nature which acts before the
young appear as food-seekers, and which

that
is
in every
haunt
fully stocked with its feral inhabitants
must

be capable of preserving one
21
and not more than
pair,
one pair, to succeed their parents in a generation.

" I
had thus two
discover what
distinct problems before me, first to
Nature's method of eliminating her
is
excess of reproduction, and second, what

of preserving alive the necessary
necessary
number
parents.
For a time the solution
me
appeared to
young
of
eventually brought
me
some years I had kept
problem
of the first
but a
me on
put
seemingly
track
that
to the required solution.
For
my
in
From time
and a female.
her method
to take the place of their
a hopeless task;
circumstance
accidental
is
and no more than the
house two
cats,
a male
to time in the course of
four years the female showed signs of pregnancy, and
then appeared lean and lank, as

delivered
fact.
if
she had been newly
but no brood ever appeared to certify the
The male, however, happening
female not long

kittens.
devoured
It
was
her
therefore obvious that the male
former
which Nature's excess

on the
inquiries
Can
was
However,
jest
than
manner
in
my
curiosity
and I made further
excited,
and observations.
case where a tomcat
in
this be the
of
had
of reproduction in respect of
eliminated
is
subject
More
litters.
earnest, I asked myself,
the carnivora
to be killed, the
became a happy mother
after
found that in every
was tenant
of
the same house
litters
of the latter
were sure to be
devoured by the former.
I have also
more than once
with a tabby, the
observed,
and have been informed by others who
have noticed
it,
that
when the female
is
pregnant, the
22
male cat some days before the parturition of the

female follows her about persistently wherever she
goes,
while she appears to be in a state of great
upon
excitement, and often in an access of rage
flies
him and drives him off for the time being.
I ask you
to take note of this fact
for
if
the behaviour of the
male cat be representative as regards the carnivora,

signifies that there
it
must be some odour about a female

provokes the male to
advanced in pregnancy that
keep her close company in expectancy

shortly provided for him.
of a feast to be
It points in
provision of Nature to secure that the
my mind
amount
to a
of elimi-
nation of the yourig shall be sufficient for her purposes."
My
be
friend here interposed:
true
quite
animal
of
the
cat,
"What you
say
which
domestic
is
but have you any well grounded reason for
believing that the cannibal habit of the male cat
presentative of the carnivora generally

lies in
" I
"
your ability to prove that such

shall
endeavour
to
satisfy
is
the case."
you," I answered.
of their
from the males on the part of the females, and
what happens before the young appear

are
is re-
for everything
But you must consider that the concealment
lairs
may
among
the secrets of feral
withdrawn from observation
life
as food-seekers,
that are peculiarly
otherwise I should not
have been compelled from a review of the various
phenomena
of
feral life to
deduce the fact that the
elimination of the excess of the young of carnivora
must take place before the survivors appear as

seekers.
Yet
I feel sure that
if
food-
the observation of

and Nature-lovers had been directed
naturalists
discover
what does
take
make
gathered to
of
offspring
is
when they bring

facts
forth, a
would have
been
evident that the implanted pro-
it
males to devour their newly born
the
You must acknowledge
restraining
increasing
of
to
carnivorous
Nature's check upon the undue increase of
the species.
of
body
large
sufficiently
when
place
females are with young and
pension
23
that this
method
the various carnivorous species from
numbers
their
Nature's method,
is
unduly,
if
be
it
indeed
congruous to and consonant with
the savage habits of creatures that obtain their daily
food by the slaughter of other animals
while
if,
as
we debar sickly sentiment and

we will readily acknow-
kindly Nature does,
look to practical beneficence,

ledge that this
method
most
most congruous
direct, the
species concerned,
smallest
amount
is
once the shortest and
at
to the nature of the
and that which
is
effected with the
of suffering or misery
cess of deletion so far as the
an absolutely painless
for the pro-
young are concerned
is
one.
"Nature, in short, separates for a brief period the
from those
interests of the males
that
while the
their
young
their lairs
litters
instinct to track
and devour
divergent
perish,
concerned to bring forth
and rear them, the former are
in safety
impelled by their
of their
are
latter
of the females, so
their young.
interests
while
the
sufficient
the
females
In the
great
to
conflict
majority of
number
are
pre-
served to ensure the continuance of the species.
24
have
read
articles
with
and
weasel,
dealing with
wild
other
fortunately, I cannot at this
the writers from
their
own
the rat, with
the
which,
un-
species
moment
recall, in
which
observation stated that the
males devour the newly born broods of the females
Some
they discover them.
if
years ago, I read in the
English Magazine an article in which the writer spoke

of a terrible battle that
of India, called Seoni,
of
had taken place in a
between two great
them had brought down
ceeding
devour
to
demanded the
mendous
the
other
coming up
cession of the quarry to him.
conflict
tre-
took place, at the close of which the
proved victorious, having
tiger that
One
an antelope and was pro-
when
it,
district
tigers.
his savage
all
nature aroused by the struggle and by the wounds he
had
received, manifested his vindictiveness
The
portions of his dead enemy.
by eating
victor himself
was
afterwards found, not far off from the scene of the

battle,
what had occurred, then went on
that he had never before

eating another, though
absence of the mother.
heard of one adult tiger
me
its
infant brood in the
Some time ago
a relative in the North of Scotland
keen sportsman.
that
to state
was well known in India
it
that a male tiger would devour
visit to
The writer having
dead from his wounds.
described
One day
was on a
who was a
at breakfast he informed
mischance had that
morning occurred.
His gamekeeper going to a cage that contained a pair

of ferrets
found that he had been too late in removing
the male, for
when he
arrived the female was in pro-

cess of delivery,
down the
and the male was by her
infants as soon
side gulping
they appeared.
as
25
After
the removal of the male one more young ferret saw

the light, the sole survivor of the brood, the others
having perished unconscious of a pang.

"
But other males besides carnivorous have the same

Herbivorous species, as you are aware, are
divisible into two classes, those which are prolific, the
instinct.
female having several young at a birth, and those which

are non-prolific, the females of which generally have
one,
I
to
though occasionally two, at a
In the former
birth.
have found that the instinct which prompts the male

devour the young
is
universal, while in the case of
the latter the offspring are unharmed by the male.
who keep
All boys
how
necessary
it
rabbits
to
is
and guinea-pigs are aware
remove the males before the
parturition of the females, as,
if
this
was not done, the
males would repeat the story of the
manner the
boar,
if
it
were present when the sow
farrowed, would at once devour the
My
In like
ferret.
litter."
friend, who had listened with apparent interest
was speaking, here remarked
when
think,
Sir,
Do you
''
:
not
you are making too large a generalisation
from a very
insufficient
array of facts
do not
venture to throw doubt or discredit upon anything you
have
said.
sional,
if
It
may
indeed happen that
it is
the occa-
not the invariable habit of the males of a few
species to devour their offspring,
if
they find them when
the females are absent, or even, as in the case of the
male
ferret that
you mentioDed, when they are present.
26
But there are
many
very
Nature's haunts, and to
and include
species,
carnivorous
method
prolific
me
of proceeding.
in
every
your generalisation
in
carnivorous family, appears to

scientific
species
from these few
generalise
be a very un-
to
Again, in regard to
herbivorous species, you have mentioned only
and the sow,
guinea-pig,
rabbit, the
three, the
all
domestic species, whose males you say devour their
Yet you aver without any reservation that
young.
in the case of all prolific herbivorous species
are very numerous
they
the instinct that prompts the male
young
to devour the
and
is
universal.
I do not think,
sir,
you have gone very far to prove your case or to

justify your large generalising."
"
Far enough," I said in reply,
making
hypothesis,
provisional
it
can certify from
actual
some carnivorous
and
some consideration
naturalists to give
me
" to justify
asking
in
for
they
if
observation that there
species, the
in
are
males of which remain in
the lairs with the females at the time of their delivery
without devouring the young,

the ground
my
hypothesis
while, on the other hand,
instances of this, they
may
succeed,
if
and
falls
to
they find no
I think they
would surely succeed, in finding other carnivorous and

prolific
herbivorous species, beyond those I have men-
tioned, of
which the male, when opportunity
invariably devours his offspring.
admit in favour
of
my
You
will at least
generalisation that
it
the existing facts and phenomena of feral

telligible,
and
reconciles
offers,
renders
life
in-
them with reason and with

The
observation.
away
ing
invisible absorption or silent melt-
the excessive reproduction
of
27
in
is
this
way, and can only in this way, be explained.

I do not
by any means
my
rest
method
consider to be Nature's
But
what I
in
belief
eliminating her
of
excess of the reproduction of carnivorous animals upon
the few facts which I have brought forward, however

suggestive they
fragable
may
am
be.
able to advance irre-
and irrefutable corroborative evidence
the instinct of the males, that
as to
within the reach of
is
everyone, and which embraces every
known
carni-
vorous species, and every prolific herbivorous species
without
exception
in
carnivorous, semi-carnivorous,
before stating
give
me
every
short,
prolific
species,
and herbivorous.
what that evidence
is,
But
must ask you
a patient hearing while I expatiate for a
upon Nature's methods
the
deleting
of
to
little
excess
of
reproduction in the animal kingdom.

" I freely confess that
my
knowledge comes
far short
of being able to account for the deletion of the excess

of reproduction in all the various forms of
as, for
instance, in
the case of the insect
which I have paid but

vinced,
however,
that
everywhere
every case, and that in

necessary
of
individual
account
for
no
is
am
con-
analogy
the
of
and patient
intelligent
observation will discover what
life,
tribes, to
little attention.
Nature holds good, and that
to
animal
Nature's check in
case will
it
be found
have recourse to the imaginary action

variations.
the
huge
Darwin
pachyderms
is
at
not
loss
to
increasing
28
beyond measure even though they are non-prolific

and slow breeders. Let me read to you this passage.
'The elephant
all
known
is
to estimate
its
It will be safest to
when
ninety
years
be
'
so, after
of
increase.
begins breeding
it
on breeding
and goes
bringing
rate
forth
young
six
one hundred years old
till
740
a period of from
750
to
till
in the
;
if
years,
would be nearly nineteen million elephants
there
alive
old,
and surviving
interval,
this
assume that
years old,
thirty
minimum
of
some pains
have taken
probable
breeder
the slowest
reckoned
animals, and
descended from the
On
the
elephant,
How
first
Again he says
pair.'
other hand, in some cases,
none are
with
as
by beasts
destroyed
of
the
prey.'
then did Darwin imagine that the increase
the elephant was
checked
Natural Selection was
all
Did
potent to arrest
without material means being employed
its
Darwin was greatly mistaken,
fact better
babies
known
not
are
sudden rush
to Anglo-Indians
unfrequently
of a great cat,
of the protecting parent.
increase
But
in his
by beasts
affirmation that no elephants are destroyed

of prey
of
he suppose that
for there
is
no
than that elephant
swooped
off
by the
even from the presence
The enormous strength
of
when once
in
the tiger and of the lion enables them,
possession of their victim, to baffle all parental pursuit.
I need not tell you that there
pachyderms
where some
in
some
is
no haunt
of the big
elephant, rhinoceros, or hippopotamus
of the greater cats
cases alligators,
who
do not abound, and
exact a sufficient tribute

from the young
to
check the increase
maintain the balance of

"
life
29
of the species,
and
which Nature desiderates.
Let us again consider the case of carnivorous birds,
where the parents do not devour
their
"own
offspring.
Let us take the eagle as representative of the raptorial
These birds in Europe build their eyries upon
group.
mountain ranges, and each pair exercises a jealous

dominion over a certain area in which
no other pair to
of a valley.
mountains
the
settle
it
may
well-known haunt
of
it
will allow
be a valley or part
of the eagle is in
Norway, where they breed and
maintain their numbers from generation
Though not
without ever increasing.
to generation
prolific birds,
they might easily treble their numbers in a generation,
and
if
they had an unlimited amount of unoccupied
territory to settle in, they

territory has all
would do
been occupied
multiplication
so.
for ages.
But
their
What
then
known
prevents
their
that the
male and female birds are both excellent
parents,
solicitous
upbringing of
fly
for
their
the
It
is
well-being
well
and
proper
young, until they are able
to
abroad on steady wing and forage for themselves.
them forth from the eyrie,

with sentence of death passed upon them should they
The birds thus driven away from
attempt to return.
The old
birds then drive
the parental nest will not be permitted
to
effect
settlement in any haunt where the pair in possession

are able to kill them.
On
the other hand, they will
take possession of haunts that are deserted from the

old possessors being dead, and of haunts whose occu-
3o
by age or other causes, are unable
piers, enfeebled
who cannot
In
find a settlement in
manner eagles
this
way
this
perish.
all
mountain haunts
in their
to
Those
resist their settlement, and are therefore killed.
are,
always apart from the exterminating intervention of

to age, neither diminished
man, preserved from age

nor increased in numbers."
"
exclaimed
But,"
method
this
"
friend,
you think
don't
of elimination resembles the struggle for
existence as defined
by Darwin, which you say Nature
repudiates
"
my
No," I said
" the
young eagles are not
cast into
a wretched lifelong struggle, but sent upon a quest

which,
if
not successful, has a quick ending.
Their
success in finding deserted nests, or birds enfeebled
and decrepit from

certain
we may
fortuitous
call
due
age, is not
individual traits or
to their possessing
but to what
variations,
Moreover,
happening.
if
they perish, they perish in a manner that carnivorous

cannot
birds
which
is
mentally
reasonably
squeamish.
the combats
that
season
between
that
the
ending
in
are
means
used
the
ranks
of
have
the
by
the excessive
of
cruel,
take
males
sometimes
rival,
complain
wantonly
never
seen
it
place
of
is
in
of
Nature
senti-
put forward
the
gregarious
death
Nature,
for
never
the
for
reproduction.
rutting
species,
defeated
thinning
But
as
superfluous males only are killed, and the fertilising

of
the females
is
in
no way interfered with,
it
is
evident that the instinct which prompts the males

contend & outrance in the
to
lists
is
31
not a means
ordained for the numerical restriction of the species,
but contemplates rather the ordering of the gregarious

principle."
" I
my
have been thinking," said
interlocutor, " of
a fact which you appear to have forgotten, and which
seems
me
to
hypothesis,
be
to
quite
at
indeed, altogether
with
variance
destroy
to
your
It
it.
is
well established by your friends the hunters of the
when
big game, that

are
first
the cubs of carnivorous animals
seen abroad, they are generally accompanied
by both parents, the male as well as the female acting

as their protector as soon as they are able to leave
their dens.
Is
it,
I ask, imaginable that the same
animal which you describe as greedy to devour
its
offspring at birth, should at this early stage of life
play the r61e of a loving protector
"It
is
nevertheless
must confess that

account
to
for
the
case,"
it
"I
answered:
me some
gamekeeper whom
at first
it.
gave
thought
I
once
if the fox was aware of the particular den

where the vixen brought forth her young, said he
asked
did not think
it
was so at the beginning, but that
he had frequently seen the male carrying game to the

female and her cubs when the latter were quite young.
"The
was
first
from
tained
an
some
real light I
old
received upon the matter
magazine
excerpts
from
article
what
which
was
con-
then
recently published autobiography of Faimali, in his

day a celebrated lion tamer. Faimali states that
NO STRUGGLENO SELECTION
32
the
must be
lioness
young
in
total
darkness;
from nine to twelve

light
an
finds
mother
make
is
sure
for
days
entrance
her
she
if
is
birth,
the
any
fierce
the mother
is
disturbed in the early
days of her nursing, though she

turbance
her
Boys who
cubs.
know how apt
pets of rabbits
to destroy her brood
their
the cage,
into
forth
during a space of
if,
after
devour
to
bring
to
suffered
when more than a
indifferent to dis-
is
fortnight has elapsed.
When
I read Paimali's statement, it at once occurred
me
that the limitation of the period during which
to
the intrusion of light into the darkness of her cage
prompts
the
lioness
devour her
to
when the
coincide with the time
by the male, are in danger

him.
seemed
to
if
the beneficence and
wise ordering of Mother Nature exhibited.
work
of
therefore
as
elimination
is
requires
be
not extermination, and
must
accomplished;
suffice to
is
him
to devour them.
partial
elimination, and
as the
number
of
survivors
propagate the species, so as to preserve
numbers undiminished from generation
tion,
great
would appear, by some odour proceeding from
it
the callow offspring, impelling
it
to
the appetite of the male parent excited,
But as Nature's purpose
its
discovered
being devoured by
of
see therein
progeny must
cubs,
to genera-
when
Then haply the mother
seek her mate, and instal him as pro-
she causes the exciting odour to pass away
has served
goes forth to
tector
its
purpose.
and provider
of the family.
Faimali's account
of the behaviour of the lioness in the circumstances

which he has described
was a mere
my mind
recalls to
cident which happened in
my
father's
33
an
in-
house when I
In the house was a cat which
child.
was a great favourite with us children on account

of its gentleness.
It
was nursing a
litter of kittens
in an outhouse, when, to the horror of the family,
appeared one day,

blood of
found
its
its
jaws dripping with blood
it
the
own offspring. A large male cat had

way into the place where the kittens were
its
with their mother, and she, seeing that she could

not avert their doom, had shared in his feast with
the intruder.
"
The statement
of Faimali as to the effect of light
suddenly breaking in upon the darkness in which the

lioness couches
full
me
with her brood, seems to
of significance
and suggestion as
place in the haunts of the carnivora.
to be
to
what takes
We
can almost
imagine we perceive the lioness or the tigress stealing
away from the side of her slumbering mate, or making

She
off when he is hunting at some distance from her.
will
most frequently be unsuccessful, as he
will be
on the alert and suspicious, being aware of the succulent repast she carries with her.
out
being
reaching
tracked
by
a cave or den, most
her beforehand, and
noted
concealment, she makes her
as
She
succeeds
in
discovered by
suitable
place
of
the deep darkness

lives in constant
afraid of his intrusion.
sense of security she has

3
however, with-
she
likely
lair in
and brings forth her whelps.

dread of her wandering lord,
What
If,
male,
the
is
imparted by the
34
darkness in which she

lioness
confinement devours
in
darkness of her den
Her
sion of light.
is
how
when
This explains
lies.
her cubs
the
the
broken in upon by the intru-
sense of security
once dispelled by the disturbing
light,
and safety
and the
is
at
fear of
her mate, or other desert prowler, being near impels

her to anticipate his
have already
as I
It is extremely probable,
feast.
when
that
said,
the danger period
her cubs has passed she goes forth to find the
for
mate she has
for the time being deserted,
she has found
him makes him the family
" Well,"
or
may
it
remarked
not be
my
may
friend here, " this
You spoke some
so.
and when
provider."
be
so,
time ago of
being able to produce evidence, irrefragable I think
you said
was, and irrefutable, as to the cannibal
it
habit of carnivorous males.
"
my
to
I shall do so with pleasure," I answered.
"
When
hypothesis began to assume a plausible appearance
my
mind, I proceeded
should conclusively prove

I
Is it not full time that
it ?
you should produce
consulted
Zoological
prolific
submit
its
Bartlett,
Gardens,
me
informed
Mr.
to'
it
to a test
truth or
Superintendent
who was then
which
falsehood.
its
living,
of
the
and he
that every carnivorous species, and every
herbivorous
species
required,
before
the
parturition of the female, to have the male removed

for
if
this
way devoured by
" But,"
were not done, the brood would be straight-
asked
it."
my
interlocutor, " is it not possible to
believe that the behaviour of the males
is
due to the
confinement rendering them savage beyond
effect of
wont in the
their
" I
do not
free state
think
my
what was
method
35
so,"
"
said.
the excess
Did
I not clearly demonstrate that
for
existence
prevails
the
in
as
would account
of
every ten of carnivorous
it
is
starvation
consider
Is there
any
of
reproduction.
no such struggle
free
nine
of
believe
fact in
Darwin
with
slaughter
out
and that
food-seekers,
to
Nature
of
life
destruction
mutual
from
perish
?
the
for
impossible
utterly
that they
Just
argument, before I spoke of Nature's
eliminating
of
"
?
or
from
Nature more evident
than that neither of these forms of destruction
affect
any appreciable degree the more formidable
carni-
to
vora
And
they
there exists no reason for believing that
prevail
any
to
greater
extent
among
other
carnivorous types.
"Again, what would happen

larger carnivora, protected, as
by
their parents, until
themselves,
should
natural prey
tion
if
we know them
they are
appear
able
devourers
as
of
nor starvation, thins their ranks.

such
in
numbers,
What
prodigious.
animals that form

natural prey
long
as
is
they
carnivorous
to be,
to forage for
of
their
Neither mutual slaughter, nor destruc-
from other species capable
being
the young of the
their
Their production
would be
increase
their
would
destroying them,
then
natural
become
prey?
of
those
But
their
never found to undergo diminution so
have
no
destroyers.
other
enemies
than
their
Therefore their carnivorous
36
But when
destroyers do not increase in their haunts.
we
consider that they do not struggle for existence as
own
individuals with other individuals of their
other species, how,
we may well
be kept within due bounds
tion of
ask, could they thus
they multiplied so fast
if
would necessarily multiply
as they
young appeared
habitats
We
the
that
conclusion
if
the produc-
all
as food-seekers in their native
therefore
constrained
enormous
reproduction of
are
or of
the
to
the
carnivora do not all appear as food-seekers, but that
by
far
the greater number of
them
are
eliminated
before they enter into competition with others for food.

"
When
I instanced
had brought the argument

one
form
reproduction that
feral state
of
to this point,
deletion of the excess of
known
to prevail, both in
and in the state
certain species
species
is
of
of domestication,
the
among
and averred that these form the only
prolific
mammals
vertebrate
of
whose
behaviour* when the female gives birth to young, we
know
anything.
Accordingly, having no
opposed to those of which, by
my own
known
facts
observation, and
on the authority of others, I had become cognisant,

I formed the provisional hypothesis that the instinct
of the
male which impels him to devour the newly
born offspring of the female

eliminating
the excess
of
is
her
Nature's method of
prolific
feral
tribes.
I argued, moreover, that this hypothesis, supposing

to be true, fully accounts for the
life, as,
phenomena
for instance, the fact that the
it
of feral
young carnivora
found in their native haunts never appear to be more

numerous in proportion
required
continue
to
the
to
the
than
adults
species
37
are
undiminished
in
numbers; while, without our being necessitated

have recourse
to believe in a mysterious supernatural
away
invisible absorption, or silent snowlike melting
young carnivora,
of hosts of
to
why
explains
it
it
was
that Darwin found the causes which check the increase
he supposes to swarm in
of those vigorous kinds that
numbers,
most obscure.
and
elimination, speedy
and
them the
horrible fate
that her
the
which
is
method
elimination
of
and habits
ordinance
is
for her
averts from
I showed, too,
perfectly congruous
who
carry
Moreover, I
have
of the creatures
Nature.
of
born
contemplated for them
struggle for existence.
to the nature
out
the
the
Nature's
of
mode by which she
offspring,
Darwin's
of individuals,
kindly care and regard
cruelty, but of her
in
number
an argument, not
of prolific species, is
that
also
painless, in the earliest stage
of existence, of so great a
is
showed
showed her regulating the ehminating process by

establishing
temporary
divergence
of
interests
between the male and female parents.

"
Having found,
then, that the ehmination of the
reproduced excess of carnivorous animals before they
become food-seekers
is
from the facts and

conditions of feral
elimination takes
a necessary logical conclusion
phenomena, and from
life,
place
in
the
is
the
case of all prolific
animals, the habit of whose males,
have young,
all
and having shown that such
when the females
known, I find the Zoological Gardens
38
giving the corroborative testimony that, within their

precincts,
males of
carnivorous males and
all
soon as they are born,

" If
all
herbivorous
would devour their young
species
prolific
if
as
they got the opportunity.
the behaviour of the males in the Zoological
Gardens be accepted as revealing what happens in

their free state, then
was
we have explained
and inexplicable, even
mysterious
hitherto
to us all that
Darwin, in regard to the non-increase
of
to
carnivorous
animals in despite of their great reproductiveness.
We
"
must
take, too, into account the fact that
it is
not in a few cases, or occasionally, that the propensity
male
of
the
in
prolific
Gardens,
to
devour
species
but
carnivorous
species,
brood
of
showing
the
female
the
in
itself
whole range
of
and over the whole range
of
over the
universally
herbivorous
prolific
the
seen
is
species.
Does not the
ask,
universality of the instinct displayed within the precincts of

prolific
other,
the
proclaim that
is
it
embracing every
Gardens,
Zoological
species of the vegetivora,
but taking in
an ordinance
of
no
Nature
ruling as surely in their native haunts as in captivity

"
In
the
circumstances
must
set
down your
question as to the possibility of the propension of the
males to devour their young, in the Gardens, being

the effect of confinement, as having been
out
due
point
out
reflection
to
or
you a
consideration.
rather
inquiries at the Gardens.

effect of confinement,
curious
Darwin
made
with-
me
here
Let
result of
my
gives as a singular
the fact that, while the carni-
39
vora even from the tropics breed freely in captivity,

the plantigrade or bear family breed very seldom.
"
to
Now, upon
me
that
inasmuch
confinement,
sterility
extensive range of
if
the
all
the bear
of
bear
in
has
bear
effect
of
most
the
I therefore reasoned
families.
confinement
must be due
sterile, this
the
as
seemed
this statement it
comparative
would indeed be a very singular
family
that
on
reflecting
the
is
comparatively
to its organisation,
and that
consequently the female seldom brought forth young

in captivity, because she seldom brought forth
young
in her native haunts.
if
was the
I further reasoned that
Nature
case,
check upon the
bears
had provided
this
as
the
increasing unduly, and
that
this
consequently the male would be devoid of the propenI accordingly asked Mr.
sion to devour the young.
who had charge among
Seth,
in the Zoological Gardens,
other animals of the bears
if
the males of
all
semi-
carnivorous animals would devour the young whelps

if
they got the chance.
he
Then
said.
'
They would
I said to him,
the male bear with the female
have young
them
'
for the
'Oh
'
of
the bears,' he said; 'I forgot about
moment.
family.
confinement
No,
the whelps
he
'
is
sir,
They very seldom breed

on
the
is
all
in
very curious
plantigrade
or
bear
the male bear never offers to touch
when they
are born, nor afterwards; so
allowed to remain with the female
Have
so,'
You won't then leave

when she is going to
the Gardens, which Darwin says

effect
certainly do
all
the time.'
the different kinds of bears,' I asked, 'produced
NO STRUGGLENO SELECTION.
40
young
Zoo
in the
Oh
'
yes,'
he
replied,
'
but they
breed very seldom.'
"Now
observe
is
its
how your
supposition,
that
the
male of which we have been speaking
instinct of the
the effect of confinement,
is
affected
by the
fact of
being absent in the plantigrade or bear family.
there
a more
polar bear or than the grizzly bear

in confinement
lion
is
Is
animal than the
carnivorous
savage
Yet while the
separated from the female to
prevent him from devouring her cubs, the males of

the fiercest kinds of the bear family are permitted to
remain in the same cage with the females both when

they are pregnant and when they bring forth.
Is it not
very evident that the reason of the difference between

the behaviour of the lion and the male bear
former belongs to a
non-prolific
prolific
the instinct of the males of
tell
us corroborative of
all prolific species
very extraordinary," replied
have never before heard that

to
that the
Now, what do you think of the story which
the Zoological Gardens have to
" It is
is
family and the latter to a
it is
my
" I
friend.
the custom at the Zoo
remove the males when the females are pregnant, or
No
that the litters are in danger of being devoured.
such
statement, as far as I know,
has
ever
been
published."
"
Your amazement,"
even assuming that

effect of
it
confinement,
I said, " is shared
by myself
for
could be regarded as a singular

it
cannot, I think, be considered
as other than a very noteworthy and extraordinary
circumstance that the males of so great a number of
41
divergent species and families, presumably affectionate
parents in the free state, should, as the mere effect

of confinement, develop all at once a craving to devour
their offspring.
"
But
possible to believe that the
is it
being confined should
many and
ingrained habits and nature of so
wild species?
retain the
fact of
various
should the males only
confinement, while
same love
as in the free state

"
how
Besides,
be thus affected by
mere
at once radically change the
all
the females
of their offspring in confinement
In every way, you must grant that the instinct
of
the males of the groups I have mentioned has great

significance
to students
of natural history,
and
still
greater significance to the followers of Darwin.

I have never
Selection,
me by
it
met a
who was
Yet
naturalist or a believer in Natural
cognisant of the facts imparted to
One might almost
Mr. Bartlett.
were not absurd to do
so,
imagine,
if
that there existed a con-
spiracy of silence to prevent the most significant set of
phenomena
in the Zoological Gardens from leaking out."
" But," said
there
"
is,
The
my
interlocutor, "
you don't believe that
or ever was, such a conspiracy

idea
is
absurd," I replied
that Mr. Bartlett, from
whom
"
but
I received
my
it is
curious
information,
never in his various pubMcations made mention of
even when
Let
me
difficult
avoid
to
doing
it,
so.
read you a passage from his Wild Animals in
Captivity:
female
it
seemed
'The male
wolf,
when
who has young, appears
confined with the

to
take
an active
42
It has been found
share in rearing the young ones.
that directly the young wolves begin to run about, the
male, soon after feeding, casts up from his stomach a

considerable portion of his half-digested meal which
Would
the cubs eagerly devour.'

interpret the phrase,
run
to
'
directly the
mean,
about,' to
anyone, I ask you,
young wolves begin

male
directly the
wolf, after
having been excluded from the cage until the danger

has passed,
to his cubs
the female
Yet
restored to the
is
what
this is
much more this tells us than the

when the young wolves begin
'
it tells
company
means.
it
of
But how
unilluminating phrase,
to run about
'
For
us of the marvellous change which has taken
place, all at once as it were, in the male, transformed
from a creature ravening
to
devour
its
young, to the
kind parent feeding them from the contents
own
"
stomach.
Mr. Bartlett continues
of his
It is remarkable to find
'
that upon the male being removed, the female immedi-
commences
ately
up a
cubs.'
to
do the same thing, namely, to cast
large portion of her half-digested food for the
Now
dishonest
might make here a plausible charge
of
But
statement against
Mr.
Bartlett.
should act very wrongly in doing
was not a practised
literary expert,
vertently
his
when
the
strayed
the male
is
pregnancy
not be removed
the cubs.
of
in
relation.
Mr. Bartlett
so.
and
removed from the female

the
latter.
when he
Therefore
it is
is
so
inad-
The only time
He would
is
before
certainly
assisting her in feeding
the male
who
continues to

feed the young in the
43
manner practised by the female
before he was admitted to her company.
may now tell you that the true reason for my

quoting Mr. Bartlett was not to bring against him a
" I
ridiculous
charge of concealing the truth, but to

bring him forward as evidence to the correctness of
my
inference
cubs
is past,
that
manner.
the danger-season to the
and provider.
as its protector
friend, to
when
the male assumes his part in the family
answer
me
we
If
want you now,
my
this question in a straightforward
take
it
for granted,
merely for the
argument's sake, that Nature in the feral existence of

all
her prolific species repeats the story of the instinct
males given by the Zoological Gardens, what
of the
becomes
of Darwin's doctrine of the Survival of the
Fittest, or of the
defined
if
" If
Nature does
her
mode
all
Struggle for Existence, as he has
it ?
of
my
friend frankly, " and
deleting the excess of reproduction of
accomplished by
be
species
prolific
before the
so," replied
young appear
the Darwinian theory
the
males
as food-seekers, then of course
no longer tenable
is
for there
can be no struggle for existence such as Darwin has
any natural
defined, nor
fittest,
brought
about
selection or survival of the
by the action
of
individual
variations, while it is evident that the survival that
takes place
is
not the survival of a selected number of
individuals, but the survival of the average."
"Yes,"
manner
in
said.
"Darwin knew nothing
which the excess
of
the
of her prolific species
was
44
He
eliminated by Nature.
and
tiveness,
swarmed
devise
theoretical
He
tion.
on
life,
He
set himself
therefore
explanation
they
that
their
of
to
elimina-
accordingly, after perusing Malthus' Essay
himself
conceived
Population,
a universal reign of
posit
conceived
consequently
in numbers.
saw their great produc-
misery
and to formulate his struggle
which the vast majority
at
all
to
organic
for existence, in
of the food-seekers belonging
to Nature's prolific species perish
by famine
tooth and claw of individuals of their

species, while the
liberty
over
own
by the
or
or of other
few survivors survive from their pos-
sessing advantageous individual variations or differences
than were possessed by those who were
slightly better
starved to death, or were mangled and torn, by their
competitors in the great and complex battle of

"
Upon
whole evolutionary system

point
is
its
rest.
fundamental
his
This single narrow
principle,
reposes as an inverted cone upon
life.
he has made
his struggle for existence
its
upon which
apex.
If,
then,
it
it
be found that Nature in her beneficent and guardian

care for the well-being of her sentient offspring elimi-
nates by a remedial ordinance her excess

before the
young become
exist variations that
for
existence
variations exist
give
Yes,
if
food-seekers, to
rest
tionary system, deprived of
with a crash."
to
in
the struggle
what end do
these
they are never called into action?
The cone can no longer
falls
survival
ask,
of births
what end
upon
its
its
apex
the evolu-
fundamental principle,

I here take leave
me
so
far
the
in
of
the friend
steering
and
45
who has helped

guiding
of
my
As he was summoned from the realm

my purpose, I now dismiss him
argument.
shadows to serve
return to
it.
Until the middle of the last century
men
of
to
contemplated with
admiration ,the
all
thinking
beneficence
and benevolence that were displayed in the arrangement of Nature for the well-being and happiness
of
her sentient progeny.
They did not shut
their
eyes to the fact that some species must needs live
by the slaughter
consolation in
is
of
other species, but they found
the "belief that the war of Nature
not incessant, that no fear
is
felt,
that death
is
generally prompt, and the vigorous, the healthy, and
the happy survive and multiply."
Our
believed
ancestors
in
benevolent
Power
ordering the arrangements of Nature, and providing

for the welfare
But
and happiness
this has
all
and conquered.
been changed.
He
of her various tribes.
Darwin came, saw,
deposed the benevolent Deity
from His throne, and put the Devil in the place

The doctrine
honour and now Arimanes reigns.
:
of
of
Malthus, which deals with the maintenance of the
human
was bad and immoral as well as radically

indeed, being immoral, it was bound to be.
race,
false, as,
Darwin took up this immoral and utterly false

doctrine, and extended its operation to all life, to the
whole vegetable and animal kingdoms, and averred
that it is applied to those kingdoms with manifold force.
46
Now, I
quite admit that
it is
the business of science
to
examine into the truth, and not into the morality
of
any propounded cosmical theory
assured that Nature
and though I
feel
not governed by a principle of
is
diabolism, and that no alleged principle of action on
her
can
that
part
immoral can be
it
rests
argument not
to prove that the doctrine of the
struggle for existence
that
stigmatised as
my
yet I rest
true,
upon an endeavour
and that
with justice be
immoral, but upon the proof
is
upon demonstrably
assumptions,
false
the phenomena of the world of Nature
all
unite in crying out that the doctrine itself
I regret to believe, but too

stances concur to confirm
of
Darwinian
many
my
that by a section
belief,
the
scientists
doctrine
of
Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest,
with a boundless fervour, because of

because
renders
it
because
impossible,
belief
it
in
pours
is
its
Natural
cherished
immorality,
benevolent
contempt
The world
religious aspirations.
is false.
evidential circum-
of
Deity
upon
all
Nature presents
to-day the same phenomena that spoke to our forefathers of the Divine goodness, for they believed in a
governing
and controlling Power above and beyond
But the men of this post-Darwinian generalook upon the same world, and see a reign of
Nature.
tion
ravine
that
shrieks
the comfortable
against
creed
of their forefathers.
The
observe
naturalist
" the
now
goes
forth
tragedy " of feral
life,
to
the woods to
as exemplified in
the destruction of their hapless victmis by the car-

He
nivora.
one
47
observes what passes before his eye as
with a diseased optic nerve, and con-
afflicted
sequently misreads
the
page of Nature which
fair
seems to him only a lurid record of tragedies.

Prepossessed with his master's theory of demonism,
with
its
presentation of Nature's cruelty, truculence,
and savagery, he
words
is
he may, his master's
forgets, as well
of consolation, that in the
generally prompt and no fear
war
of
Nature death
He
is felt.
therefore
does not see what his forefathers saw, and saw truly,
that until the
moment
predestined victims
healthy, and
joy of
is
life
happy
of their
prompt death even the
the
are
of
carnivora
survivors,
vigorous,
and that in the universal
throughout the whole realm of Nature there
practically little alloy of misery, notwithstanding
what Darwin
war
calls the
The pessimism
of Nature.
of the present-day explorers of feral life is repellent to
healthy natures.
But
I ask
to realise
my
what
would present
there were, as
if,
readers,
Have they
sort of
ever endeavoured
spectacle
the feral world
as the result of a competition for food,
Darwin says
there
must
necessarily be,
"in every case, a struggle for existence, either one

individual with another of the same species, or with
individuals of
weak
distinct
of each species
species,"
must go
if,
in
to the wall
short,
and
the
perish,
unable to compete with the strong, which have more

advantageous variations, and which therefore can
procure food more readily
The weak,
then, accord-
ing to Darwin's interpretation of the action of the
48
cosmic forces, are destined to starve or be slaughtered
by
stronger
their
competitors in internecine
strife.
There could be no intermission in the incessant war of
The
Nature here declared.

inheritance
starvation
fear of
handed down from remotest
an
generations
would possess every creature, and the resulting war

and slaughter would be most ruthless among the
same
individuals of the
The
species.
luridest imagin-
ings of the most nightmare-ridden seeker for Nature's
come
would
cruelty
pandemonium where the war

such
it
must needs
moment with
fellest
Natural Selection,
who
short
infinitely
the
of
feral
extermination, for
of
should be raging at every
be,
But the author
intensity.
of
sees that the necessary elimina-
tion of the excess of reproduction takes place, though
he cannot
in
tell
what manner
his survey of warring
that
we can do
organic being
ratio
is
Nature with the words
year,
during
may
of
All
"
When we
its life,
during some
each generation, or
intervals, has to struggle for life
destruction.
striving to increase in a geometrical
is
the
to keep steadily in mind, that each
that each at some period of
season of
takes place, closes
it
reflect
and
on
at
to suffer great
this
struggle,
we
console ourselves with the full belief that the war
Nature
death
is
is
not incessant, that no fear
is
felt,
that
generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the
healthy, and the
happy survive and multiply."
Let us suppose a traveller, after having described a

country in which he had sojourned, as drenched with
continual
rains,
flogged
by
frequently
recurring

hurricanes,
and wrapped
49
constant gloom, quietly
in
observing at the close of his narrative, that neverthe-
the inhabitants enjoyed perpetual sunshine, that
less
their streets
never
were never wetted, and their crops were
He would
shaken.
characteristic
investigation
simply
Darwinian method
of
be
following
shunting
critical
by an authoritative statement.
Surely
that writer has attained to a literary man's perfect
who can
apotheosis
encies,
utter the most glaring inconsist-
with no fear of having his words challenged,
and in perfect security against being
called
upon
to
furnish explanations.
I
shall
now endeavour
what the checks
consider
undue increase
What
amount
in
are
with the second

I set myself to
which prevent
the
of the feral population of the globe.
principle
supposed to govern
can be
of elimination so that
living broods
deal
to
me when
problem which confronted
become too few
due numbers
And,
there exist of recuperation
it
the
shall cease before the
to continue the species
again,
what principle does
when the numbers
of
any
species become reduced by the action of some abnormal
cause of destruction, such as long protracted seasons

of
drought,
catastrophes
experience
wide-spreading
that
We
forest
do not belong
shall
first
fires,
to
inquire
and other
their
ordinary
how Nature
adjusts the elimination of her excess of births, so as

to
maintain
the
equipoise of
life
as
between
her
carnivorous species and those species that are their

natural prey.
5o
The notion cannot,

that Nature leaves
young that
saved.
any
of
moment, be entertained
for a
chance
to
to be destroyed,
fall
numbers
the
and that
of
fall
the
to be
Into Nature's arrangements for the effecting

of her
element of chance can
purposes, the
She works by laws
never enter.
in
whose operation
the means are finely adjusted to the ends contemplated.
In
human
events which seem to fall entirely
affairs,
within the domain of chance, and to be subject to no

rule
shown
together and
when they
found,
whatever, are
are
gathered
in their totalities, to be subject' to
a governing principle which determines their incidence,
and brings about a
To give a
trite
and invariable general
fixed
"When we look
example.
individual action, nothing seems
chance or fortune's caprice
more the
result.
to the
effect
of
than whether or not a
letter deposited in
the post-office will be found to be
unaddressed;
over
number
of
yet
such letters
found not to vary propor-
is
see that even the caprices
the mind, that seem as

possibility,
United Kingdom the
from year to year.
tionally to population
Thus we
the
if
and vagaries
of
they could not, by any
have a governing principle
of
incidence,
are proved to fall within the domain of unvarying law.
Doubtless
if
there existed an intelligence compre.
hensive enough to
the mind, and
its
all
know
the
all
ways
in
the springs of action of
which
it
is
affected
by
immediate environment, and also the actual position
and environment
foretell
of each
mind,
it
would be able
to
with mathematical certainty the amount and
51
incidence of every aberration from the usual course of
human
action.
this is to presuppose that
omni-
science
which wise men regard as the attribute
of the
But
mind
Divine
and action
existence
change
But
alone.
phenomena,
also
presupposes
from the normal and usual
the action of the
law
is
not in any degree
altered, but
the
laws that never deviate or
of
for in aberration
it
it acts
are
changed, and thus unusual phenomena emerge from

Aberrations from
necessarily undeviating action.
its
the normal are thus as surely the product of unvary-
ing law as
action of
scheme
the normal
is
chance
itself.
Accordingly the
altogether eliminated from the
is
The very conception
of Nature.
of chance, of
the fortuitous, argues the limitation of the
mind.
but
There
is
in the
domain
When we
design.
human
Nature nothing
of
consider
males possess an instinct which
else
carnivorous
that
prompts
them
to
follow with expectancy the pregnant females before
they have brought forth, and,
if
devour the broods as soon as
they discover them, to
they are born, and
further that the maintenance of the species depends
on a
sufficient
seem
to
be
in
number
a
of the
young being saved, we
region where
determine how many,
or
how
chance
where, consequently, the continuance of

ous species
is
at the
mercy
can alone
few, will be saved
of chance,
and
any carnivor-
and therefore in
constant 'jeopardy.
But when we look

seem
to be in
to the
actual phenomena,
we
a region where the arrangements of
52
Nature
for preserving the species are
mined and
fixed character
ditions the
numbers
feral
haunts do
under normal con-
for
of the various
not
of a predeter-
vary from
species in
one
their
generation
to
another, nor do the relative proportions of the adults
demonstrated that
It is thus clearly
and the young.
the elimination of the young broods has stopped at a
predetermined point, and that the number saved has
been truly and finely calculated.
For unless both the elimination and the preservation

proportioned
had been nicely

other, the balance
of
It is within our
turbed.
in
relation
Nature would be
to
each
fatally dis-
power to discover in what
manner and by what methods Nature' operates
to
produce her adjustments, though the perfection and

fineness to
which these adjustments attain must ever

our
beget surprise in
processes Nature
is
minds
too subtle
in the block, but
fingers
working
adjustments.
principle
is
we
We
for our eye
can speak of her
are unable to perceive her
out the finer issues of her relative
When, however, we have
by which the increase
held in check,
her adjustive
and occult
completely to follow her hand.
work
in
for
we have
of all prolific species
acquired a certain power of
following in the steps of Nature
method employed by her
ascertained the
to
make
in
regard
to
the
the preservation of
the broods sufficient, and no more than sufficient, for

the maintenance of her various feral types.
Let us
take some region stocked immemorially with
all
forms which
it
holds
to-day,
say,
the
the
Himalayan

Terai, the Sunderbunds, the vast
through which
tributaries,
in short,
Such an habitat
any
life,
it
must be
and
its
one in which, by the wonderful
is
of Nature, all the various
vegetable and animal, have found their
numbers, and
place, their convenient
adjustments.
Amazon
fully stocked feral habitat.
and inexplicable working

forms of
woods and swamps
mighty
the
roll
53
their
relative
have already remarked how
difficult
for the female to escape to a
place
of
concealment to bring forth her young untracked by
The individual 'pairs
the male.
their
own
each species have
which they seem
territory, out of
bounds by some physical constraint.
area
certain
Its
Where
said
which
over
the
for
plenty
more or
less
or
scarcity
its
prey.
extensive
of
its
prey.
their natural prey are plentiful, tigers will be
abound
to
where,
Now, in
number
on
hand, their
the other
not plentiful, there
prey are
natural
tigers.
to
tiger.
mate has a
its
roams
it
roaming-ground will be
according
Take the
animal which with
It is a solitary
seldom
to
kept within their own
they were
travel, just as if
of
will
few
be
a district stocked from immemorial
time, the
of tigers, as indeed of all the car-
nivora inhabiting
it,
will be just as large as
comfortably
maintained
proper food.
I think I
and
may
supplied
can
with
be
their
safely say that this is a
matter attested by observation, and confirmed by the

fact
that
carnivorous
at the same point
generation.
of
We may
animals
continue
practically
numbers from generation

posit
as
general
to
principle
54
that
Nature
adjusted
having
species
prolific
its
numerically to the capacity of their several coursing-
grounds to maintain them comfortably, has thereby

arranged that a certain unvarying proportion of the
broods shall escape the ken of the male.
Nature, acting through the instincts which she has
implanted in each species, brings about her various

adjustments, and
among them the
required proportion
of the broods saved to the broods destroyed.
may
It
and what
be said that what broods will be
must be the
speech of
result
men
chance, and
manner
it,
male
in the ordinary
speaking
of
proclaims
it
Can
mind.
intelligence
of
this
allowed, though
human
saved
will fall victims to the instinct of the
may
be
the limitations of the
however, be doubted that the
which works out an invariable general
result arranges the particulars to produce
I ask, unreasonable to
regard
as
it
it ?
Is
it,
certain truth
that in a matter so vitally important as the preservation
of
her
offspring
feral
Nature has adjusted
in
due numbers,
their
to the finest issues
of the instinct of the
males of
prolific
the operation
species, so that
in their several runs the proportion of the broods that

fall to
be saved
is,
relative to those that
fall
to
be
destroyed, a fixed and determinate quantity, constant
and unvarying
The amount
of elimination
by the
males will obviously be regulated by the opportunities

afforded for the concealment of the
female by
the
range in which the several pairs are accustomed to
roam
while again the extent of
the range will be
55
determined by the amount of food for their sustenance
which
contains.
it
more extensive range
will not,
however, give the female a relatively better chance of

saving her broods from the male
than will
less
inasmuch as the larger area will be

as thoroughly roamed over and familiar to the species
extensive one
occupying
it
the
as
smaller area, from the greater
demanded from the animals
activity
necessary
amount
The
food.
of
to secure their
must
deletion
obviously be proportionally equal in all fully stocked

feral habitats.
Let us
now
see
what provision Nature has made
for the recuperation of her species,
their
destruction.
among
were
there
If
the carnivora, no
individuals of the
and
when they have
numbers decimated by any abnormal cause
same or
no
deaths
accidental
between
encounters
fierce
no wear
of different species,
tear of the jungle, the forest, the desert, and the
mountain,
we might say
her elimination
one pair out of
may
is
that Nature's adjustment of
the deletion by the male of all but
six, eight,
or ten pairs, as
the case
be, in a generation.
But there
is,
of course, a
struction from internecine
certain
strife,
amount
trifling.
The
casualties of feral life are
less of the following character.
ally that
devour
it,
when a
lion
makes a
de-
of
though in the case
of the larger carnivora the tale of deaths from
but
of
It
it
is
more or
happens occasion-
kill
and begins
to
hysenas and jackals gather round, to wait
until the lord of the desert retires, gorged from his
56
meal.
The jackals are content to wait patiently
the lion departs satiated, but

impatient, and
it
until
more
the hyaenas are
sometimes happens that one
too
venturesome will try unobserved to snatch a portion

of
the meat, and pays for
encountering
hasty blow
temerity with
its
life,
from the paw
of
the
its
offended autocrat.
But there occur other causes of destruction beyond

the ordinary wear and tear of feral life, such as
forest
and
prairie fires,
season destroy
ference
all
is
multitude of various animals, and
organised
extensive
which frequently in the dry
battues,
ringed with men,
where a vast
who
circum-
press forward driving
the wild creatures in that part of the country to
an enclosed space, where a great slaughter takes
place.
When
spent
the
forest
themselves, and
left
or
the
when the
prairie
fires
have
beaters and shooters have
the scenes of their havoc, there has taken place a
great reduction in the

districts that, in the
number
of the animals in the
one case, have been invaded by
man, and, in the other, have been devastated by
But here the great procreative power

species
exhibits
its
recuperative
of
fire.
the prolific
potency.
The
individual runs in the haunts of the several species

affected
depleted.
by the agents of destruction have been

The surviving females have accordingly a
larger space in
which to conceal their broods in
familiar haunts, while the
been reduced.
number
The consequence
more broods are saved, and
is
of the
their
males has
that proportionally
as these arrive at maturity

the gaps that have been
made
species are quickly filled
up.
numbers of the
Hence it is evident
in the
Darwin
that the several kinds of destruction which
took pains to enumerate are not in
upon the increase
checks
reality
imposed by Nature, but
of species
are mere temporary
57
calamities
for the individuals
destroyed by them leave their place vacant to afford
ampler room
in safety.
for the females to hide
now be
It will
seen that Nature had a
when
great economic end in view,

species with so great a
and bring forth
power
she endowed her
of procreation
and
also
that for all her species she employs but one check which
is
sufficient for
her purpose, while she has provided
it
a principle of recuperation which renders
all casualties
that occur from time to time powerless
along with
from being maintained in their
to prevent the species
due numbers from generation to generation.

Nature's check
is
She has one check
not
for
which
herbivorous animals,
carnivora,
another
the
the
for
herbivora, another for
same
for
all
species.
man, another for unprolific

form the food
carnivora
raptorial birds,
other kinds of check for other forms of
and
of
the
prolific
and doubtless
life
which we
have not considered.

of the
The destruction
spawn and small
fry
by the
adult fishes, and of smaller by larger kinds, I take to
be Nature's mode of eliminating the excess of reproducWe have here no

tion in this domain of animal life.
concealment
of the females, or special instinct
part of the males
on the
for the females take as active a
58
spawn and smaller
part as the males in devouring the

fish,
whether
own
of their
or of other kinds.
But Nature has provided against the annihilation

from
her finny tribes
devour
one
The spawn
said to contain about nine million
that a cod produces in
Of these only two

maturity and
eliminated
procreate
Assume
and come
hatched
kind, the
their
this last
to
being
rest
stage.
The
of the cod in the various seas
fishing of it is prosecuted
all sea-going
of the cod
eggs.
lifetime fifty million eggs.
be
they reach
before
enormous destruction
where the
its
will
of
to
them with an
by endowing
another,
enormous procreative power.

is
propension
this universal
by the
fishers of
from age to age seem
nations, does not
to affect their numbers.
Notwithstanding the continuous drain upon them,

their
numbers keep
would show
toilers of the
if
at
the same point which they
they were
The reason
sea.
undisturbed
left
by the
that the continual
is
by the fishermen
destruction of the adult devourers
permits a multitude of young cod to grow to maturity
which otherwise would have perished; and thus the

annual destruction made by the fishing
it is, is
The
fleets,
great as
balanced by the number of young cod saved

potentiality
sometimes
shows
of
its
increase
actual
case with
the
to Australia.
rabbit
prolific
power
manner, when the conditions of

are by man's intervention
of
life
in
of
altered, as
translated
from
alive.
species
startling
one of them
has been the
this country

The fecundity
of this creature is so
would task the power

in
of
enormous, that
number
of its broods are destroyed
There are
its
by the males.
the Hebrides where rabbits are
islets in
found, and where, the gun of the sportsman

if
ever, heard,
numbers
were not that the far greater
it
if
it
man, even in its confined haunts
Great Britain and Ireland, to keep
within bounds,
59
is rarely,
where notwithstanding the fecundity
the species, those that
of
are seen are always in good
numbers receiving
sufficient sustenance
from the scanty herbage clinging
to the sides of the
condition, their
rock, or
The
growing in the hollows and
shore.
male acting in so confined a space
instinct of the
suffices to
by the
prevent them from increasing beyond their
existing numbers, while there are always a sufficient
number
of broods preserved
undiminished
numerically.
to continue the species
But when
the
rabbit
was introduced into the Colonial settlements
of the
Australian continent, the conditions of
wholly
There
changed.
destroyers to thin
or in the air
its
were
its
few
life
were
carnivorous
numbers, either on the ground
while illimitable space on every side
was afforded
to the female to hide her broods
from the ken
of the male.
Accordingly, from
its
away
amazing fecundity, the species
mutiplied and spread with the rapidity of wild-fire,
with
to the
consequences
stockbreeder
too
require description.
well
and
agriculturist
sorrowfully
and
to the
known
to
CHAPTER
II.
NATUEAL SELECTION, OE THE EVOLUTIONAL

VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL VAEIATION.
T SHALL
-*-
begin
some
remarks upon the place of the hypothesis in the
march
Those departments
of science.
categories
of
knowledge
Sciences have developed from small
that are called
beginnings by the application

or
by making
chapter
this
to
the
phenomena belonging
to
general principles
of
ascertained
body
of
or
facts
Certain phenomena
them.
are perceived to be related to each other from having

or
features
certain
properties
common
in
The
grouping of these phenomena in categories according

to their relations to one another is called' generalising.
As
the study of a science advances, and the
number and
facts increase in
that larger groupings
may
known
significance, it is
found
be made, as the relations
between the groups themselves are found to bring two

or
more
perceived
of
them
that
into a
employed require
to
of
category, or
new
is
the categories
acqusitions of knowledge.
to the limitation of the
human mind
to abstract or universal truth, a

60
it
grouping hitherto
be altered, and
adjusted to accord with
Owing
common
the principles
law
of
in regard
Nature must
NATURAL SELECTION
61
be considered merely as a generalisation of the
effects
that are perceived to flow, uniformly and invariably,
from the action

said that apart
a causal
of
principle.
phenomena, the object
of science
is
may
It
from the mere collection
of facts
be
and
to generalise, or,
in other words, to establish laws or general principles
that
may
be applied to theoretical or practical uses.
But often the amount

field
of
of inquiry does
knowledge attained in some
not enable the scientist to feel
himself justified in designating as a law of Nature a

generalisation that
suggested to his mind
is
by an
apparent trend of direction in the facts with which
he
is
Yet he considers himself
dealing.
making
it
justified in
a provisional generalisation or hypothesis,
with
a view to
But,
as
future verification or
its
every
principle,
scientific
hypothesis must be a generalisation of

or phenomena,
that
is
rejection.
legitimate
known
must have
to say, it
facts
its foot-
hold in experience and observation, and, as a
justifica-
must have a body
of facts
tion for its existence,
it
apparently trending in
its direction.
hypothesis, according to its etymology, ought to
be a principle of arrangement which brings a body of

facts
is
under
its
domination.
Whereas that which
termed a hypothesis, but which merits no better
designation than a mere guess, or speculative incursion

into the
man's
region
inner
concept
the
theoretical, evolved
consciousness,
and
to
any body
abhorrent
from the
world unattached
a
of
launched
of
known
first
from a
into
the
facts, is
principles
of
62
the
world
has clearly demonstrated the impotence of the
human
mind
The past history
inquiry.
scientific
to discover
lation, the
by
its
of
own unaided power
ways and operations
of specu-
Nature that are
of
away from ordinary observation.

she only yields up to the patient and
The Epicurean
of scientific research.
recondite and hidden
Her
secrets
slow processes
philosophers, according to Lucretius, maintained that
tended
all things
toward
to fall
the centre Of the
Doubtless this belief was derived from their
earth.
observation of meteors apparently falling to the earth
from, as they imagined, the highest regions of space
the earth
they held
for
But
universe.
child's
objects
was an
guess,
it
was
to
their belief
be the
was
centre
little
and though in regard

true, yet
notwithstanding
ineffectual article of belief,
of
the
better than a
terrestrial
to
its
truth, theirs
and one which did
not tend to promote scientific research or enlighten

the scientific mind.
It
was in no sense prognosticative
of gravitation, discovered
of the great law
and expounded by
The long and arduous processes
Newton.
calculation
by which
Sir Isaac
of abstruse
his profound intelligence verified
the hypothesis from which they started, had not,
may
we
be sure, their origin in his accidentally observing
an apple
fall
to the ground, but
had
for their pre-
cursor a long and careful putting together of a mass

of
phenomenal observations, perceived by a mind
powerfully practical as
it
as
was powerfully speculative.
Such, and only such, will ever be the nature of the
NATURAL SELECTION
hypotheses from which
63
great truths concerning the
operations of Nature are brought to the light of day.
Was
the concatenation of hypotheses,
Darwinian theory
a material
basis
known
as the
Evolution, founded upon such
of
and
facts
of
phenomena, whether
gathered by Darwin himself or by his predecessors in

the
field
of scientific inquiry
legitimate hypotheses
one answer.
of
To
Were
they, in truth,
this question there is but
Darwin elaborated
his theory
by a
series
pure guesses, none of them attachable to the known
phenomena of Nature.
The Nature and the laws
Nature which we meet
of
we
The nearest that Darwin ever
a phenomenal basis for any of his
with in the Origin of Species are not those which

find outside
came
of
to finding
it.
hypotheses was in his doctrine of the Struggle for

Existence, which
have nevertheless proved to be
in direct contradiction to all the results of observa-
and experience.
But the individual
tion
variation,
evolutionary theory revolves,

imagination, differing
in
its
is
round which his whole

a pure creature of his
behaviour from
dividual variations that experience
all in-
makes us acquainted
with, possessed of principles of action that contravene
the
laws of
Nature to which
variations are subject,
no law or principle
my
other individual
entity,
of action except the
it pleases its author to assign to
It is
all
an irresponsible
having
work which
it.
purpose in this chapter to demonstrate
that individual variations, under the laws of heredity,
64
which they are subject in the realm of Nature, so

far as that is within the compass of observation and
to
experience, are impossible material for Nature's evolu-
An
tionary purposes.
what
have been anathema
such alone, ought to

of
elaborate theory, composed of
and
I have termed illegitimate hypotheses,
of
men
But unfortunately, amid the heated
Darwin's day.
controversies
to the
and commotions
by the publication
stirred
of the Origin of Species, the assailants of his theory

of evolution did not perceive that
they were accepting
his fundamental principles without
making the
slightest
These are two,
attempt to verify or disprove them.
namely, the doctrine of the struggle for existence, and

the evolutionary power of
the
individual variation,
neither of which was, in any way, called in question

or subjected to
any kind
of examination.
Unexamined, unverified, as
to either of these essential
Darwin was
points, the evolutionary theory of
as a glprious revelation
after
by most
scientists,
some hesitation on the part
embraced by
scientific
of
mind has advanced
his antiquated boast
of
a few, at last
as the impregnable creed of
acceptance
Their
science.
them
all of
hailed
and was,
shows how the

Newton formulated
it
since
Hypotheses non
Jingo.
Evolution
from lower to higher forms, as the formative principle

in the origin of species,
been anticipated
whom Lamarck
But
it
had long before Darwin's day
by other men
holds
_a
of
science,
among
distinguished place.
until the publication of the Origvn of Species
had never taken hold
of
the
public mind,
nor
NATURAL SELECTION
become a subject
general
of
undoubtedly belongs
honour
the
and
subject of general interest,

final
belongs
explanation
his
But
establishment.
scientists
attains her
the
of
To Darwin
making it a
securing
also of
to Darwin's
discredit
its
contemporary
having accepted
of
manner
the
of
interest.
65
which Nature
in
evolutionary ends, while as yet his ex-
planation was a mere piling up of assumption upon
In accepting
assumption.
as
it
was given
it
forth,
without examining, or attempting to verify, his funda-
mental assumptions, Darwin's contemporaries proved

to
science,
betrayed
its
first principles,
abandoned
they
that
in
disloyal
foremost
and
among which
is
the examination and verification of every provisional

hypothesis.
For the
to
my
benefit of
who do not
readers
have studied the Origin of
now
give a short account of the action, as
has
conceived
evolutionary
his
of
it,
profess
Species closely, I shall
Darwin
the
factor,
individual difference or variation.
In the
in
I shall give its
and,
of
will
However, I
not
prove
complex battle
being
5
through
way what
a
trust
place,
of
life,
recapitulation
much
in
In
the
of
great
I have
to
find
it
here
great
and
struggle
for
the
dire
by the reproduction
too
its
measureless
the former of these
unacceptable.
existence, necessitated
species
assumed action
second
In the preceding chapter
time.
indicated in a general
is.
the
in
action
evolutionary
assumed
tracts
first place,
generation,
each
of
each
maintenance
"
66
and
by
live,
number
the greater
far
those that
of
must in each generation perish before they
are born
propagate
kind
their
and
especially
must
this
be
the case with prolific species.
As
in
Darwin
the closest observation did not reveal to
what manner those who are born in each genera-
tion perish
pair
that
it
to
such a degree as to leave only one
succeed each pair of
to
was inaccessible
had recourse
parents, he conceived
to observation
and therefore
to abstract principles to explain
The individuals
of a species
differ
it.
from each other
by the particular variations with which Nature has

endowed them. The great end of each individual
in the universal food struggle being to get food
live,
enable
kind
who
them to
those
survivors
get the
the matter of
in
the
all
effectively varied.
and
endowed with variations that
are
better of the rest of their
procuring
from
perish
rest
Being
food will be the
being
less
less strong, or less cunning,
or less dexterous in hunting, they, being the weaker,

to use the current phrase, go to the wall
"
Can we
doubt," asks Darwin,
many more
individuals
"
and
are born than can
survive), that individuals having
perish.
(remembering that
possibly
any advantage, how-
ever slight, over others, would have the best chance

of surviving
and
According to
individual
of procreating their
Darwin, there are
variations
first,
the
kind
three
kinds of
advantageous,
procure survival for those that possess them
that
second,
the injurious, which work to the elimination of their
NATURAL SELECTION
possessors
that
any
Darwin
as
for,
says, "
67
We may
feel
variation, in the least degree injurious,
sure
would
be rigidly destroyed " third, those variations that are

being neither advantageous nor injurious.
indifferent,
"We naturally
the
ask,
"What occasion had Darwin to create
variation
injurious
slight
If
advantageous
variations give their possessors such superiority over
the others that they survive, while
all
the individuals
that have less fortunate variations perish, what office

or function
as
is left
for injurious variations to discharge
eliminating factors that
not equally well dis-
is
charged by variations slightly inferior to those which

give
to their possessors survival in the struggle for
existence
when we
Again,
look to the concrete, or to the
actual facts of existence,
there does not appear to
be any destruction that
can
be
called
" rigid "
of
If in a section of an Indian jungle,
bad variations.
which contains an average population of 100 pairs
of adult tigers, 2100 young are born in each generation,
of
whom 1900
only a part of
injurious variations as
It
matters
perish, do
them, perish
namely, that
not what
1900
variations
1900, or
these
Nature rigidly destroys

the
proportion
result in successive generations
jurious
all
from possessing such
perish.
are
in
is
The
each
is,
for
the
always the same,

possessors
generation
destroyed, but in each generation there are as
of
in-
rigidly
many
injurious variations as were in the generation before

it,
and as
will be in the generation after
it.
What
68
then does Darwin mean by affirming that injurious
grow
variations are rigidly destroyed, seeing that they
up
and are not, more-
as fast as they are destroyed,
doomed
over,
more than other variations
to destruction
that go to the wall in the struggle for existence
But
two
may
it
factors
Natural Selection, the
of
and the injurious

advance
survivors
in their generation
fittest
of
The
the reproduction, with
always
are
survive
to
advantageous
no evolutional
variations, there is
achieved.
the
beneath and
all
the average, are swept away, until the few

survive are reached
there
is
but when
we
the
average
all
above
to
fittest
reach the survivors
nothing that gives us any reason to infer that
their average
from generation
raised
is
argument
I do not here press the
chapter, that all that
we know
to generation.
of the previous
of Nature's
ways and
methods seems to assure us that in the survival

those
that in the action of the
be observed
who
individuals
to procreate
live
their
of
kind,
she does not call in individual variations to do any

part of her work, and that
not a selected
class,
reproduction, as
former the
those
who
survive
are
but represent the average of her

desire
argument
of
to
this
keep apart from the

chapter, which
is
to
demonstrate that individual variations can in no case

prove
evolutionary
material.
shall
now
explain
the action through illimitable time of Darwin's evolutionary factor, the individual variation or difference
that
appears
generations.
in
the
course
of
many
successive
NATURAL SELECTION
In the beginning
of
his
69
fourth chapter (Origin
man
Darwin, after remarking that
of Species),
domestic productions cannot
in his
originate varieties, but
can only preserve and accumulate such as do occur,

says
to
"
Unintentionally he
new and changing
ensues
exposes
conditions of
life,
beings
organic
and
variability
but similar changes of conditions might and
do occur under Nature.
Let
how
close-fitting are the
infinitely
complex and
be borne in mind,
it
mutual
relations of all organic beings to each other,

their
physical conditions of life:
what
infinitely varied
diversities
and
to
and consequently
might
of structure
be of use to each being under changing conditions of

life.
Can
it
be
variations useful to
thought
improbable,
man have
that other variations
seeing
undoubtedly occurred,
useful, in
some way,
being in the great and complex battle of

occur in the course of
.If
such do occur, can
many more
that
to
life
each
should
many successive generations ?

we doubt (remembering that
individuals are
born than can possibly
survive) that individuals having any advantage,
how-
ever slight, over others, would have the best chance

of surviving
It
may
and procreating their kind
not be thought improbable, as an a priori
concept, that in the course of
many
successive genera-
tions there should occur individual variations useful to
Nature's wild species as being capable of modifying
and developing them
and the
fact
that
but between this
man,
in
forming his
probability
breeds
of
domesticated animals, finds certain individual variations
70
useful for his purposes, there exists no logical connection
whatever
and, indeed, I shall demonstrate that
the principle of selection which
modifying results
It
man
uses to get his
one which cannot be used by Nature.
is
another peculiar statement in the
is
quoted,
that
passage
and developmental
such modifying
if
individual variations do occur in the course of
we cannot doubt
successive generations,
and
advantageous
generation
many
that in each
injurious
individual
determine what individuals shall survive.
variations
any connection
I cannot discover
any kind between
of
He would
the two assumptions.
have done better
to
have assumed favourable and injurious variations doing

their
work
in each
generation,
and then
to
have
inferred the other.
Darwin
I shall allow
the action
of
the course of
is
to
explain in his
own words
his potent individual variation during
many
successive generations in which
it
In the following quotation we have Darwin's
active.
conception of the developmental ascent from a variety

to
distinct
amount
species
"
In order that any great
of modification should be effected in a species,
a variety
when once formed must
a long interval
of
differences of the
time, vary or
again, perhaps after
present individual
same favourable nature
and these must be again preserved and

step
by
step.
it
is
true
so onward,
Seeing that individual differences of the
same kind perpetually

sidered as
as before
recur, this can
hardly be con-
an unwarrantable assumption.
we can judge only by
seeing
But whether
how
far the
NATURAL SELECTION
hypothesis
phenomena
accords with, and
On
of Nature.
amount
belief that the
limited quantity
71
the general
explains
the other hand, the ordinary
of possible variation is a strictly
is likewise
a simple assumption."
Before explaining the evolutionary action of the

individual
many
variation
successive
occurs
that
generations, as
the
in
it
course
described
is
Darwin, I shall make a few remarks upon the

sentences
three
by
last
When
the above quotation.
of
of
he
that individual differences of the same kind
asserts
perpetually recur,
Darwin does not mean
to affirm
that they occur uninterruptedly in successive generations, as the result of
from both parents.
continuous and unbroken heredity
He simply means
that sporadically,
here and there, they occur frequently in individuals of
a species as the result of the variability of the species.
As my argument
warrantable
Darwin's
is
circumstances
proceeds,
individual
will be seen
it
assumption
differences
that
how unsuch
in
should be
per-
petuated, or preserved beyond a few generations.
Again, let us consider what cogency

to the statement that
his hypothesis
explains
the
we
we should
attach
are to judge of the truth of
by seeing how far it accords with, and

The
phenomena of Nature.
general
principle of evolution, per

thetical theory of the
se,
manner
is
one thing.
hypo-
in which the principle
The hypothesis may be

capable of being disproved, as, for instance, being shown
and yet, so
to contravene inviolable laws of Nature
works
is
quite another thing.
long as
it
is
allowed to go unchallenged,
it
may
stand
72
and as such may appear
for the principle of evolution,
to accord with
and explain the general phenomena
of
For example, Darwin uses the term Natural
Nature.
Selection to express certain processes, which he has as-
sumed
to be probably those of
work.
But, I ask,
Nature
in his
is it
authority that such and such
in
her evolutional
power to say with any
phenomena
are the result
Natural Selection, when he admits that Nature's
of
evolutional processes and action
yond the sphere

knowledge
"
of
human
must ever remain
observation and of
be-
human
We see nothing," he says, " of those slow
changes in progress until the hand of time has marked

the lapse of ages, and then so imperfect
into geological ages, that
life
now
are
different
we
is
our view
see only that the forms of
from what they formerly were."
In other words, Nature's evolutional action has been

hidden from us by the long lapse of time, and
more
by the
for
each
we can never
really
duration
secular
infinitesimal accumulation, so that
know anything beyond
still
required
the fact that a principle of
evolution has been at work, producing those changes
which we see have taken

present
forms
of
peopled the earth

therefore,
with,
life
in
when we compare the

with those which we know
past geological ages.
When,
place,
Darwin says that Natural Selection accords
and explains the general phenomena
of
Nature,
he can mean no more than that in his opinion he has
made a lucky
guess,
principle of evolution
and discovered a hypothetical

which does
study the factors which
make up
so.
But when we
and
this principle,
NATURAL SELECTION
his
application
of
the
term Natural
73
Selection
explain the actual phenomena of Nature,
we
to
find that
what accords with and explains them is not the factors,

nor their assumed processes, but simply, and by itself,
the principle of evolution which they are supposed to
Darwin
represent.
unknown
that an
is
not entitled to say more than
evolutionary principle accords with,
and explains Nature's phenomena.

evolutional
principle
may
name
processes to which he has given the

Selection
chapter
and I repeat that

demonstrate
to
principle
may
be,
it
is
unknown
This
however,
not,
it is
my
be
of.
Natural
purpose in this
whatever
that
those
impossible that
Nature's
it
can be
Darwin's principle of Natural Selection.
Coming to the last sentence

draw attention
in
it
of our quotation, I
merely
Darwin expressly admits
to the fact that
that his hypothesis as to the evolutionary action
of the
individual variation in the course of successive
generations
is
a simple assumption.
me now
possible for me
Let
endeavour to make as clear as

to do,
what Darwin has
it
is
told us as to
the action of the developmental variation that occurs

Let us
in the course of many successive generations.
assume that a species has become established in a

certain
locality.
esdstendi of
be
As we
each species
improved, and as the
has
is
modification
told
that
the
causa
not to be happy but to
species
been enjoying a period
definite
now
are
of
made upon
of
rest
it
which I speak
since the
by
the
last
action,
completed, of a favourable individual difference,
74
it
waiting for the occurrence of another individual
is
difference of the
improve
length
same favourable nature
and begins
occurs,
as before, to
This favourable variation at
further.
it still
developmental action.
its
Let us assume that the favourable variation occurs in
Darwin has exercised some
one or two individuals.
ingenuity in arguing, though in

that
conclusively,
more
differences are
prolific
fortunately varied, and
numbers
increase in
goes on,
he
individuals
in
to
opinion far from
that consequently they will
As time
faster than the others.
assumes
that
the
favourably
varied
become more and more numerous
will
relation
my
who have favourable

than those who are less
individuals
the
common
form,
which
is
also
undergoing a process of decimation from the destruction

of
still
number
larger
of individuals
by
injurious
variations.
At length
the individuals possessed of the favourable
become the common form, and soon none of

the old form are left, and all the species possess the
difference
now become a characterBut from the time when the
favourable difference which has

istic
of the
species.
favourable individual variation
first
occurred, until
has achieved
its
becoming one
of its fixed characters, a
work
time has elapsed,
been accomplished
cation
for, as
is,
Darwin
species,
it
and
long interval of
ages probably, and what has
after
is
modifying the
all,
an
infinitesimal modifi-
fond of repeating,
"
Natura non
As to what now takes place, he says

A variety, when once formed, must again, perhaps after
facit saltum."
"
many
of
NATURAL SELECTION
75
a long interval of time, vary or present individual
same favourable nature as
differences of the
We
are
to
understand
which begins
difference
in kind
inasmuch
and exhausted
though
it is of
the same
another, and different
last, is
as the last has
completed
its
work,
Then follow
modifying power.
its
individual
modifying work, perhaps
after a long interval of time,
favourable nature as the
new
the
that
its
before."
uncounted generations, during which the possessors
of
the favourable difference get the upper hand, and are
new
established as a
the variety which
variety, but still differing
from
has supplanted by an infinitesimal
it
The same process is gone

through by the next evolutional variation, and by the
next and the next, and so on, step by step each step
amount
of modification.
adding another infinitesimal modification, until, in the

long result of time, a form emerges so far modified
from the original as
when compared with

Thus,
to take
the extinction of
its
predecessor,
to
preserved,
made by the
Next comes the

the form which
greatly
altered
specific
it
new
accumulations
somewhat
the
as
original
formed, each
varieties are first
species,
it.
the
taking
rank as a new
series
form,
of
starting-point,
variety involving
and each adding

have
that
its
little
been
predecessors.
altered
from
has immediately supplanted, but
from the original form.
Thus a
measureless gulf of time has been traversed before one

species has succeeded to another,
and numberless have
been the intermediate varieties that have been extin-
76
That no
guished.
from the
recovered
many
forms
intermediate
and
past,
appeared
distinct specific forms discovered
by
had been
among
so
geologists,
own theory
they must have been so much
was a surprise to Darwin (who took

seriously), seeing that
more numerous than the
his
specific forms.
He, however,
accounted for their absence by showing the imperfection
But the number
of the geological record.

specific
forms
discovered
manifold
multiplied
since
by
geologists
of extinct
been
has
Darwin wrote, yet
the
record of his intermediate forms discovered remains
a blank.
If
the ordinary rules of logic were applicable
evolutional theories, this unvarying emergence of
to
the few (the specific) and the non-emergence of even

a casual example of the
would be considered
But what
is,
that
the
when we
consider
its
how
accretion
to
of
draw attention
made when a
insists),
is
variety
a point
upon
and upon the great
accumulated variations that were required
form a distinct
species,
and upon the long lapse
time necessary for each infinitesimal accretion,

impossible
to
exceedingly minute was
predecessor (for this
which Darwin especially
number
intermediate forms)
I desire particularly to
developmental
supplanted
many (the
fatal to Darwin's.
for
anyone
to
allege,
with
of
it
is
any show
of
reason, that there can exist experimental evidence of
the operation of such a principle as Natural Selection.
When,
therefore, Dr.
Eomanes advances what he
siders to be proofs of the operation of
con-
Natural Selection,
he does in reality no more than give proofs of a principle
NATURAL SELECTION
of evolution
77
having been instrumental in developing
When, moreover,
mind that every operation of Nature is
higher from lower forms.
it is
in
in a sense
borne
(though not in a Darwinian sense) an act of Natural

Selection,
Dr.
that
it
will be easy for his readers to discover
Komanes'
endeavours to
is
elaborate
make Natural
dialectic
when
he
Selection Nature's agent
rather a manipulation of pedantic language than a
dealing with the actual processes of evolution.
Darwin speaks
of individual variations that possess
the faculty of lying latent for many, perhaps for hundreds

of generations.
am not
sure whether he
be considered evolutional factors

I find myself unable to assign
for, if
possible that he has introduced
merely to
impress
he means
them any
in his scheme of Natural Selection.
variations
means these
to
this,
fitting place
"It is,
however,
those extraordinary
readers with the
his
general independence of individual variations and their
freedom from subjection to the law

I
now proceed
organic
life of
to
deal with
No
same
in
individual variations or differences.
In the second paragraph

"
of inheritance.
the significance
one supposes that
of chap.
all
species are cast in the
the
ii.
Darwin writes
individuals
same actual mould.
of
the
These
individual differences are of the highest importance for

us, for
they are often inherited, as must be familiar to
everyone
and they thus
afford materials for Natural
Selection to act on and accumulate in the same manner

as man accumulates in any given direction individual
differences in his domesticated productions."
78
I shall
organic
tions
show that though individual
inherited, they
often
life,
differences are
the
cannot, in
free
arena of
be transmitted through successive genera-
own
that by her
deprived herself of
established laws Nature has
the power
of selecting
them, and of
keeping up the continuous copulation of like with like

that, therefore, she
cannot accumulate them as
man
does in his domesticated productions.

I
must here be somewhat elementary,
so that I
may
emphasise the distinction between individual variations
and
specific
and generic
characteristics
a distinction
which throughout the Origin of Species Darwin appears

In the more highly organised
inclined to suppress.
creation all existing species are derived from genera
that have become extinct.
All species, and of course
each
characteristic
from
inherit
species,
marks
of
the individuals of
all
the
old
The
genera.
each species are, for the most
part, modifications of those of the
genus from which
it
has been derived, which modifications have been trans-
mitted by uninterrupted inheritance through a long

succession of generations.
But each
external
under
species,
conditions,
particulars of function
of
being
changes
adapted
thus
characteristics
to
another.
action of
changed
changed
in
certain
and structure in the process
new environment.
its
superinduced
form the
distinguish the different
one
the
been
has
upon
the
characteristic
old
The
generic
marks that
species of each genus from
The present
characteristics
of
each
NATURAL SELECTION
79
existing species have, in all likelihood, been formed

or accumulated during
many changes
of environment,
caused by changes in the surface of the globe, compelling the various species to separate and disperse,
and
so
come under
diverse external conditions.
multitude of rudimentary or
seem
atrophied
more numerous the higher the
to be
The
organs, that
type, point
to far remote ancestral genera, that differed greatly
in form,
forms
structure,
while
and function from the existing
many
the
cases
what
of
reversion point to the characteristics of
but
still
To
extinct genera.
called
is
more recent
this category belongs the
frequent recurrence of stripes in individuals of species

that do not generally show them, as in the young of
equine animals, telling of their
descent
from pro-
genitors that were distinguished characteristically
Though occurring
stripes.
species, they
by
in individuals of existing
cannot be regarded as individual differences,
but must be considered as generic characteristics, that
have come to the surface from a principle

that,
under the changed conditions of existence,

dying out, but
slowly
assert its
power in a
On
other
the
as species,
new
still
sufficiently active
is
to
hand,
we have
naturally formed
have not yet attained to rank
which have been formed under the action
external
differentiation
another.
is
faint sporadic fashion.
varieties of species, that
of
of inheritance,
The
conditions,
giving
from the parent, and
them a
also
certain
from one
characteristic of varietal, as apart
specific forms, is that the
from
reproductive organs have
80
not yet become so affected
prevent them from
as, to
breeding with the parent form and with one another.
But
from other changes
as further modification ensues
in external conditions, the reproductive system
own now fixed type.

that much controversy has
It
as to
becomes
them breeding beyond
so altered as to prevent
is
their
no wonder, therefore,
arisen
among
naturalists
whether certain forms are to be regarded as
specific or as
When,
merely
varietal.
in dealing with the
endeavour to look
origin of
species,
we
beyond the present phenomenal
world and recover the past, we find a thick oblivious
drawn before our
curtain
eyes,
with a few rents and
chinks here and there, through which
we
see darkly,
and obtain a few obscured peeps into the laboratory
of
Nature, and discover, far apart from each other, some
few traces
of
her footsteps in her evolutionary progress.
Our knowledge
and processes
is
of
Nature's
as
yet
developmental action
very amorphous; and the
present conditions are exceedingly favourable to the
cosmos-theory builder.
to
know, and
research.
is
The
scientific
mind
is
anxious
impatient of problems that baffle
its
may assume
so
It has been, therefore
(we
much), far too ready to accept as authoritative a creed

that professes to have torn the veil from Nature's
face,
and by the aid
of
a systematised grouping of
assumptions, more or less plausible, to exhibit Nature's
Modern scientific
made a most important and illumindiscovery when it established the fact that all
creative
power and energy at work.
research, however,
ating
NATURAL SELECTION
living organisms are built
up
by the study
ology,
it
of
same material,
of the
protoplasm and the protoplasmic
cell
81
and
also when,
comparative physiology and embry-
revealed the fact that the higher vertebrates
were once
fish
forms disporting in the waters formed
by the condensation
vapours of the slowly
the
of
cooling earth.
With
the light that has been gained from various
fields of research, it
is
impossible to refuse accepting
the doctrine of evolution, and, as sufficiently demonstrated, the fact that all the higher forms of life
But though con-
been evolved from lower forms.

strained to accept
the
have
evolutional
principle
as ex-
planatory of the origin of species, I do not feel myself
brought one whit nearer to the acceptance of Darwin's

doctrine,
which
professes
describe
to
the
modus
operandi of Nature in her work of development.
The laws governing inheritance are for the most

Thus we cannot
part, according to Darwin, unknown.
tell
by what process carried on in Nature's laboratory
every single egg in a nest
mottled from
all
is
the others, or
differently specked or
how
it
comes to pass
that each animal belonging to the same litter has
own
rest of the litter, or
how we
find in the
one member taking more after
more
the
its
of the
same family
father, another
after the mother, while a third seems to inherit
in a very small degree
from
the law of inheritance
beyond
but
from those
particular traits differentiated
it is
is
either.
all
In this respect
human
calculation
not a matter to cause surprise that
it
should
82
be
when we
so,
consider
what
palpably Nature's
is
That object
object in bestowing individual variations.

is
to avoid monotony, or a principle of stagnation in
her productions, by maintaining endless diversity in
an all-embracing bond
to impress
upon each member
individual stamp and

of a determinate
We
unity, or, in other words,
of
and fixed
a species
of
its
own
within the compass
character
specific type.
shall find that Nature, in the exercise of her
creative power, does not permit the individual variant

to
wander forth outside
of
determinate specific
its
form, so as to build apart, and by
new
new
variety or a
absolutely
anarchic
principle,
own
its
energy, a
This would be an
species.
subversive
utterly
of
Nature's scheme of preserving her leading types, and
tending to the production of an irregular and fantastic

multitude of
after
see,
new
has
Nature, as
forms.
her
own method
of
altering her specific types, without
of modification.
It
is
use individual differences to build

his domesticated species, therefore
them
haunts.
to originate wild
No
any part
an altogether
inference of Darwin's, that because
use
shall here-
permitting their
individual members, as such, to take
work
we
modifying and
man
can and does
up new
varieties of
Nature can and does
species
doubt all-powerful
in her
illogical
in
their
native
Nature could use
individual variations to accomplish the same end in
regard to her
regard
wild
species
to his domesticated
creative purpose to do
so.
which man achieves

breeds,
But
if
it
in
served her
in order to
do
so,
she
NATURAL SELECTION
would require
endow them with
to
83
properties which
at present they do not possess.
Man
only
selecting
new
forming a
in
individual
use,
and
purpose he
variety
the
isolating
individuals suited to his
many
He
cannot give his modifications specific
But one thing he cannot
directions.
from
to prevent his modified animals
and
of
enabled to modify and vary his breeds
is
opportunity
can
power
his
in
with
offers,
Thus,
species.
and
uses,
By
variations.
when he
other
do.
fixity, so as
crossing,
same
the
breeds' of
when
ceases to select his individuals,
to isolate the breed, permitting its individuals to.
have free intercourse with individuals

that breed
is
doomed
of other breeds,
to speedy extinction
for
Nature
has not made the possession of similar variations a

means of attracting the sexes to each other. This
fact, when we consider that the maintenance of any
type depends upon the constant copulation of like with

like
throughout successive generations,
suggestive
of
is
pregnantly
the fact that Nature does not intend
individual variations to possess any evolutional value.
In modifying her
see," employs
only
specific forms,
Nature, as
specific characters
that
is,
we
shall
characters
that belong to all the individuals of the species.
She
therefore secures the results which' she contemplates
by the unbroken and uninterrupted copulation

with
of like
like.
Before proceeding to a more detailed examination

of
the
properties
variation as
shown
and functions
of
in domestication,
the
individual
which provides
84
us with the hest means of discovering the action of

the law of inheritance, I shall take the opportunity
making a
of
quotation from a celebrated
striking
passage in the fourth chapter of the Origin of Species,
the sake of
distinguishing for
parts
by the
(a) "
He
letters a,
b, c,
and
comment
several
its
d.
(man) does not rigidly destroy
all inferior
animals, but protects, during each varying season, as far

as lies in his power, all his productions,
(b)
He
often
begins his selection by some half -monstrous form
or
at least by some modification prominent enough
to
catch the eye, or be plainly useful to him.
Nature the
stitution,
may
well turn the nicely balanced scale in
the struggle for
life
and
short his time

results,
And
so be preserved,
and the
fleeting are the wishes
his
Under
(c)
slightest differences of structure, or con-
consequently,
compared
with
those
How
(d)
man
efforts of
how poor
how
will be
accumulated
Nature during whole geological periods
by
Can we
wonder, then, that Nature's productions should be far

'
truer
'
in character than man's productions
that they
should be infinitely better adapted to the most complex

conditions of
of far higher
(a)
life,
and should plainly bear the stamp
workmanship
Experience and
observation unite to disprove
Nature's alleged destruction of

(6)
It is true that
new breed some
man
her inferior animals.
selects for the formation of a
modifications, or individual variations,
which he thinks will be useful to him

shall see, it is true that
while, as
we
Nature possesses no such
NATURAL SELECTION
power
of selection,
view of Nature,
(c)
(d)
85
This sentence gives a distorted
There
is
no occasion
that Nature's productions should
wonder
for
" truer "
be far
in
character than man's, and should bear the stamp of

far higher
workmanship
for the simple reason that
Man
they work with different materials.

fugitive
and
variations
unfixable
entities,
works with
namely, individual
while Nature builds up her
new
creations
with the fixed and permanent material of
specific
characters.
In forming a new breed,
man selects individuals suited
to his purpose as possessing certain variations
which
he wishes to render prominent and emphasised in his

contemplated new form.
Having secured a
sufficient
number of similarly varied individuals, he proceeds to

isolate them so that they can only breed among themselves.
Accordingly, their offspring inheriting from
both parents, will generally possess the same variations,
and being in
their turn kept in isolation like their
parents, will transmit
them
But
to their offspring.
no two individuals ever are exactly

out some points of variance,
it
as
identical, or with-
frequently happens
that in the incalculable play of Nature's individualisation, all the offspring are
of trueness to the type
preserve.
individuals,
He
not cast in the same mould
which the breeder wishes
removes, therefore, the
keeping
only
approach his ideal form.
that
those
more
Thus a new breed
and preserved from generation
to
to
more untrue
is
truly
formed,
generation, from
breeders keeping their eye fixed on the same ideal
86
form, selecting carefully their individuals, and maintaining carefully the process of isolation.
In forming and maintaining his breeds,
man
is
only
taking advantage of Nature's law of inheritance, and

of its
immutable and universal principles
For Nature
to produce similar results to
selection, she
of
man's
would require, like man, to
action.
artificial
select her
individuals so that the similarly varied should
mate
only with the similarly varied, and to isolate them from

generation to generation, so as to prevent intercrossing.
Let us even assume, for argument's sake, Darwin's

contention that in the war of Nature those individuals
who
been
survive are selected individuals from their having

possessed
of
advantageous
advantageous variations are of so

that, of
one hundred survivors
we cannot suppose
variations.
many
in
These
different kinds,
the
struggle for
more than four could

be mated as possessing the same variations.
The
existence,
question then arises

natural
habitat, could
How,
in
Nature
varied four per cent, from
the species
that
the
other individuals of
difficulty arising
out of this question,
Darwin says some extraordinary
may
the similarly
To evade the
I
the free arena of a

isolate
particularise
the
animals which unite for
things,
following
each
birth,
among which
" Even
with
and which do
not propagate rapidly, we must not assume that free

intercrossing
Selection
of
facts,
would always eliminate
for I
the effects of
Natural
can bring forward a considerable body
showing that
within
the
same area two
NATURAL SELECTION
same animal may long remain
varieties of the
from
87
haunting
different
slightly different seasons, or
stations,
distinct,
from breeding at
from the individuals
of
each
variety preferring to pair together."

If
two
varieties of the
same animal
area (presumably an extensive

stations,
in the
same
one) haunt different
they are practically isolated, and do not cross
with each other.

If,
again,
two
at different seasons, or
pair together,
same area breed
varieties (?) in the
it
if
their individuals prefer to
obvious that their
is
reproductive
systems have been so materially affected as to entitle
them
to be regarded as species, not as varieties.
It is to
my mind
an outrage upon
action of natural law,
assume that
free
science,
upon the
and upon common
sense, not to
in
every case,
intercrossing
will,
eliminate any defined variety, and that very speedily.
very small amount of intercrossing will frustrate
man to form a definite breed.

now to consider the fugitive
attempts of
all
It is
time
individual variations.
work treating
not
to
Mr. Galton in his interesting
inherited genius, shows that
of
uncommon
for
high
intellectual
it
is
endowments
manifest themselves in successive generations in
members
the
of
same
family.
succeed remarkable parents, and

for
nature of
nephews
Eemarkable
it is
also not unusual
of the first distinguished
as great talents as himself,
This makes
the parents of
it
if
sons
man
to display
not greater.
clear that the inheritance
him whom we may
call the
came from
founder of
88
But
the name.
multitude of cases which he
of the
adduces, in none
the inheritance of special intel-
is
lectual
power carried beyond the fourth generation.
He
draws attention to the fact that the highest
also
display of genius
found either in the
is
first
or in the
second generation, from which point decadence sets

This
is
just
in.
what we should expect, when we consider
the nature of the inheritance of individual variations.
The principle
illustrated
by Galton,
transmission of inherited genius,
from the beginning
as ruling in the
must have prevailed
of creation in regard to all purely
individual qualities
variations,
or
for
Nature never
Experience and observation, as
changes her laws.
well as the nature of the case, agree in affirming that
the transmission of inherited individual variations

ruled by the same
is
principle of transmission as the
Our confidence
inheritance of blood.
principle of transmission
is
in regard to this
way
in no
affected
by our
ignorance in regard to the incalculable action of Nature

in giving different degrees of inheritance to the
off-
spring of the same parents, or in regard to her causing

certain variations to lie latent for a generation to re-
appear in the next.
Tor these seeming vagaries
of
Nature do not
in-
validate the necessary action of marriage in destroying
within a few generations, and bringing to nothing the
potency of individual variations.

very rarely,
generations,
if
and
ever,
rarely,
a second time in the
Individual variations
He latent
if
fifth
ever,
for
two successive
do more than reappear
generation.
We
see
them
NATURAL SELECTION
sometimes reappear in the third and
after
89
generations
fifth
having lain latent in the second and fourth in
the case of certain diseases that attack man.

are those
who
an inherited
assert that
There
fatal disease,
though passing over alternate generations, pursues

the family of the person in
until
all
its
members
generations, killed
rests
off
upon no substantial
families first checks,
individuals
by
But
it.
basis.
by
it
appeared,
statement
this
Marriage into healthy

off
the disease, owing
healthier elements.
consider that in Nature's wild haunts
who
possess similar variations are but a
few in a crowd, and that similarity

in
first
the course of a few
and then kills
to its being extruded
When we
whom
are, in
no way as a means
of variation acts
of bringing the sexes together, it
becomes obvious that the
pairing of two
similarly
varied individuals must very rarely take place.
If,
however, such a marriage did take place, remembering

that only one pair survives out of all the progeny
of
pair
for
passing strange
a
if
generation,
it
would indeed
be
one of the surviving pair found a
mate individually varied
like itself.
That the same
thing should occur a third time in succession would
But Darwin
enter into the sphere of the miraculous.
maintains that nothing
is
too hard for his potent
principle of Natural Selection, and that in

or other,
which he does not explain,
sufficient
amount
of
pairing
to
it
accumulate
desired variations towards the genesis of a
But where does the
some way
brings about
selective principle
the
new species.
come
in,
and
go
how
does
it
act
This
indeed, the crucial question.
is,
In what manner and by what processes does Natural

Selection (for the sake
argument
of
assume the
existence of such a principle) select the individuals in

its
formation of a variety
How
does
it
take them
out of the crowd of other individuals, and pair them

like with like
that
because
It
man
is
quite beside the
can
believe that Nature,
and
select
by means
mark to say
we must
isolate,
of her great principle
of Natural Selection, can also do so
for the conditions
under which Natural Selection must operate are such

as to prohibit the pairing of similarly varied individuals
through successive generations.
The marriage
of
two diversely varied individuals
produces in their offspring a certain blending of the

variations
of
the parents, in which, as a rule, the
weakened owing
them having been extruded, while
inherited variations are seen to be

to
portions
of
some variations seen
in one or other of the parents
do not appear at
all
not apparent
either
in
and again variations that were

of
appearance in the children, as

Nature's
inherit
they came direct from
largely from the one parent, and
some
itself.
In
of
other.
their turn marry, each with
from
their
may
more largely from the

varied
if
make
offspring
Some
laboratory.
more
the parents
the
These
offspring
in
an individual differently
their
progeny there
occur
a further extrusion, and a further weakening of the

variations inherited from the grandparents, while half
of
their variations are
from
new
source.
Every
NATURAL SELECTION
91
subsequent marriage of the descendants of the

pair
an inrush
causes
new
of
first
and an
variations,
extrusion or weakening of the inheritance from them,

until that inheritance
an alarmed
it
out,
and
ejected liquid
cuttlefish darkens the water
in its vicinity;
ocean after
The
her species.
individualisation of
of
swamped
finally
is
Thus Nature keeps ever fresh the
appears no more.
but what
immediately
produced on the
effect is
has spread a mile from the spot
Let us assume, for the sake of argument, that no

individual variation
is
wholly destroyed or extruded in
the course of successive generations, but suffers in-
In the tenth generation from an
dilution.
definite
ancestor
his
descendants
will
possess
thousandth part of his variation

less
than a millionth
can in any
way evade
marriage
of
part.
is
than a
less
in the twentieth,
That individual variations
or elude the destructive effect
inconceivable.
As
far
as
reliable
observation has gone, they have invariably been found

to fade
up
is
and
to ultimately perish.
to a certain point that the
unknown; but
It is possible to say
law governing inheritance
this has reference only to its incalcul-
able action from one generation to another.
can
how
tell
among the several offspring

how many new elements of variation
will be portioned out

pair, or
But through
appear in them.
play of Nature there
one
is
and that
is
of a
will
all this individualising
one fixed operative principle
that never ceases to work and produce

effects,
No
the inheritance of individual differences
its
inevitable
the law of marriage, effective either
92
way
when
for preservation,
like is
through successive generations

there
when
for destruction,
the constant mingling of dissimilar individual
is
differences
by the free intercrossing that
among Nature's
There
its
paired with like
is
it
the rule
no law more inevitable and more sure in
action than this law of marriage.
Nature
is
tribes.
In the realm of
preserves the characteristics of species, and
acts to the speedy extinction of individual differences

for thus has
If
Nature willed that
it
should be.
a negro in this country be married to a white
woman, and
their descendants constantly
marry white
persons, the traces of the black blood will be found to
have completely disappeared in the seventh generation,
though
it is
distinctly traceable in the fifth.
Galton's
investigations in respect of inherited genius confirm
extrusion of
this principle of
after a
few generations.
individual
differences
Darwin's endeavour to deny
the destructive effect of the free intercourse which

takes place in Nature upon individual variations, and
his implicit assertion that there are variations
resist its influence,
through
selves
constant
intercrossing,
but
accumulating from time to time as opportunity
have caused
me more
of
his
it,
go
on
offers,
surprise than anything I have
encountered in the course of a long

his treatment of
which
and do not merely maintain them-
and
life's
reading.
In
to subserve the requirements
theory, the individual
variation
becomes an
utterly lawless principle, a quite irresponsible entity,
building
up
species
by means unknown to Nature, and
NATURAL SELECTION
in circumstances
servation
he
is
and under conditions where
But the
absolutely impossible.
upon the
inflicted
93
intelligence
last outrage
his
of
pre-
its
day and
generation was his assuming an indefinite power of

latency as
The
characteristic
entities,
individual
of
variations.
and evanescent of
fugitive
the individual variation,
with an endless
vigour
most
the
frailest,
endowed by him
is
and an indomitable, undecaying
life
not that he conceives of
it
as always effectively
living or effectively operative, but
he conceives
of it
as going to sleep, probably for hundreds of generations,
while
At
its
length
unconscious lips keep muttering Eesurgam.

its
slumber
is
dispelled,
and
all
unaffected
and unharmed by the constant inrush and outrush

its fellows, it
starts to active life
potency, to subserve perchance, in some
some evolutionary end.
It
unknown way,
perhaps
is
of
with undiminished
the
most
irrational of all
the unauthorised assumptions which
form the factors
of his extraordinary theory, yet it
has
proved one of his most splendid triumphs over the

intelligence
of
his
followers.
utilised in the philosophy of
as
heritage
Christendom.
of
It
civilisation
into
conspicuously
is
Spencer
it
the
has entered
thought
of
All writers of fiction explain traits in
the characters of their personages as being resuscitations of traits that belonged to long forgotten ancestors.
There
is
no end to the
silly
trash that
is
heard every-
where concerning what has been named Atavism,

wit, the reappearance of the
imaginary ancestor's
to
traits.
I have been told of a preacher, an enthusiastic admirer
94
Mr. Herbert Spencer, who, speaking of heredity,

startled his congregation by averring that a sudden gust
of
house in London to-day might
of passion in a private
bear fruit a thousand years hence in a series of frightof Africa.
murders in Australia or in the wilds
ful
how Darwin maintains his contention.

The paragraph which I now quote occurs in a disquisiLet us see
tion
where he
characters,
with
apparently dealing
is
specific
paragraph has
seen, the
but, as will be
reference not to specific characters, but to individual

differences,
illustrates his habit of confusing
and thus
As
those two very different things.
the
different
with
sentences
mark
before, I
alphabetical
off
letters
enclosed in brackets, for the sake of comment.
The paragraph runs thus
No
" (a)
doubt
it
is
very surprising fact that characters should reappear,

after having
of
been
generations.
lost for
occasionally show
hundreds
for
But when a breed has been
(6)
crossed only once
many, probably
by some other breed, the

for
many
offspring
generations a tendency to
some
revert in character to the foreign breed

for a dozen, or
even a score of generations,
say
(c)
After
twelve generations the proportion of blood (to use a
common
expression) from one ancestor
2048, and
yet, as
we
see, it
a tendency to reversion
is
is
is
retained
by the remnant
(d)
crossed, but in
which both parents have
which
of
In a breed which has not been
foreign blood,
character
only 1 in
generally believed that
their
progenitor
lost
possessed,
some
the
tendency, whether strong or weak, to reproduce the
NATURAL SELECTION
lost character might, as
that
we can
almost
95
was formerly remarked,
for all
see to the contrary, be transmitted for
any number
of
generations.
When
(e)
character which has been lost in a breed reappears

after a great
hypothesis
after
number
is,
of generations, the
most probable
not that one individual suddenly takes
an ancestor removed by some hundred generations,
but that in each successive generation the character
and at
in question has been lying latent,
last,
under
unknown favourable conditions, is developed.

(/)
With the barb pigeon, for instance, which very rarely
produces a blue bird,
it
probable that there
is
is
latent tendency in each generation to produce blue
The
plumage.
improbability
abstract
such
of
tendency being transmitted through a vast number of

generations
is
not greater than that of quite useless or
rudimentary organs being similarly transmitted.
mere tendency
rudiment
to produce a
is
indeed some-
times thus inherited."
In
discussing
the
above
paragraph, I
shall not
hurry over the ground, as the whole question of the

inheritance of individual differences
(a)
It
would not only be very
be absolutely miraculous,
or individual,
reappear
hundreds
" after
if
should, as
having been
is
involved.
surprising, it
would
characters, whether generic
the
effect
lost for
of
inheritance,
many, probably
for
of generations."
In the case of generic characters, the fact
of their
having entirely disappeared for so long would signify

that their tendency to reappear had died out of the
96
In the case of individual variations, their
species.
reappearance as the effect of inheritance
is,
after a
few
generations have passed, rendered impossible by the
law
Nothing, however, forbids them from
of marriage.
appearing again, even in the same family, as resulting
from the variability
The inheritance of
of the species.
blood after an hundred generations has diminished to
than
less
th
1000 000|0 oo,ooo,oooV,ooo,ooo,ooo,ooo
after
tw0 hundred
generations, the cyphers require to be extended to sixty.
Yet Darwin does not say that
it
would
be
very
surprising if characters should reappear, but he says
that
it
very surprising that they should reappear
is
implying that
belief,
to his
knowledge, or at least to his
they do reappear, and
after having been lost for

of
generations.
do so by inheritance,
many, probably for hundreds
Surely
so
monstrous
statement
transcends the bounds of all credibility.
important to observe that this sentence refers
(b) It is
entirely to individual differences.
A breed is formed by
man's accumulation, in a given direction, of individual

differences,
by
and
selection
isolation.
Therefore two
breeds differ from each other by their accumulations of

individual differences being
If
Darwin means,
members
of
as the
a breed
are
another breed, then the
made
in different directions.
sentence reads, that
"
all
the
paired with members of

only once " crossing would
result in their progeny inheriting equally the characters
or variations of both breeds.
The consequence would
most likely be confusion, from the
differently derived
variations nullifying, to a great extent,
and counter-
NATURAL SELECTION
acting each other.
divided
two
into
If,
97
however, the mixed breed were
sections,
and
one
was
section
constantly paired with individuals belonging to the one

breed,
and the other section with individuals belonging
to the other breed, then after six or seven generations
the progeny of the one section would be true to the
type of the one breed, and the progeny of the other

section true to the type of the other breed.
In a case which admits of no evidence from direct
and such a case
observation,
the only method
this,
is
that ought to be adopted by inquiring science
to
is
consider the action of the natural law involved, and

if
we know
the processes by which the law acts, to
determine in accordance with
Now
action.
its
all
observation that has ever been certified declares that
the inheritance of individual differences

finally
on the inheritance
and extrusion
caused by the action of marriage,

conceive of
its
of course, the
unknown play
individualisation from
it
We
being otherwise.
of
dependent
When we
of blood.
sider the constant intrusion
is
is
con-
of variations,
impossible to
take into account,
Nature in regard to
one generation to another, of
which I have already spoken, and the recurrence
of
alternate generations for
individual variations
limited period, or so
remaining
But
in
long as the amount of blood
is sufficiently
potential.
the law of extrusion holds on
weakening in the
course,
first
its
remorseless
few generations, and
speedily extinguishing, as to potential action at least,

all
As
far as observation can
98
speak,
declares this to be the action of marriage
it
What,
with no uncertain voice.

of Darwin's
an
be
to
"
Some say "
we
the
viz.
of
transmission,
individual
characters
a dozen or even a score of generations
In the twelfth generation
(c)
of
is 1
"
the descendants
remaining in
of the ancestor the fraction of his blood
each individual
to think
what seems
as evidence for
impossibility,
whether explicit or latent,

" for
then, are
in 4096, and in the twentieth,
than one in a million parts.
less
It
quite
is
as
apparently,
easy,
Darwin
for
to
believe that individual variations can be transmitted

to the twentieth as to the twelfth generation
and I
agree with him, with this difference, that while he

believes such transmission to be possible
place in both cases, I believe that
it
and
to take
as impossible
is
in the one case as in the other.
Take note
sentence
previous
"And
This
yet,
is
was
it
we
as
change
his
of
see,
'
"
it
of
Some say "

is
it
generally
Most readers
characteristic.
In the
expression.
of
is
now
believed."
the
Origin
of Species cannot have failed to note that while he

introduces each
new
hypothesis by "
We
may
suppose,"
"Let us assume," when next the assumption
or
met
with,
it is
such phrase as "

(d) This
is
As we have
the collective breed

that
seen.",
not an easy sentence to understand.
Does the word "breed"
ment
is
introduced as a law of Nature by some
both
refer to
an individual or
In the latter
parents
have
lost
to
case, the state-
some character
NATURAL SELECTION
99
possessed by their progenitor means that the character
has died out of the whole breed.
Let
a moment, consider not a breed, but a
us, for
There
species in the free life of its native haunts.

is
ample evidence that
in the derived species generic
tend to die out very slowly, when once
characters
they have been overlaid by the specific modifications
The inherited tendency
that have taken their place.
from the old form shows
sufficiently potent
itself
to
break forth through the overlying specific characters,

so that characters belonging to the genus that have
ceased generally to appear in the derived species are

sporadically,
now
in
this,
now
in
found in
that,
individuals.
But while
tendency to reappear asserts
this
itself,
and continues, no generation passes without several

cases
of
their
As
reappearance in individuals.
the individuals of
tendency by reason
all
the derived species possess this
all
.
of
inheritance from
their
genus, the generic characters that are
liable
the
to re-
appear may, in a manner, be said to belong to the
though when they reappear
variability of the species,
they cannot properly be called individual variations.
But
this
tendency of generic characters, which in the
lapse of time have
become
faint
and weak as compared
with their vigour in the old form, to reappear continues to be ever on the
as the ages pass,
it
will
come
cease
wane and
and the day
altogether.
for that species
to
become weaker
shall surely
This
which has
come when
day has assuredly

lost for
all
its indi-
too
the
viduals
traces
markings
generic
of
one
for
hundred, not to say, for hundreds of generations.
Leaving now
Nature
wild
the
for
products
of
Darwin means to
breed some character
domestication, let us suppose that
assume that in the collective
many
of the ancestor has disappeared for
generations.
In such a case the tendency to reproduce the lost

character might, he says, " as was formerly remarked,
for all that
we can
for almost
any number
member
that he
see to the contrary, be transmitted

of generations."
Let us
re-
here speaking of the individual
is
Experience and observation inform us that
variation.
the law of marriage destroys
seventh
all
individual differences
Darwin,
however,
informs us that the individual difference can
lie latent,
the
before
and in
this
number
of
state
generation.
be
transmitted
generations,
for
all
for
any
almost
he can see to the
contrary
(e)
been
This sentence begins,

lost in
a breed."
He
"When
here also of individual variations.

is,
every variety
artificially
by the accumulation
of
a character has
accordingly
is
speaking
Every breed
formed by
individual
man
is
differences
that
made
that
appeared in the individuals selected by the breeders

to
form
it.
These differences belong, therefore,
to
the variability of the species as well as of the breed,
and have a tendency, accordingly,
to break out occa-
sionally in all the breeds of a species, even in those
formed by differences accumulated in quite a

direction.
We
may
different
therefore read the sentence thus
NATURAL SELECTION
When
an individual variation which has been
in a breed that originally possessed
marks reappears
distinguishing
it
account for
men
its
reappearance
lost
as one of its
after having been lost
how
a great number of generations,
for
101
Why
are
we
to
should scientific
be asked to answer such a question
Such a
case can never have occurred within man's knowledge.
Such an occurrence, indeed, can never have taken

place.
I shall, however, conceive that
and give
one
way
my
of
answer accordingly.
rationally
has taken place,
it
There can be but
accounting for
it,
viz.
that
has come direct from Nature's laboratory, as part
it
species.
But to his hypoDarwin mentions two hypothetical
of the variability of the
thetical question
answers, one of which he considers the more probable.
The answer which he
rejects is that
one individual
suddenly takes after an ancestor removed by some
hundred generations.
Wherein
this
answer diners from that which he
seem
prefers I cannot conjecture, for they

unless, indeed,
a complete break off from the principle of hereditary
is
transmission, as in
but impossible
"
identical
he means that in the former case there
fact.
takes after an
my
explanation
But
if
ancestor "
of
he means
the assumed
this,
the words
ought not to have been
used, as the reappearance of the individual variation

is
due to the variability
of
the existence of an ancestor

tion.
The explanation
the species, and not to
who had
of the far
the same varia-
removed ancestor's
102
an individual, which Darwin
variation reappearing in
character in question has been
that the
prefers, is
lying latent, and at last, under

conditions,
more
feel
and
is
him
follow
home
favourable
It is impossible for
developed.
me
mist and clouds.
into this region of

at
unknown
the domain of natural
in
to
I
law
logical sequences.
(/) In the paragraph which immediately precedes

that which has been so far the subject of our com-
Darwin has written:
ment,
ever,
we
"With
how-
pigeons,
have another case, namely, the occasional
appearance in
the breeds of slaty-blue birds with
all
two black bars on the wings, white

the end of the
tail,
edged near their
marks are
a bar at
loins,
with the outer feathers externally
with
bases
white.
As
I presume that no one will doubt that this

of reversion
these
all
characteristic of the parent stock-pigeon,
and not
of a
new
is
a case
yet analogous variation
appearing in the several breeds."
We
have here the case
of generic characters over-
coming and replacing the individual variations that

have, by man's accumulation,
istics of
extant,
and from which
very recent date.

specific characters to
present
become the character-
the several breeds derived from a form
in
the
The tendency
reappear
breeds
modified from them.
still
their derivation has been of
that
As
is
of
the generic or
always more or
have
been
less
artificially
in the offspring of a breed
the amount of individual inheritance from the parents

is
always an
indeterminate quantity, varying from
NATURAL SELECTION
slight to very strong, it
inheritance
will
is
weak the
may
103
well be that where the
influence of generic pressure
overcome the overlying individual variations, pre-
venting them from appearing, and replacing them by

the generic markings.
The
various breeds of pigeons
is
under the influence
theless,
which
is
their
common
difference
between the
very extraordinary
of the
inheritance,
generic
we
never-
pressure
find individuals
of all the breeds throwing off their varietal characters,
and appearing
if
they were the direct offspring of
parental stock-doves.
Individuals belonging to different
as
breeds, such as the tumbler, the carrier, the runt, the
barb, the pouter, the turbit, the jacobin, the trumpeter,
the laugher, and
come
the fantail,
into
the world
devoid of their proper characters as such, and differing

in no respect from the wild wood-pigeon, their
common
ancestor.
The
difference
vidual variations
former
persist in
between generic characters and indiis
their pristine vigour has

of generations,
made very
here
waned during a long
long extinct, inheriting in
all
all
unbroken descent, the
them.
frail
series
owing to breeds derived from a common
specific form, or species derived
their
The
apparent.
appearing sporadically, long after
from genera perhaps
their individuals,
Individual variations, on the

things the
frailest,
from
tendency to reproduce
other hand, of
the most
fugitive
and
evanescent, are unable to maintain themselves in the

free intercrossing that takes place in Nature,
out in the course of a few generations.
and die
The same
104
variations appear in
many
many
individuals,
however by inheritance, but owing

ing to the variability of
and unstable nature
after
same family, not
in the
generations reappear
and may
to their
belong-
The
fugitive
the species.
of individual variations is strikingly
demonstrated by the fact that they are liable to

off in a
body from individuals
of a breed,
fall
even when
they have been accumulated by man's action for
many
generations, to give place to generic characters,
whose
tendency to
reappear has
been
transmitted by
an
unbroken inheritance through uncounted generations.
"Keversion"
is
not a happy word by which to
express the appearance in individuals of a species of

old
generic
The
markings.
comes down the
force
stream from above, and does not ascend from below.
The
individual
does
by the pressure
not
revert,
but
of generic transmission.
is
overcome
Of such a
nature are the following cases instanced by Darwin.
When
a spinal stripe
distinct breeds
when
duns, mouse-duns, and
when
is
found in horses of the most
transverse bars are found in
more
rarely in chestnut horses
the foal of an ass has very distinct bars on
legs, like those
on the legs of a zebra
on the shoulder
of
an ass
is
when the
stripe
sometimes double and
very variable in length and outline,
we have
its
is
cases of
the usually repressed generic characters forcing their
way through
the opposition of specific characters, and
making themselves visible.

The paragraph upon which
detail,
have commented in such
taken in connection with the examples which he
NATURAL SELECTION
105
has given of the persistency of generic characters in
appearing in individuals of derived species, constitute

the sole foundation upon which Darwin has based his
assumption
that
individual
traits
through
persist
constant intercrossing in maintaining themselves for a
dozen and even a score of generations, and that they
have the power
of lying latent,
from the time when they
first
and
of transmitting
appeared in an ancestor,
a tendency to reappear for hundreds of generations,

until,
under certain favourable
conditions, they are
resuscitated with developmental vigour.
It is in this
paragraph that Darwin reaps the harvest of having

with
infinite skill
and dexterity confounded two
entities
so different in their nature as generic characters and
All the persistent vitality of generic traits acting
through
an inheritance
unbroken and continuously
transmitted since the origin of the genus,

to
transferred
is
and unfixable individual
the fugitive
variation,
power
by depriving it of the power of hereditary
transmission, and to which she has assigned but a few
which Nature has deprived
ing
of maintain-
of the
itself,
generations as
upon
this
its
natural lifetime.
transference of
Darwin was
Having decided
properties
and
qualities,
enabled to liberate the latter from
bondage to natural law, giving

fixing itself at
any
stage,
and
of
to
it
the power of
accumulating under
impossible conditions, and of building up
upon the most grotesque and

hypothetical foundations.
all
new
species
fantastic of all possible
io6
seems incredible that even the most enthusiastic
It
and imaginative
selected
of
the
as
cosmic
pivot
which
round
have
should
theorists
to
make
his
evolutional scheme revolve the evanescent individual
Impossible, assuredly,
difference.
would have been
it
had Darwin possessed the vast and comprehensive

which the author of the creed of
intelligence with
science has been credited
any true insight into the

It will
now
had
secret
he, indeed, possessed
ways
of Nature.
be seen that in dealing with Darwin's
doctrine of evolution, which has
become by universal
adoption the accepted creed of science, I have not,

in
any way whatever, been dealing with a
creed
that
phenomena
is,
a creed that
is
of the natural world,
after a careful
scientific
based upon the facts and
and that was accepted
and painstaking investigation
of
its
fundamental propositions and processes.

I
have been dealing with a creed composed
of
speculative audacities, of imaginary cosmic forces and
unknown, that have
principles, of daring leaps into the
no connection or
forces, processes,
correspondence
and phenomena
are demonstrably false.
with
known
the
of Nature,
and that
Nothing more crude, more
unscientific in construction,
more
frivolously daring
in invention, has been offered for the acceptance of
humanity, since the amazing cosmic theories of the

semi-Christian, semi-pagan Gnostic philosophers were
formed.
All the theoretical assumptions of Darwin
make up
his doctrine of
which
the Origin of Species, and
NATURAL SELECTION
constitute
the creed of
are insinuated into
science,
the belief and commerce of
107
mankind by being admir-
ably tricked out in alluring costumes of fine phrase-
making and
a
artful
marvellously
concepts
and dexterous nomenclature, with

adaptation
clever
philosophic
of
style
of
thinking
and
to
the
scientific
deduction.
His assumed factors and processes run

with his groupings of
scientific facts
side
by
side
which they are
audaciously said to explain, without really touching
each other, without
ever
His
vital
connection.
at
any point establishing

assumptions, along
initial
with those that are from time to time invented to

serve the needs of his advancing theory, are simply
gaily dressed marionettes, prancing through his book
in gorgeous attire
but being in themselves mere sticks
hung upon wires and pulled by a

no power
things, having
facts
string,
they are dead
of living contact
with the
which they have been invented to explain.
Nevertheless, by the dexterous prestidigitation of
the master, his assumptions and the actual facts of
Nature are
so
cleverly
together, that the
interwoven
unwary reader
and mixed up
finds himself assent-
ing to statements in which the facts are explained by
the assumptions, although the latter have no material

causa
existendi,
naturalist, or
or
claim
Nature
to
be
specialist,
no
accepted.
man was
As
better
equipped with the knowledge of his particular subject,

with familiar acquaintance with the labours of his
predecessors, with keener powers of minute observation,
108
with a more ardent and eager
Darwin
of inquiry, than
spirit
to enable him to achieve the task of discover-
ing the modus operandi of Nature in

evolutionary work,
task
indeed the
if
effecting her
achieving of
that
attainable by present-day science.
is
Nevertheless he failed utterly in his endeavour to
But
discover Nature's evolutional method.
was concealed from
his failure
contemporaries, whose eyes
his
were dazzled by his apparently exhaustive knowledge
whole
of the
field of
research explored by the botanist
and the natural historian

spell
and glamour
direct,
free
from
and quite as much by the
of his literary style, nervous
affectations,
abounding in
and
felicitous
phraseology, glowing, as his readers were constrained

to feel,
with the enthusiasm and unlimited self-con-
fidence of one
who had a
great message to deliver to
When Darwin in his great work
the world.
anywhere
confessed to finding himself at fault or doubtful as to

'
anything, his admirers were staggered, and held up

their hands, in almost reproachful
amazement, at the
excessive modesty and humility of this

less
knowlege and universal
ventured
to
ask
if
his
theory
man
of
bound-
Those who
insight.
was
not
still
purely
made up of assumptions unattached to

the phenomena of Nature, were pitilessly bludgeoned
hypothetical,
with indignant scorn, and denounced as too stupid to
admit of being reasoned with.

It
was darkly hinted
of objectors,
believed in a God, that they

in
"the
infinitely
still
close-fitting
that they
still
saw design apparent
and
complex mutual
NATURAL SELECTION
iog
relations of all organic beings to each other,"
and that
they were capable of holding the opinion that con-
and the moral nature
science
more than the

doubt
to
the
of molecular
results
cellular agitations.
man were something
of
movements and
was very unsafe in those days
It
and
validity
authority
of
single
assumption of the author of the creed of science.
There
I think,
is,
present day
come
somewhat more tolerance
at the
at least, within the last few years I have
across sporadic magazine articles
have been permitted to
assail
whose writers
on several points the
accepted creed, and even to direct attention to the

fact that there is not a single point at
which Darwin's
theory establishes a vital connection with Nature and
her
known
As may
laws.
well be supposed, I
who
do not accept, but spurn Darwin's explanation of the

evolutionary processes of Nature, and
God and
have
with
felt
believe in
in man's responsibility as a moral being,
myself constrained to
breath
bated
Is there
science.
who
in
presence
any man
living
speak humbly and

of
contemptuous
who
at the present
hour would be prepared to deny that the star
Newton has paled
of
before the superior brightness of
that of Darwin, and that the intellectual greatness of
such
men
with
his,
humility
Bacon and Leibnitz
as
suffered
I
take
disastrous
the
liberty
has, in comparison
eclipse
of
But
reserving
in
all
my own
opinion upon such matters.

If I
am
specialist,
asked how, with
and
all his
all his gifts
as a
Nature
shrewdness as a close observer,
no
Darwin
so signally failed to discover Nature's evolu-
tional method, I
my
must express
opinion that
was
it
due to the fact that he was not eminently endowed

with true insight, and therefore deserted the legitimate
paths
of
inquiry,
scientific
results of observation
and
that, ignoring
and experience, he trusted
the
to his
him with
imaginative or intuitional faculty to furnish
hypothetical explanations of Nature's developmental
His theory was no sooner conceived than
action.
it
took possession of his enthusiastic mind, and dominated
whole being, so that henceforth he interpreted
his
Nature and her phenomena as seen through the medium

of
Natural Selection.
or of insight that
It
was no proof
when he was
of intelligence
casting about to find
a satisfactory starting-point for a theory explanatory

of Nature's evolutional action,
his
of
search
he happened
and when
in the course
Essay of
read the
to
Malthus on Population, he at once adopted

clusions,
them from human
extending
whole world
animal and vegetable kingdoms.
him
life
of organic existence, including
its
con-
the
to
both the
It did not occur to
to reject the principle of Malthus as inconsistent
with the concept of a moral and beneficent Deity.
On
the contrary,
on that account.
I
am
it
recommended
itself
to his
mind
The day has not yet come, which
assured shall come,
when
discovery that the farther
it
science will
make
the
departs from the con-
ception of a moral order pervading and informing the

universe,
and from the acknowledgment
Mind supreme
of a Creative
in beneficence as in power, the farther
NATURAL SELECTION
it
will
in
plunge into bogs, morasses, and quicksands of

This evil destiny waited upon our naturalist, as
error.
has befallen
Power
all
it
who have disowned allegiance to a Divine
to worship at the shrine of Charles Darwin.
There
is
a coterie of such men, not in
my
opinion
very noble, who have drawn their inspiration from
him whom they

of truth,
consider to be an infallible fountain
and who, regarding
and
religious beliefs
all
forms of worship as a personal offence to the memory
have banded themselves together
of their great master,

to grapple
with superstition and
Their mission
publications,
beliefs
is,
by the dissemination
of suitable
human mind from
emancipate the
which they consider to be degrading
such
as,
owes
its
order
to
noxious brood.
all its
that there
God
is
whom
to
to
it
the universe
material laws, and to whose established moral
man
is
spiritually subject
degree better than a beast
him beyond
the
grave
man
that there
that
that
is
is
in
some
a hope for
conscience
and
the
concepts of duty, truth, and righteousness testify of

his
spiritual
sponsible
Truth,
to,
being
nature
derived
a Divine Lawgiver.
Eighteousness.
from,
and
re-
Conscience, Duty,
The more respectable Dar-
winians acknowledge that Nature
has wrought the
sense of these things into the being of man, to the end
that they should induce

selfish
interests
altruistic
to
the
him
to subordinate his purely
interests
of
society.
actions are thus furnished with
His
what they
term a supra-rational sanction, or a sanction divorced

from reason and
reality.
ii2
Thus
in his
to this sect of Darwin's followers,
moral being allegiance to an imaginary
intelligence, is
the dupe of inwoven falsehoods, and

to be raised in the scale of
content to believe that
an all-important
of
is
not, to be
amazing thought
creation
For
the victim of Nature's mendacity.
and
infinite
a mere cellular aggregate, cunningly-
constructed by Nature to believe what
man, giving
by becoming
my part,
life is earnest, life is real
reality is at the
I
;
am
that
back of conscience
man's sense of duty, truth, and righteousness,
and provides them with a rational

position
of
the
sect
however, in reference
of
which
The
sanction.
have spoken
is,
Darwin's theory, severely
to
logical.
There can be no half-way resting-place between
and the
belief that
man's moral nature has a
it
sub-
stantial basis in the spiritual realities of the universe.
Darwin having no
the spiritual world or in
belief in
the Divine origin of the laws of Nature, was prepared,
upon reading Malthus,
to extend his doctrine of misery
to all living creatures,
and
of his evolutional system,
to
make
it
the foundation
BOOK
II.
CHAPTER
1.
THE MALTHUSIAN THEOEY.
TT
is
J-
I first read the
fully
more than a quarter
century since
of a
Essay on Population by Malthus.
had long been an assiduous reader
of history, and, as
a subsidiary branch of historical information, I had

studied with interest the past and present condition of
countries that had once been great, or the theatres
of great events, as well as the
those
economic conditions of
peoples that had no long historical past, but
were become important
political factors at the present
day.
Such studies naturally bred an
social
questions
that
were
interest in
agitating
the
the
different
countries of Christendom, according to the measure of

their civilisation,
my
and directed
attention
the
to
constituent elements of that civilisation which I saw
advancing at a comparatively rapid pace, and raising

the standard of living in every European country.
I did not therefore read the
as a tyro prepared "jurare in
Essay on Population
-verba
magistri"
or,
in
other words, to accept uncritically what had become
a conventional
now
belief,
even though that
belief
were
established as the basis of the universally accepted
creed of science, the evolutionary theory of Darwin.
n6
The impression produced upon me by the perusal

Essay on Population was that the conclusions
of the
Malthus were not borne out by the teaching
of
movements
history in regard to past
and that they are contradicted by

the
of
movements
different
of
of
only
not
information,
population,
the phenomena
all
population
in
the
record
the vital
possess
returns
periodical censuses, but also in the Eegistrar's
Eeports which
the
in
we
nineteenth century, in regard to which

detailed
of
statistics
of
Annual
each
of
country.
I perceived that in every
country the population of
which was increasing from
one decade to another,
the
standard
of
was
living
steadily
rising
and
that the degree of the growing prosperity of each
country was indicated by the rate of

This
growth.
was
clearly
at
numerical
its
with
variance
the
essential principles of Malthus.
Malthus compared the potential increase

lation
with the potential
from the produce
increase
of the soil,
of food
of
popu-
obtained
and enunciated the famous
formula, that whereas the food production of the
soil
cannot, even under the most favourable circumstances,
be supposed to increase in successive generations in
more than an arithmetical

population
is
ratio, or as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
able to increase in successive generations
in a geometrical ratio, or as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, doubling

itself' in
the
course
of
each generation.
Hence he
deduced the general conclusion that population tends

to increase faster
than the food supply.

When
117
Malthus wrote, no country, except when
its
crops failed, imported food from abroad to any large

extent, so that each country
supply dependent on
was
own
its
in respect of its food
But matters have
soil.
The
greatly changed since his Essay was published.
proportion of food for the support of the inhabitants of
Great Britain that

in excess of
But
so
imported from abroad
is
what the
soil of this
long as this country
is
greatly
island could produce.
from generation to
is
generation multiplying her power of purchasing from
abroad by the wealth derived from commercial and

industrial enterprise, so long will the relative increases
of her population
and
of the food
which her
soil
can
produce be immaterial to her.
But should a day ever come

kind,
and such a day
when every country

which the
principle of Malthus,
truth,
In
man-
drawing on and must come,
is
will be peopled to the extent in
can support
soil
in the history of
if
it
its
numbers, then shall the
contain an active
germ
of
work unutterable woe and havoc.
my
next chapter, devoted to an exposition of the
law of population, I shall make

the nature of
man and
it
evident that from
the necessities of his existence
population cannot increase, unless
its
increase be pre-
ceded by, or accompanied with, an equal or greater

increase
in
therefore,
the
amount
population
of
does
sustenance;
not
tend,
possibly tend, to increase faster than
and
and
that,
cannot
the means of
subsistence.
Dealing in the present chapter with the Malthusian
nS
concept that such
myself to the historical
I confine
lation,
the inevitable tendency of popu-
is
argument
has never in any part of the world manifested

this tendency, and that no country has experienced
that
it
calamity or suffering from the increase of
being greater than
lation
the increase
its
of
popufood
its
supply.
If
upon
map
one takes a
of the
world and casts his eye
the different quarters of the globe,
he will find
regions which were once inhabited by great and
many
barbarians,
of
of
fall of
it
to a scanty
popu-
they have not
when, indeed,
become the undisputed haunts
Can
empire, and centres of
now abandoned
industry that are

lation
seats
nations,
prosperous
of wild beasts.
be alleged in regard to the decay and down-
any
old civilisations, that they
of the
had
their
origin in the tendency of population to outstrip the
growth of the means of subsistence
Foreign conquest entailed the ruin of one civilisation,
internal insurrections or tyrannous misrule the
decadence of another.
In
every
case
means
the
curtailed or destroyed
of the various industries
their
These
livelihood.
insecurity
which
property, in
of
subsistence
were
by the rapid decline and ruin
had
from which the people drew

industries
fallen
perished
upon
the
in
right
the
of
deprivation of the freedom of in-
the
dividual action, in the plunder and spoliation of the
wealth that had heretofore maintained them.
The sapping
of
the springs of industry by such

causes,
new,
or
old seats for
its
the sole depopulating agent that
is
known
from commerce leaving
119
in the history of mankind, unless
been
has
we except
the case of certain savage races destined to die out
when
man comes
the white
into their territories, and
interferes with their ancestral
manner
of living.
Wars, famines, and pestilences have been great

scourges and destroyers of
but their depopulating
human
life
in the
past,
were temporary, and the
effects
gaps made by them in population were rapidly
filled
Misgovernment, oppression by conquering
races,
up.
tyrannical interference with the rights and security
and
property
of
of
individual
action,
whether the
result of foreign conquest or of internal maladmini-
have been the principal causes
stration,
and
of
fall
empires and of
the
seats
of the decline
of
industrial
populations.
Sicily in the best days of the
Eoman
a granary of Eome, abounding in great

ing by their industries, and
material
wealth.
Verres detail
the
The
filled
with every kind of
speeches
frightful
Bepublic was
cities flourish-
of
effects
of
Cicero
oppression upon such a land, and show us

years
of
wealth
against
misrule
how
and
a few
a tyrannical governor plundering gathered
and destroying the springs
of
industry and
commerce may dispeople a country and render it,

The same orator
comparatively speaking, a desert.
tells
us of similar misgovernment in other parts of the
by
empire
followed
consuls
and procurators, eager
similar
effects.
to
Greedy pro-
return to
Eome
120
with their unholy millions of money, and their art

treasures
from
stolen
temples,
and
fanes,
private
dwellings, harried the provinces subject to them, so
that the opulent provincials were reduced to beggary,
while the industrial classes were harassed with ex-
and
actions
tion
confiscations,
and the agricultural popula-
had the food necessary

snatched
families
from
for the support of their
But nowhere
hands.
their
does Cicero, or any classical writer, speak
misery
causing
population
standard of
depreciation
of
the
In the communities of ancient
living.
Greece, where
or
over-
of
existed
there
continuous
between obligarchic and democratic
struggle
factions, it
some-
times happened that the dominant political party of
a State sent out numbers of
its
settlements
their
or
to
secure
partisans to found
new
hold upon existing
But no Grecian colony of which we have

any knowledge was founded from the necessity that
colonies.
pressed upon the parent State of getting relief from
the burden of a surplus population.
We
have no reason
movements
to believe that the
of population in ancient
migratory
times, whether
having their origin in political or commercial reasons,

as in the planting of
Greek colonies along the Euxine,
in Italy, and elsewhere, or manifested in the barbarian
inundations that overwhelmed the

in
any
home
Boman
due to the pressure
of
Empire, were,
an exuberant
population.
The
spirit
instance,
latter migrations
of
are to be attributed to the
adventure and the joy of battle animating

the youths of warlike races, to
knowledge that regions more

wintry climes and dark
121
whom had come
fertile
the
than their own
by
forests, regions inhabited
peoples devoted to peaceful occupations, and enriched
by the accumulated
them
lay before
Historians,
forests
it
and commerce,
fruits of industry
as a spoil of conquest.
true,
is
have spoken
of the
teeming
Germany and Scandinavia pouring
of
forth
their superabundant surplus populations to occupy
new
possess
lands.
But
range
the
in
of
and
their
historical information they are unable to point to a
single country or district
from
the
existence
which at any time suffered

a
of
population
surplus
Malthusian expression for what has never existed as

a
result
of
the
relative
increase of population
difference
in the rates of
and the means
of subsistence.
Experience and observation abundantly testify that
where population has increased, the means
of living
have increased in an equal degree, and in almost every

a
case in
much
greater
That
degree.
this
must
necessarily be the case will be clearly demonstrated
when
expound the universal law which governs the
movements
I
shall
India,
deal with the cases of
which Malthusians
supporting
increase
I shall
of population.
now
the
dogma
faster than
exemplify
my
cases,
contention.
founded
population
means
the
show that these
have
that
of
and
Ireland
upon
as
tends
to
subsistence,
and
when duly examined,
They regard the rapid
increase of the population of Ireland between
1690
122
and 1846, and the poverty

close
of
due to the action
period, as
this
principle of
Malthus
of the Irish people at the
the
of
but a knowledge of the facts of
the case would show that the truth
lies
in the con-
trary direction.
In the course of a century and a half the numerical
growth
time.
Old World in a similar period
in the
of
In 1846 the population of Ireland had grown
be not
to
Irish people far surpassed the growth
of the
any nation
of
than eightfold the population in 1690
less
but an abundance of data can be adduced to prove

that in
1846
the people were greatly better off than
they were in 1690,
or,
indeed, at
1690 the
In
of Irish history.
any previous period
dream
brief
of Celtic
independence and predominance was for ever dispelled,
and the
his
serf
was returned
to his serfdom, his hovel,
bog and his potato patch, and the hand
of his
Saxon master pressed cruelly and heavily upon him.
But the establishment
of a settled
peace led to the
resumption of agricultural industry.
The history
of
the
150 years that followed is

is marked by agrarian
always a distressful one, and

outrages
to
and disturbances.
But the people began
multiply, and continued to multiply, in
exampled manner.
At
an un-
the beginning of the period
Ireland was for the most part a waste, uncultivated,

unutilised
But
land.
peace,
room was
greater
number
soil
as the result
being
continuously
of inhabitants
of
the settled
made
by reclamation
for
of
new
from the waste, and the extension of cultivation.

At
first
123
Ireland was mainly a pastoral country, but in
the course of the eighteenth century the great natural
the
fertility of
covered,
soil
we might almost
under
tillage will
people than
known
It is well
selves to tillage.
soil
was,
say, dis-
and the people increasingly applied them-
same
the
that a productive
support a far larger number of
under pasture.
soil
Conse-
quently the means of living were being largely added

to
from generation to generation, both by the never-
ceasing accretions that were being

of cultivation,
made
to the area
and by the increasing diversion
land from pasture to
of the
tillage.
Another thing that favoured the numerical growth

of the Irish people
was the
their staple food
for before the deterioration of the
formed
fact that the potato
tuber which followed the great blight of 1846,
it
was
estimated that the yield of an acre of potatoes gave
more than twice the amount

that was given
by
nourishment for
of
the'yield of
any other
crop.
man
In the
generation that preceded the great blight which affected
the potato, and the ensuing terrible famine that fell

upon the people, and the subsequent depopulation
by the agency
of
emigration, innumerable pamphlets
appeared both in Ireland and
in
England dealing
with the condition of the Irish people.
The
inciting
cause of their appearance was the agrarian outrages
committed by Captain Rock
the
name assumed by
the organised bands which signalised their track by
arson and murder, and differed in

their
predecessors,
the
name only from
Whiteboys and
the
Molly
i2 4
Many
Maguires..
pamphlets were devoted to
of these
the woes of the tenantry, and were diatribes directed

against
was in truth a very bad one.

written by indignant
Ireland
miseries of
which
system,
landlord-and-middleman
the
Others, again,
Protestants,
who
were
ascribed the
to the early age at
which
the
peasantry married, and denounced the priesthood for
sake of the
of early marriages for the
encouragement
their alleged
But the most
fees.
intelligent
and well
informed of the pamphleteers, while not denying the
landlord-and-middleman system^ pointed
evils of the
to the fact that the standard of living of the peasantry
had
risen greatly
and was
still
As
visibly rising.
evidences of improvement, they directed attention to
the
superior
clothing
of
the
peasantry, male
was everywhere witnessed
female, that
market, and
to
many
at chapel
other signs that
and
and
indicated a
greater ease of living.
There
is
no doubt, however, that the population of
Ireland was superabundant, in the sense that the land
could not support
But poverty
countries.
is
On
it
the
the
except in a regrettable poverty.

lot
of
almost
Continent of
all
agricultural
Europe, from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Ural Mountains, the
tillers of
the soil are bound to a hard struggle to wrest subsistence from the land,
of
and only
an extreme penuriousness.
live
by the exercise
Yet everywhere,
at the
present day, they are better off than their fathers and
grandfathers were.
An
agricultural
community
is
naturally averse from improvements, and reluctantly

admits them.
The sons have no
aspiration
from their parents, or to
differently
style of living in
was the case
cultural tenants,
of the agri-
visited the island
in the third quarter of the eighteenth century,
from
to ten acres, as their
five
fathers
As the
had done.
extended,
size, so
it
live
This
reared.
The majority
when Arthur Young
to
above the
rise
which they have been
in Ireland.
125
fathers
farmed
and grand-
area under cultivation was
was portioned out into farms
of the
same
that the young peasants had no difficulty in
acquiring farms, and were thus enabled to marry at
an
early
Ireland,
The
age.
accordingly,
superabundant
was
no
in
operation of the theory of Malthus.

in
population
way due
to
of
the
There took place
what almost invariably happens where
Ireland
population
is
increasing,
fact that the
means
population
for
an exemplification
of living
of
the
tend to increase faster than
whereas in a century and a half the
population had grown eightfold, the means of subsistence
had grown from twelve to twentyfold.
Disciples of Malthus, and all
who
regard the theory
of
Malthus as the impregnable outwork
of
Natural Selection and
of
of
its citadel of
defence, speak
India as a striking exemplification
wrought by a systematic attempt

tion of the checks
to
inflicted
purpose of
upon
India
the British regime
by sanitary measures
to
the evils
of
thwart the opera-
by which, according
to
Malthus,
They lament the
Nature prevents over-population.

mischief
the doctrine
by
the
first,
mitigate
benevolent
in attempting
and
lessen
the
126
mortality from the ravages of smallpox, cholera, and
the plague
by
second,
compulsory prevention
its
the depopulating effects of intertribal wars

its
by
stamping out of such customs as Suttee, Thuggism,
and
infanticide.
The indictment
is
that the British Eaj has prevented
of
ordained
keeping
for
the
and
India,
Nature has
checks which
the due working
of
third,
of
the
down
of
population
the
that, accordingly, in the
course of
century the population has grown from 150 millions

to
300
millions.
This indictment
true in so far as regards the
is
action of the British Baj in diminishing the mortality

at various points, and again as regards its efficacy in
doubling the population of India.
The pax Britannica has given security

of
and
agricultural
resources
our
of
mechanical
dependency
great
to the gains
industries.
have
The
been
enormously developed and increased by the creation
which
of the various railway systems
to extend their
network in
and not
by the vast
fertilise
least
districts
uncultivated,
districts
and
that
also
from seasons
directions,
all
continue
by
canals,
irrigation
works which
before
comparatively
were
secure
of
still
large
desolating
and
populous
drought which
were formerly only too frequent.
The testimony
of all intelligent
who have spent many

native
life
and customs,
the people are
now
and careful observers
years in India and have studied

is
in the
uniformly to the
effect that
enjoyment of a standard
of
127
comfort which has risen greatly within their experience,
and
much
is
the British
than
higher
Eaj
ever
splendour and sumptuousness
and
before existed.
has diminished
is
shown
in
abundance
improved
the
of
The greater
into the houses of the people.
If
cases the
the native palaces
of
courts, it has brought increased
living
many
in
means
ease of
quality of
their
and
every
clothing, of their domestic furnishings,
of
necessary article of daily use.

If
under the
shelter
the pax
of
Britannica the
population of India has doubled in the course of a

century,
its
wealth has increased not
The people
fold.
of India are
less
than three-
from our point of view
very poor, and will always be very poor as long as

the land maintains so large a population deriving
sustenance from the culture
of
the
soil.
But
its
this
does not in the slightest degree lend support to the
Malthusian concept
faster
tends to grow
population
that
than the means of subsistence
for all numerical
increase in India has always been accompanied with a
more than proportional
We
increase of its food resources.
should bear in mind that poverty
term, and
is
denned by the relation
to the actual necessaries of
expenditure upon food
man
life.
in the colder climate of
of the individual
England
man
a comparative
Thus, the necessary
and clothing
than that of a labouring
is
of a labouring
is
in India,
much
greater
whose family
are clothed for far fewer pence in a year than the

shillings required
England
to
clothe the meanest
family in
while a native will support himself, his wife,
i28
and family
comfort
for
equivalent
to
by
his
countrymen, upon what
wage
day's
single
The legendary opulence
artisan.
which
East,
two weeks in more than the average
enjoyed
Western
nations,
was displayed
of sovereigns, in the palaces
provincial
satraps,
and
But beneath
luxury.
gorgeous
of
chiefly in the courts
their great officers,
of
magnates, and in
territorial
who
the bales of the merchants
the
imagination
the
kindled
long
so
of
of
is
an English
ministered to their
splendour and ostentation
this
of
wealth lay the inconceivable misery and poverty
of
the oppressed millions, struggling to
wretched existence upon the

of the
little
maintain a
that was left them
produce which their labour extracted from the
soil.
The immemorial condition

soil
of the cultivators of the
throughout the world has been one of hard
and squalid
Philosophically
living.
agricultural life belongs to the lower stages of
Light, expansion,
development.
in
an association
community and race

the
higher
faculties
of
commerce which
community to
Commerce awakens
interests
to
race.
of
exploration
produces wealth and luxury which,

it, is
human
and human progress
are the natural accompaniments of
binds
toil
considered, the
and invention,
they only
if
knew
the most potent elevator of the working classes,
and the handmaid

higher
human
life.
of
a rising civilisation and of a
In the beginnings of agriculture,
which was the departure from the lower stage
human
existence, the
hunting
life,
large
of
area of

fertile
As
129
land was required to maintain a single family.
experience led to the use of better implements and
improved methods
of culture, the yield of the soil
was
multiplied.
But the persistence
the agricultural
of
mind
in
maintaining the same standard and style of living in
which a man has been reared, made the greater yield

tend not to the increase of individual wealth, but to
its
distribution
Farms
among a
became
the limit was reached

further diminished.
number
greater
smaller
each
in
when
Hence
of the
though they
Ganges, and
fill
has come to pass that
swarm on the
the Great Plain of China,
lands that are unsurpassed in
till
until
the farm could not be
it
the vast agricultural populations that
banks
of cultivators.
generation,
fertility,
are miserably poor.
As an
man
that
increasing population
is
did before, the general result

surpasses
its
is
ever an indication
energising in a greater degree than he

is
that each generation
predecessor in the relation of the means
of subsistence
to the population.
Thus we perceive
how, while, under the pax Britannica of the last

hundred years, the population has grown twofold, and
the wealth and resources of India have grown in a
much
greater degree, yet, judged from our point of
view, the people

I
come now
still
remain very poor.
to consider the second cardinal point
of the theory of
Malthus, his positive checks, which
he assumes to be Nature's ordinance

population from growing unduly.
for preventing
3o
need not discuss here what he called the pre-
ventive or prudential check of moral restraint, which
he considered to consist in a man's abstaining from
marrying until he
prospect
future;
has
maintaining
of
for
attained
Malthus expressly
being
cardinal
efficacious
In
stating,
Malthus
check
and
may
by a
the
future.
the
Thus
the
relied
for
of over-population
and characterising,
his positive checks,

"
frank.
be stated to consist in
all those
the
in
of his positive checks.
delightfully
is
in
trace of the
little
mankind the curse
was the operation
that
upon which alone he
principle
averting from
in
reasonable
had clearly no hope
action of such a check, and he

its
states
past history of the race he saw
of
to
and family
a wife
immediate
those customs,
which seem to be generated
diseases
scarcity of the
The
all
means
of
subsistence
and
all
those causes independent of this scarcity, whether of

a moral or physical nature, which tend prematurely to
weaken and destroy the human frame."
"The
various,
vice
positive checks
to population are
extremely
and include every cause, whether arising from

in any degree contributes to
or misery, which
shorten the natural duration of

this head, therefore,
may
human
be enumerated
life.
all
Under
unwhole-
some occupations, severe labour and exposure to the

poverty, bad nursing of children,
seasons, extreme
great towns, excesses of all kinds, the whole train of
and epidemics, wars, plague, and famine."

On examining these obstacles to the increase
diseases
"
of
131
population which I have classed under the heads of preventive and positive checks,
moral
all resolvable into
That the reader
may
it
will appear that they are
and misery."
restraint, vice
be convinced of the practical
elimination by Malthus of moral restraint from his
theory as an operative check, I quote part of his reply

to
Mr. Godwin, who dissented from

"
Mr. Godwin says that
if
his conclusions.
he looks into the past
history of the world, he does not see that increasing
population has been controlled and confined by vice
In
and misery
alone.
with
I believe Mr. Godwin would find it

name any check which in past ages has
to keep down the population to the
him.
difficult
to
contributed
this observation
cannot agree
means of subsistence that does not fairly

come under some form of vice or misery; except,
level of the
indeed, the check of moral restraint which
on;
already insisted
and which,
may
whatever hopes we
I have
say the truth,
to
entertain of its prevalence
in the future, has undoubtedly in past ages operated
with inconsiderable force."

Before
demonstrating
that
enumerated by Malthus do not

acted, as restraints
and that there
is
which population
diminished,
checks
the
positive
act,
and have never
upon the increase
of
population,
an operative law or principle by

is
governed, and by which
maintained
in
statu
quo, or
it
is
increased,
altogether apart from the action of these so-called

checks, I shall animadvert in a few words upon the
moral aspects of this abominable doctrine.
132
It
must be remembered that Darwin has
porated this part of
own, and extended
animated
of
Existence,
operation over the whole field
its
Nature,
calling
Survival
the
euphemistically
the
of
Fittest,
Malthus
did not possess the data
determining the movements
day)
necessary for
population and their
of
which are now available
causes,
for
more
or
Selection.
none such existed in his
had no means
Struggle
phrases to gloss over the
He
horror of his theory.
the
it
Natural
still,
did not attempt by fine
(for
incor-
the Malthusian theory into his
everyone.
to
He
of ascertaining the relation that exists
between the death-rate and the marriage-rate, which
makes a high mortality
in
any community
to
be
accompanied by a high birth-rate, and a low mortality
by a low
to
He
birth-rate.
able conditions of
life
perceived misery and miser-
everywhere, and causes inimical
human life, and he was satisfied that these exhow his assumed tendency of population to
plained
grow
faster
than
the
means
prevented from over-peopling
immoral
is
this theory
The sense
of its
the
globe.
immorality was the

readers
Population at the time when
drew forth virulent
certain
data
to
could
go
But how
first
impression
by the Essay on
it
was published, and
attacks
and denunciations
from many and varied quarters.

of these attacks
was
made upon thoughtful

it
subsistence
of
not,
upon,
But the writers
from the want

prove
propounded in the Essay was
false,
that
the
of
any
theory
and accordingly

the public settled
down
133
to the belief that the theory,
not being disproved, must be founded upon an
irre-
futable basis.
Macaulay voiced forth the general conviction
is
wrote, "
when he
contemporaries
the doctrine immoral, but

It
the
an evidence
is
times, as
well
can
so
public
be
doctrine that
into,
of his
is
the doctrine true
is
not,
of the materialistic tendencies of
as
punishment, that
their
influenced
immoral can be
as to
believe
the
that a
true.
were indeed true doctrine that the miseries
If it
and
is
The question
evils that
human
wait upon, or have found their
life,
form the ordinance
of
way
Nature by
which alone mankind has in the past been preserved

from the
fell
results
of
its
tendency
numerically beyond the measure of
and
to
its
increase
to
food supply,
which we must mainly look in the future
for
such preservation, then would the lot of humanity be
most deplorable, being deprived

brighter
If it
and happier
of
all
hope of a
future.
man who should

conditions of human life
were true doctrine, then the
endeavour to ameliorate the
by arresting the progress
of disease
by putting an end to the horrors
and
pestilence, or
of war, or
by puri-
fying the drains or cleansing the atmosphere in the

great centres of population, or by engaging
promotion of
traitor to
any form
of
sanitation,
humanity and a criminal
in thus attempting to counteract
in
the
would be a
of the deepest dye,
and neutralise the
beneficent and necessary ordinances of Nature.
134
The
theory
sufficient
harm
for it is a
of
Malthus
in the
wrought
already
has
domain of practical
legalisation
matter of history that the younger Pitt had
prepared a scheme to
be
submitted to
Parliament
Law
system, and
similar to that of our present Poor
that he was dissuaded by the authority of Malthus
from carrying out his intention, and induced

the matter drop.
Thus one
to let
most beneficent
of the
measures, in view of national well-being, was deferred
through a long course of years by the influence of

this
upon the mind
wretched theory
of
great
statesman.
Few
people
are aware
how
to
an
great
extent
throughout the civilised world the operation of what
Malthus called the positive checks have been curtailed

or wholly eliminated,
and how great has been the
consequent lengthening of the average
We
have every reason
sixteenth
life of
believe
that
century the average
length
of
in this country
and on the continent
of
In several
of the provinces of
to-day not a whit higher.
countries in which
the
in
life
the
both
Europe was
somewhere between twenty and twenty-five
is
man.
to
years.
European Eussia
it
There are few European
average
life
has
not been
doubled in the past century.
In some the life-term has been extended nearly in

a
threefold degree.
has, since
In Sweden the average of
life
Malthus wrote, been lengthened twofold, so
that while in a given population two hundred people

died annually a century ago, only one hundred die
to-day.
of
135
Sweden has emerged from miserable
conditions
human
life,
which,
they could be realised by the
if
present inhabitants, would
fill
them with shuddering
amazement, into a brightness, comfort, and ease
which
its
people would appreciate more highly
of life,
if
they
could look into the pit from which they have been
And
digged.
may
the same remark
all civilised countries, including
be
applied to
our own.
The nineteenth century witnessed a marvellous

advance in the forces
of
which has been almost
human
In
life.
civilisation,
the
effect
of
to transform the conditions of
improvement
general
the
brought about, nothing
is
more
significant
thus
than the
lengthening in every country of the average span of

life.
It tells not
merely of the progress of sanita-
great a degree, of more comfortable
tion, but, in as
homes, better food and clothing.

It is a prevailing idea that
length of the average Jife
is
the
increase in
the
due to the decline that
has taken place in the mortality of infants and young

children.
But
study of vital
this is
by no means the
regard to all civilised
countries for
century, makes evident the fact
mortality
fell
case.
such as are now available in
statistics
the
last half-
that, while
infant
greatly during that period, the mortality
at all ages of life fell in almost as great a proportion.
The extirpation from Europe

tions,
one of
of pestilential visita^
the most active of Malthus' positive
checks, has done
much
lengthen the average
to reduce the mortality
life.
Since
the
beginning
and
of
*36
the last quarter of the nineteenth century the Continent has been free from the ravages of such pests
and epidemic typhus, except as mere
as cholera
local
and confined outbreaks.
We
have to go a long way farther back to mark
the furrows
made through the
various populations by
those once dreaded ploughs of ruin, the plague and
smallpox.
It
true
is
that
famines,
and
their
invariable concomitant epidemic typhus, continue
to
scourge from time to time some of the provinces of
Eussia
become
but as the social conditions of that country

less Asiatic
and more conformed
to those of
Europe, these pests will disappear.

Before the year 1875 the mortality columns in the
Eegistrars' returns of all Continental countries bear
witness to constantly recurring epidemical visitations.
Seldom did a decade pass without one or two, whereby

the decennial mortality was raised considerably above
the normal mortality of non- pestilential years.
1875
effects of
any serious epidemical
may remark
visitations,
though I
that the mortality columns of almost all
European countries were raised

rather
Since
the statistical columns of no country show the
marked degree by the
for
some years in a
semi-pestilential influenza
which travelled across Europe about the year 1890.

I now submit a tabulated series of statistics which
give for each country the average
life of its
people in
the decenniums 1876-85, and also in the eight years
1896-1903, the
latter year being the last
the time of writing
is
available to
me
which at
for reference.

This table will show
prolongation of
period
has been the
the average life-span in so brief a
when we take
how remarkable
137
into consideration the fact that
between the central points
of the two periods not

more than twenty years have elapsed, the result in
some cases would appear almost incredible, if it were
not beyond question attested.
Let
however, be borne in mind that the period
it,
1876-1903 was one
in
which
were acting with a
civilisation
the
all
forces
higher
of
degree
of
energy than in the former part of the century; for

these forces
in their
must be regarded
onward march.
of this table
sanitation,
social significance
can scarcely be exaggerated
added to
year
as accumulating energy
But the
the
greater
average
comfort,
life
for every
means improved
and
material
well-
being.
The
difference
between the average life-terms of
the different countries will be a surprising revelation

to
many
for not
many, I presume, have made them-
selves acquainted with the fact that the average life

of
one European people exceeds that of another by
more than a quarter
of a century.
I have arranged
the columns for the two periods side by side

first
the
column below each period showing the average
number
of
deaths annually in every
1000
persons,
and the second column showing the average length

life
last
calculated from the proportional mortality.
column shows the prolongation
period.
of
life
of
The
in the
138

English people has been
years,
prolonged by fully twenty
and that the average
years ago was

life-spans
in
England one hundred
midway between
the present average
life
and
Austria
of
Hungary.
countries have only recently begun
mediaeval conditions
how
rapid
but
it
In the decade
1866-75
is
36 years and 329
the average
The reader may be
days.
to
days, or
two
to observe
being made by them.
was only 25 years and 69 days.

to
These
emerge from
to
pleasing
is
the progress that
is
'39
life
in
Hungary
It has since risen
by 11 years and 260
interested in ascertaining
what extent the prolongation
of
human
life
has
been affected by the reduction that has taken place

in the mortality of infants
five
years of
age.
and young children under
The following
England and Wales shows,
number
of
deaths
in
first,
100,000
years of age in each decade since
table relating to
the average annual

children under five
1856
and, second,
the proportional mortality of the kingdom in 100,000

individuals.
140
In the half-century the decline in the mortality of

children under
19 2
-
per
cent.,
while
the
has amounted to
age
years of
five
decline
the
in
general
mortality of the country has amounted to 28 7 per

-
cent.
It
thus
appears
that
the
decline
the
in
mortality of infants and children under five years of
age has been far from keeping pace with the decline
which has taken place in the general mortality
Almost
kingdom.
similar
manner
of the
European countries show
all
that
constantly
their
in a
diminishing
death-rates are in no degree attributable to the re-
duction of their infant mortalities.
Of
all
the countries given in the
first table,
Hungary
approximates most nearly to mediaeval conditions, as
shown by
its
heavy
lowness of
Norway
both
infant mortality, while in the
its
general
its
and infant
palm from the
carries off the
In either country I
general mortality, and, in
bill of
a greater degree, by
am
mortalities
rest of Europe.
able to refer only to the death-
rates of children under one year.
Looking to the rapid progress

civilisation in Europe,
of
the
and to their action
forces
of
in promoting
the betterment and material well-being of
all peoples,
I do not doubt that, before the present century has
run
its
course, both
the
general mortality and the
infant mortality of
Hungary
to those existing in
Norway
achieve
this
result,
the
will
have been lowered
at the present day.
present
life-term
of
Hungarian people must be raised by 80 per

and their present rate
of
infant mortality
To
the
cent.,
must be

lowered by 136 per cent.
of
Hungary amounts
141
But the infant mortality
to less than a fourth part of the
general mortality, so that
when
its
average life-term
has reached a point 80 per cent, higher than
it is
at
present, this result will not to a material extent have
been caused by the fact that the infant mortality has

declined by
Tt
is
136 per
cent.
therefore pretty
much
a delusive belief that
so generally prevails, that the decline in the mortality

of infants
and young children has been the dominating
human
factor in prolonging the average span of
The conditions
of Mediaeval
what
is
to-day considered as old age.
of
and
much
Anyone who
where
to do so, the ages at death of the
any kind
life.
do now, and very few attained to
will take the trouble to ascertain,
to
evil
died at all ages very
insanitary, that people

faster than they
Europe were so
it is
men who
possible
attained
eminence or notoriety before the end of
the sixteenth century, will discover that their average
age was
much below
notable and eminent
the average age attained by
men
during
the last century.
There can exist no doubt that, from the constantly

recurring
pestilences,
well
as
as
from
prevailing
insanitary conditions at all times, the adult mortality

of Mediaeval
Europe was much in excess
now be found anywhere on

in the most
of
what can
the Continent, except
it
be
backward, unwholesome, and insanitary
parts of Kussia.
But though
relation
this
to the
must have been the
general
mortality
the
case, yet in
mortality of
142
infants
must have been proportionally much greater
than at the present day.

Nevertheless, as will become evident
movement
that govern the
down
or
the
crease
the
decrease
population
resultant
its
number
of
the laws
no way acted to keep
stood, the large death-rate in
inasmuch as
when
of population are under-
of
any country,
was simply
action
marriages
and
to in-
to raise
the
birth-rate in a sufficient degree to satisfy all the needs

of the existing labour market.
I shall
registered
British
now
devote
death-rates
communities
a
of
brief
the
consideration to the
Australasian
whose
existence
colonies,
of
is
com-
paratively recent date, which have sprung
up under
and climate favourable
to health
conditions of
soil
and longevity, and which have been guided
to their
present social well-being by their inheritance of the

highest existing civilisation.
These colonies are destined to be great and powerful nations,
more fortunate than the Mother Country
in this respect, that they will not be, as she
is
burdened with many deep-rooted and festering

evils,
the
result
of
ages
barbaric
of
neglect
now,
social
and
ignorance of man's duty to man.
In the following table I give the average annual

death-rates in
1000
of population with the average
1884-93 and 1894we might expect, are
life-term in each of the decades
1903.
Their mortalities, as
considerably below
countries.
those
that
prevail
in European
143
144
young and vigorous

leave
colony
settlers,
the
associations,
to
while
return
and to spend
many elderly
to
old
people
and cherished
their declining years in the
Mother Country.
Thus the number
New
of deaths that take place in
Zealand does not, by their proportion to the existing

population, give anything like an accurate idea of the
average duration of
human
life
in
New
By
Zealand.
adventitious circumstances the proportion of deaths to
the population
case
if
is
rendered smaller than would be the
But there
the conditions were normal.
is also
another and contributory cause of the abnormal

lation existing
population.
re-
between the given death-rate and the
When we
consider
that
population
numbering not much more than 800,000
souls occupy
a country almost as large as the United Kingdom, and

that not
much more than
into towns, there
a third part of
it
are gathered
must be a considerable number
of
people living on solitary farms, or small hamlets in

outlying districts, beyond the ken of registrars,
of
whom
many
are likely to omit registering deaths that
occur in their households, though they

in seeing to the registration of births
It is not, in
my
may
be careful
and marriages.
opinion, reasonable to believe that,
in the present state of the world, even under the most
favourable conditions,
the
average duration
of
life
That
in
any community exceeds
is
the extreme limit I should be disposed to accept
as possible,
seventy-five years.
though even then
be accompanied with suspicion.
my
acceptance would

From
the registration of their mortalities, however
we may suppose them
defective
Australasian
colonies,
emerges,
that
down
viz.
or
"
causes
destroy
145
one
their
restrained in
which
by the
populations
their
are
increase
Even
frame."
different
outstanding
clear
prematurely
tend
human
the
to be,
to
in
by
fact
not
kept
all
those
weaken
Europe
and
the
checks of Malthus have since his day undergone an

elimination,
energy,
and where not an elimination a
that
consigns
the
conception
of
loss of
them
as
Nature's ordinance for keeping down, and within due

limits,
the population of the globe, to the limbo of
baseless
shall
and mistaken
state
theories.
In the next chapter
and elucidate the universal law that
governs every movement of population, whether of

retardation or of progression.
10
CHAPTER
II.
THE LAW OF POPULATION.
rpHE
-*-
exposition
controls the
of
law that
the
movement
involved in intricacy nor
is it of
The general movement
of
directly
by the
munity
to
upon the
When
to year,
governs
an abstruse character.
population
is
determined
ability of the individuals of a
marry; and
and
of population is neither
ability
this
again
com-
depends
state of the labour market.
the labour market
is
more people are enabled
be the case
if
expanding from year
marry than would
to
the labour market were stagnant and
remaining stationary.
Where
number
stagnation of the labour market exists, the
of labourers
remains at the same point, and
young men can be placed
in positions that enable
them to marry only by entering into posts of employment that have been rendered vacant by the death
of those
who formerly
held them.
Experience teaches
that in those circumstances the population does not

increase, the birth-rate doing
no more than keep pace
with the death-rate.
On
ing
the other hand, where a community
is
prosper-
by commerce or manufacturing industry, new

146

posts of
147
employment are being created which enable
young men who enter into occupation

marry.
It
is
to the creation
of
new
of
community
the numerical increase of a
that the percentage of increase of
its
them
to
posts that all

is
due
so
population in
a decade measures the percentage of increase that has
taken place in the number of posts of employment.
When,
again, a
community
adverse circumstances, and
its
feels
the pressure of
sources of industry are
being sapped by permanent causes,
many
posts
of
employment are rendered vacant by employers being

unable to maintain them.
market
The demand
of the labour
thus reduced, and year after year fewer
is
labourers are employed.
Accordingly the number of
young men who are enabled
to obtain
employment
by succeeding to posts rendered vacant by death tends

to
grow
smaller,
community
is
and thus the marrying power
of a
the birth-rate
falls
curtailed,
so that
below the death-rate, and the population dwindles.
The standard
teriorate,
as
of
living
employers
in such
are
cases
tends to de-
no longer able to give
the wages that were given in more prosperous times,
while labourers compete with each other to obtain
employment
Witness
for such
wages as employers can
afford.
the comparative poverty and depopulation
that has overtaken Venice, the once proud and opulent
Queen
It
of the Adriatic.
is
obvious that a
man
cannot enter into the
married state unless he possesses means of subsistence

that suffice for himself and a wife
and
this subsist-
148
ence must come to him, in some form or other, from

the labour market.
Many
obtain
their
own
without by their
a
man who
management
and
living
it
to
Thus
labour being producers.
inherits a great estate

of
luxuriously,
live
may
entrust the
an overseer, and be himself
simply a recipient and spender of the rent.
But
as
the mere possessor of the estate he occupies a very
important post in the labour market
which he owns supplies the means
for the land
of living, to his
tenants and their labourers, to himself, his servants
and tradesmen.
man
Suppose, again, that a

fortune from
his
uselessly stored
up
has inherited a large
no part
father;
his wealth
of
is
in a cellar, or in a chest from which
he takes out, as occasion requires, the expenses of his

maintenance.
concerns,
This
His wealth
yielding
means
that
his
it
is
invested in money-making
income
by
its
promoting
is
employment.
and
industrial
commercial enterprises, and providing the means
Even
subsistence to a multitude of labourers.

close our eyes to the fact of the wealthy
in
this
way a promoter
of
man
if
of
we
being
productive industry, he
cannot help affording the means of subsistence to a
number
of families in the
mere spending
Apart from ancestral possession

fortunes possessed
by individuals
of his income.
of lands, the large
in this country have
been accumulated in the labour market, and, in the

place, they
form reservoirs
and maintenance
of capital
f or
first
the promotion
of all sorts of industrial enterprises,
149
and, in the second place, by the incomes which they

yield,
they
go
the distribution of wealth, more
to
upon the luxuries of life.

Wherever such fortunes exist, the condition of the
especially in expenditure
labouring
classes
number and
in
raised
is
proportion
to
their
They support the more highly paid
size.
forms of skilled labour, and certain kinds of industry

specially
created
the
for
and
use
The wages thus accruing
luxury.
workmen and
distributed
other ministers
of
highly skilled
luxury are again

tradesmen
and
our interdependent lives no
man
supporting
in
of
gratification
to
ordinary
labourers.
In the economy
of
can live for himself alone.
lives or
Accordingly, whoever
enable
him
in possession of
means that
whether he obtains these means from the
cobbler,
labour of his
may
is
to marry, from the king to the humblest
be
own hands
said, in
or
by the industry
of others,
the sense in which I use the term, to
occupy a post of employment that places marriage
Even the
within his reach.
and
as professional thieves
deleterious classes, such
burglars,
must be placed
in
our category, though they are destroyers rather than

producers
of
them
for the
of
wealth
do, it
married
is
for
if
they
marry,
as
life.
If there
do now and again take
place marriages which are not justified by those
marry seeing how
some
because they find their gains suffice
to procure the
means
who
of providing
for themselves, either in the present or in the future,
these idiotic transactions are so rare as not to disturb
iSo
the general law, or interfere with the general result

just as the occurrence of sports in botanical species
does not divert the botanist from insisting upon the

general laws and specific characters of the plants,
What
is
entering
means
sufficient
married
the
into
subsistence
of
state
is
for
question
determined by a man's place in the graduated scale

social
A man occupying a high
life.
round of the
of
social
ladder would not consider himself justified in marrying,
though possessed
enable a dozen
means which
of
men on
if
divided would
a lower round of the ladder to
marry in what they would consider great comfort.
The law
that a
is
man
does not marry until he sees
himself in possession of means that will enable him in

his degree to marry.
with
Malthus' check
restraint
which
it
This law must not be confounded
moral restraint
of
imposes
is
the
for
rather of a physical than
a moral barrier.
It
forms a
universal factor
of population,
its fullest
energy everywhere since
and recognised the
determining
in
movement
the
and has been operative
social bond.
It
man
is
at
entered into
a law that must
be obeyed, to whose dictates the non-moral as well as

the moral must conform.
Malthus,
of
this
however,
law,
present-day
not
perceiving
which
is
manifoldly
student
of
the
the
visible
statistical
operation
to
any
information
supplied by the bureaus of Christendom, entertained
the belief that the majority of the marriages which
took place were unaccompanied with due reflection on
the part of those marrying as to whether they had
a reasonable prospect of being able to maintain a wife
and family
Accordingly he held that
in the future.
the neglect of this check of moral restraint, which he
made
until
to consist in a man's abstaining
he has
satisfied himself that
from marrying
he has a reasonable
prospect of maintaining a wife and family in the future,
was the main cause
of the tendency to over-population,
which called for the action
of his positive checks to over-
come it:
for, as
we may
entertain of its action in the future, has acted
he
"Moral restraint, whatever hopes
said,
in the past history of the race with inconsiderable
Let us see
how
the case really stands.
working man, who

he considers to
sufficient to
The young
in receipt of a daily wage,
is
be, in
force.''
which
the case of his fellow-workmen,
maintain a wife and family, marries in the
confidence that his health will be preserved to
him
the coming years, and that the daily wage will not
him
asset of his estate,
which he takes into account when
he forms the marriage
what the morrow

life.
tie.
But no man can
to his health
The young working man,
therefore, has
his health will not fail him, or that
he will not leave a wife and young children

if
foresee
will bring forth as
no certainty that
But
fail
This confidence forms the principal
in those years.
or his
in
destitute.
the thought of this possibility acted upon him
as a deterrent
from marrying, he would never marry.
Yet he considers himself
justified,
when contemplating
marriage, in entertaining a confident hope that his
health
and
life
will be preserved until his children
NO STRUGGLE-NO SELECTION
IS a
their own living

have grown up and are able to earn
shows that he is
race
the
and the general experience of
But the working
hope.
justified in entertaining such a
;
man,
general
justified in the light of the
cherishing this confidence,
the
madness
is
marriage
immediate
contemplating
of
experience in
nevertheless incapable of
and has also

unless he is in receipt of a daily wage,
earn it.
a reasonable prospect of continuing to
a continuous
by
supplied
is
The labour market
young men occupying posts that death
has rendered vacant, or that have been vacated by men
who have retired from them on account of age, or for
other reasons, or by men who have emigrated and left
of
accession
posts, there is
occupy vacated
to
upon
enter
men who
In addition to those young
the country.
such
posts
no lack
as
of
young men
created
are
by the
expansion of commerce and industry.
In the wider arena of the labour market, the same

prevails
principle
we
that
see
large
operative in a
commercial firm where promotion from one post to

another
goes
by
seniority.
service of the firm dies or retires,

is
occupied by
below
it.
it
juniors being raised to
fill
is
at
once
of the holder of
next in the order of succession
in the
post immediately
The post thus vacated

to
official
and the post he held
the holder of the
up by the advancement
is
high
filled
the post
and the process
of
the posts vacated by seniors
continued, until the lowest position which enables its
occupant to marry
is
reached.
vacant by the promotion of
This also being rendered
him who occupied
it
requires

in its turn to be
the
and
new occupant is placed for

that enables him to marry.
its
time in a position
first
As a
filled,
153
general rule, new-comers in the labour market
begin by
filling
the lowest posts of employment, both
when old posts have been rendered vacant by death,

and when new posts are created as industrial or
commercial enterprise
The majority
of
is
extended.
young men marry as soon as they
are in a position which enables
them
to do so.
generally happens that their marriage
some time
confer
after
they enter upon
upon them the power
necessity of saving
The
expenses.
up
first
is
But
it
deferred for
the
posts which
to marry,
owing to the
for house furniture
and wedding
three years after they enter upon
such a post are those which witness the greater number

of
marriages.
their
statistical
This
expert by
fact
is
the marriage
revealed
to
the
returns
of
the
years which follow the breaking out of a devastating

pestilence or the close of a sanguinary war.
In the year 1866

raised to a great height
by war with
the mortality of Austria was
by a
visitation of cholera
and
Prussia.
From an annual
average of 295 deaths per 10,000
of population in the preceding decade, the mortality in
409 per 10,000. The full tale

of deaths above the normal amount was 230,000.
Owing to the large number of posts of employment
the above year rose to
emptied by the pestilence and the war, and to their

being straightway
filled
following
four
in
the
up by young men, the marriages

years
rose
from an annual
iS4
825 per 100,000 of population to an

annual average of 975
and the largest number of
average of
marriages
fell
amounted
to
in the third year
from the
1035 per 100,000
Many men
pestilence,
of population.
defer marrying for several years after
they are in possession of the means of doing
few never marry at
But
human
marrying, are pretty
law
everywhere, the
and a
so,
all.
as the principles of
in regard to
and
of
action, especially
much
the same
averages prevails, and
result is the established ratio
the
between the number
of
marriages and births and the number of deaths in a
community.
Some
populationists
affected the general
seriously
movement
treat,
as
if
they
of population, several
questions which do not in any degree affect
it,
and
which the importance and interest are wholly
of
Such questions are the proportion
social nature.
of
a
of
illegitimate to legitimate births, the relative fecundity

of the marriages of different countries,
and the marrying
ages of the different classes of a community.
The number
as
it is
illegitimate
marriage-rate
market
enter
and
it
it
community,
large or small, lessens in its degree the
of marriages.
of
of illegitimate births in a
is
to
is
legitimate
excessively
births is excessive, the
But the labour
low.
not thereby affected, as illegitimate children
in the
is
number
Thus in Vienna, where the proportion
same proportion as legitimate
children,
found that the birth-rate holds the same
proportion to the death-rate that
it
would do
if
all

From
the births were legitimate.

view, the
of
situation
interest attaching to
it
is
155
the moralist's point
very sad one, but the
belongs purely to the question
of social morality.
In a country where the fecundity of the average

marriage
is
greater, the marriage-rate is lower than in
a country where the fecundity of the average marriage

is
demand
smaller, supposing the
to be the
same
of the labour
market
in both countries.
In comparing the fruitfulness of English and Scotch

marriages, I have embraced
viz.
33
period of
from 1871 to 1903, a period
years,
sufficiently long to
bring the fluctuating results of the different years to
a general level or average.
In
those
33
births annually in
years
10,000
the
average
persons was
number
in
of
England
320, and in Scotland 322, showing an inappreciable
But
difference.
is
number
this equality in the
of births
surprising when we perceive that throughout the
period the
number
of marriages per
10,000 persons
annually amounted in England to 78, and in Scotland

to
70
only.
In order, however, to ascertain the relative production of English
into
account
countries.
and Scotch marriages, we must take

the
relative
illegitimacy
the two
of
In Scotland the illegitimate births averaged
during the period 8 per cent, of the total births, while

in
England they averaged only 4'5 per

Deducting from
ber
of
the
illegitimates,
sum of
we find
cent.
births
that
the
78
num-
English
156
306
296
marriages produced
marriages
produced
70 Scotch
children, while
The
children.
resulting
difference in the fecundity of the marriages
two countries
yield
423
children, the
same number
the
of
100 marriages
that while in Scotland
is
of marriages in
England yields only 392, or 7 '4 per cent, fewer.
The labour market

an equal
of the
An
birth-rate.
two countries
called for
equal birth-rate was accord-
ingly obtained.
Thus neither the

Scotland was so
fact
much
that
the
illegitimacy
of
higher than that of England,
nor the fact that the fecundity of Scotch marriages so
much exceeded
that of English marriages, was a factor
that directly affected the supply of the labour market

for,
had the
these
two countries
relations of the
respects
been
very
different,
in both
while
their
respective labour markets called for an equal supply

of labour, that equal
by means
The
of
ages
an equal
at
community enter
any way
supply would have been obtained
call for
birth-rate.
which
the
of
bond do not
in
different
into the marriage
classes
the attention or consideration of the
populationist, except in so far as they go to prove the
general rule that

to do so.
men marry
Men who
earn
as soon as they are able
subsistence
their
by the
labour of their hands are able to marry at an early

age, while, generally
living
by
speaking,
their brains, or
who
men who
earn their
require to establish a
position for themselves, are constrained to defer their
marriages to a later period of
life.

In his Social Evolution, Appendix
whenever he
treats
unacquainted
with
of
its
I.,
population,
governing
iS7
Mr. Kidd, who,

shows
himself
principles,
has
nevertheless a useful table referring to England, which
shows the proportional number
of marriages
made
at
various ages by different classes, from which I have
drawn up the following

the
table.
1000 males of each class who marry,

proportional number marrying in each of three
Out
periods
of every
is
given, as follows
158
In the remainder of this chapter I
shall, in
the labour market, exclude from
of
speaking
wholly the
it
independent classes who are not under the necessity
own
of earning their
They form
living.
so small a
may
be
left
account in dealing with the movement of
its
population.
part of any community that they
From
up
the general observations which I have made
none
to this point, based
but
all of
them
and
attested
out of
of
them upon any
careful inductions
^sufficient,
theory,
from data both well
the reader will perceive that I
regard the labour market as the hinge upon which
every
movement
No
individual
market, and
of population turns.
marry unless he enters that
can
enabled to earn in
is
will suffice for the
it
maintenance
what
in his degree
of a wife
and
pro-
spective children.
The labour market provides the whole means of

The posts of employment
subsistence of a community.
which can be found in
demand
for labour.
it
certain quantity of labour,
quantity
its
power
are strictly limited by
It does not
of
its
want more than a
and to the supply
employing labour
is
of that
rigidly
confined.
If
the labour market of
expanding, the normal
any community
demand
is
not
for labour necessarily
remains at the same point, the number of posts of
employment undergoes no
no young
him
to
man
marry
by the death
increase,
and consequently
can enter into a position that enables

until such a position has been vacated
of its former occupier.

The
upon the power
thus placed
limitation
159
forming marriages prevents the growth of what

a
surplus population:
labour
ante,
for
not increasing, but
is
remains
inasmuch as no new posts
being
population
the
created,
called
for
statu quo
in
employment
of
found
is
is
demand
where the
of
are
remain
to*
without either material increase or decrease.
But
such
in
community there may
abnormal demand
for labourers to
have been vacated by death.
may sweep away its

and empty in a
but for
many
arise
desolating pestilence
thousands or hundreds of thousands,
single
month a multitude
of posts that
havoc would not have been emptied for
its
years.
But the abnormal demand
for labour
There
thus created will without difficulty be supplied.

is
an
occupy posts that
always a sufficient reserve of young
the vacant posts.
These young
men
men
to
fill
up
than
are, earlier
they anticipated, called on to occupy them, and so

placed in positions that enable them to marry sooner
The
than they would otherwise have been.
fruit of
the marriages thus formed will in a very few years

raise
the
ravages
of
population
pestilence
to
its
former
never act
as
level
for
the
more than the
merest temporary check upon population.
Within
millions,
Mysore
living
memory, the
cholera,
slaying
its
swept away one-third of the inhabitants of

in India,
and within
fifteen years the popula-
tion of Mysore was, by the natural increase of
people, greater than
it
had been on the eve
visitation of the terrible scourge.
its
of the
160
may
Again, there
We may
a
exodus of
large
suppose that there has come to
of emigration
field
an industrially
take place in
community a
stagnant
people.
its
it
tidings of
which opens up new prospects
of betterment in a fertile country that is calling for a
supply of labour to develop
The
its resources.
upon the community may be comparable
effect
which we have seen produced by the news
to that
the discovery of a
new
emigration sets
which continues year
in,
goldfield.
carry off numbers from the

prosperity of
the
home
after year to
The
population.
emigrants
first
in
of
strong tide of
adopted
their
country acts as a continual stimulus to keep up the
men, either single or with
efflux of
which seems
the conditions of their

incited to emigrate
who have
life
by the
assistance that reach
them from
who
many
while
invitations
new
prospered in the
Those, therefore,
families, to a land
them a sure improvement
to promise
of
are, further,
and the pecuniary
friends
and kindred
settlement.
leave the old
home
for a
new
country are not impelled to emigrate in consequence

of
impoverishment or
distress, or
from any
to maintain the standard of living to
inability
which they have
been accustomed, but solely from the desire which

natural to
This
is
man
the motif of
which we have
forth
is
of bettering his condition.
seen,
almost
now
for
all
the emigration
some decades,
setting
from European countries, including our own,
even though the labour market in those countries has
been constantly expanding.

The bulk
during
of the emigration
the
from Ireland, especially
decades
three
last
161
the
of
nineteenth
century, has been of a different nature, consisting of
who have been compelled by
emigrants
leave
native
their
soil,
distress
to
owing to the enormous de-
preciation that has taken place in the pecuniary value
The margin
of agricultural produce.
from
of profit
the cultivation of the smaller farms has been under-
going a process of reduction, until
maintain
to
sufficient
standard of comfort that
family
satisfies
it
is
even
in
no longer
low
the
the wants
of
the
Irish peasantry.
Therefore thousands of Irish families have been

constrained to expatriate themselves every year, and
seek the colonies that their countrymen have formed

in the
United States
The
of America.
result of the
large depletion that has taken place in agricultural
Ireland has been

soil so as to
a continuous redistribution of the
form larger farms
as the holders of farms
become
the
larger.
movement
It is
country
of
is
so
for
it
large a
and therefore
number
of
distressful
people from the
attended with a marked improvement in
who remain
If emigration
had not been available
distress caused
by the
of
obvious that
thus a curious fact in regard to
the standard of comfort of those
of the
is
of population that is taking place in
Ireland, that the compulsory
removal
become fewer, the farms must
produce of the
in
it.
to relieve the
decline in the pecuniary value

soil,
the remedy for the distress
Ireland must have come, and would assuredly
i6z
have come, from a means of cure as
more
painful, viz.
number
though
effective,
by a considerable reduction in the
The marriage-rate
of marriages.
has since the year 1845, which was the
of
Ireland
of
first
the
famine years, been greatly below that of any European
Whereas
country.
its
marriages
in
tion
of
amounted
to
when
in the years
rapidly multiplying
from 100
population,
10,000
its
Ireland was
annual propor-
persons
must have
120, the proportion from
to
1883 was only 45 from 1883 to 1893, 44

In England in the same
from 1893 to 1903, 50.
1873
to
periods
the proportional numbers
were respectively
79, 77, 78.

It
the
must not be imagined that the reduction in

amount of their marriages, from
proportional
more than 100 marriages in 10,000 persons

was due
the part
of
the
supposed to be
motives
Irish
less liable to
most
than
people
to 44,
moral restraint on
to a greater exercise of
people
generally
be swayed by prudential
others.
The
influence
of
the
labour market in determining the marrying power of
a community
Eeduced
is
imperative and must be obeyed.
as the
marrying power
of
the Irish people
had become, yet, if the field of emigration had been

closed to them in the fourth quarter of the nineteenth
century, which witnessed the great fall in the prices
of agricultural produce, their
power
have suffered a much more severe
to
marry would
restriction.
The tenants of the smallest or poorest farms would

first have become totally unable to marry, though
163
they might have a sufficient margin of profit to mainthemselves
tain
Next,
alone.
the
as
depreciation
grew worse, the tenants of farms somewhat larger or

poor would have fallen under
less
law that prohibits marriage
and
the ban of the
this process
would
have continued until a very large section of the

peasantry were perforce constrained to remain single.
As
the farms
fell
reoccupied, but
vacant, they would not be taken or
would be distributed among neighThus, as marriages became fewer,
bouring holdings.
the deaths would become more numerous than the

births,
and the population would
decrease.
Nothing could have prevented
this painful process
from being experienced by the Irish people but the

facilities for
world
emigration that the present state of the
affords.
the lapse
It is
now
difficult to forecast that, ere
another century, the existing
fields
of
return to consider what would happen
if,
of
emigration will be
I
not
filled
in a non-progressive
up and
closed.
and stagnating community, a large
outflow of emigrants took place, and
many
successive years.
continued for
multitude of existing posts
employment would be emptied, as in the case of a

pestilence, and would at once be filled by young men,
who would thus acquire the power of marrying at a
of
much
it
if
earlier period
than they would have acquired
no emigration had taken
place.
Accordingly,
there would be an unwonted birth-rate for some years,
which would quickly
fill
up the gap
caused by the emigration.
in the population
i6 4
But
the annual efflux continued at the same
if
amount, say, for some decades, then the high marriage-
and the high birth-rate would
rate
have the
effect
and
also continue,
maintaining the population at
of
its
normal numbers.
Thus the
maintenance
of a continued efflux
effect
the normal population by the pro-
of
duction annually of a
number
Thus
of
of individuals
number of births equal to the

who annually left the country.
emigration, however large in amount, does not
itself
tend
community.
diminish
to
the
The only cause
declining labour market.

Ireland.
Even the
population
if
all
the
of
depopulation
any
is
This has been the case in
vast emigration of the last thirty

effect of
diminishing
the labour market of Ireland had
remained in statu quo ante
had
population
of
years would not have had the

its
would be the
time
been
and
the labour market
if
expanding, the
emigration
would not have prevented a commensurate growth
of
population.
The
sole effect of the emigration
immensely to increase the number
would have been
of marriages, until
the marriage-rate rose to as great a height

to
a greater height than
it
as,
or even
attained in the closing
decades of the eighteenth century.
The labour market

fully
supplied
with
happens, and by
its
will
always
the necessary
own
insist
on being
labour whatever
action can and does effect
this result.
If
by an unexpected development
of industry there
is

created a great and sudden
demand
of labour, that
owing
realised
young men that every com-
The extent
possesses.
for a larger supply
will at once be responded to,
to the reserve of
munity
demand
165
may
of this reserve
Napoleon, during the
last
years of
sanguinary
his
career, recruited his constantly depleted armies
youthhood
the
labour market
up
filling
France.
of
The
result
memory
employment.
of
It is
of everyone how, at the close of
who had
the war in South Africa, the Volunteers,
employments at home
their
to
serve for a year
two their country abroad, experienced, upon
or
from
that the
is
being constantly stocked with labour
is
available posts
its
within the
left
be
by those who take into consideration how
return, great difficulty in obtaining similar
those they
had
the efforts
that were
left
their
posts to
and how, notwithstanding
made
in various quarters
procure for them suitable situations,
many had
all
to
for a
long time a weary waiting.

It
were a comparatively easy matter to take a
multitude of
men
for their posts
out of posts in the labour market,
would at once be
filled
but
it
would
be next to impossible to repone them in similar posts

after the lapse of a short time.
of emigrants
the
last
have
half of those
had
left.
if,
million
the shores of England during
Let anyone
ten years.
what would happen

English
left
More than a
strive
after the lapse of a
who emigrated
to
imagine
few
years,
returned to seek in the
labour market posts similar to those they
Some, no doubt, would succeed in obtaining
166
men were ready
posts that younger
number would have
the greater
army
but
posts which the
England contains at the present
labour market of
time are
The
tramps and beggars.
of
to step into
to seek refuge in the
and no industry has been hampered,
all filled,
or has ceased to advance less rapidly, in consequence
departure of emigrants from our shores, nor
of the
has any enterprise been thereby hindered from
The conclusion
development.
that England
is
the
due
not by a single family less populous
to-day than she would have been

forth
its
therefore inevitable,
is
men who
if
she had not sent
peopled the vast continents of
North America and Australasia.

Imagine,
sequences
if
it
be possible to imagine, what con-
would follow
Europe proceeded
if
to
general disarmament, and suddenly discharged upon
the already
labour market the vast armies that
filled
now maintained upon the

multitudinous host of men in
are
This
peace-footing.
the
prime
of
life
would be augmented by the workers who provide the

soldiers
with
food,
clothing,
and
all
their
personal
equipment, and by those who make and furnish the

munitions of war.
would follow
The
suffering
would be scarcely
less
would result from the conflagration
As a specimen
among a certain
article
says
than
class of political economists, I give

article
Encyclopedia of the date
terrible
of a universal war.
of the wise-looking folly that obtains
an extract from the
and misery that
" Prussia
"
Prussia," in the National
1872.
had a
The writer
first
place
of
the
for
the

relative
strength of
her
military
He
also says
footing
is
That number
320,000."
on the peace-
men
of
has been
increased since the article was written,
largely
deleterious effects of the abstraction of
have been nowhere
yet
their labour
any one branch
in
felt
the
days of labour."
of
of
"
with
force,
90,000,000
some
The number
men
resulting loss of
167
of
German
trade or industry.
The amount
to have been
of the labour
which the writer imagined
by the segregating
to Prussia
lost
of a
certain part of her male population from the ranks of
industry
discharge
to
military
who were by
supplied by younger men,
the others
of
was
service
enabled to
take their
fully
the removal
places in
the
labour market sooner than they would otherwise have
Thus not one day's labour was
done.
department of industry.
days
of
labour were
into
requisition
clothe,
consequence of the
of workers
to
provision,
was
in
of Prussia within its present
1871, 24,673,000
to
35,825,000, an increase
in
32
years.
has been
of
any
military service calling
into
number
to
many more
and otherwise equip the standing army.
The population
aries
added in
men
absorption of the
lost
Indeed, a great
of
in
1903
it
bound-
amounted
more than 45 per
cent,
This vast addition to her population
summoned
into being
by the great extension
her labour market in every department of industry,
and
it
has been accompanied by a far greater than
proportional increase in the means of subsistence of
the people overhead.
168
The next chapter

budget
of
illustrate
lation
free
and
statistical
more
information
fully the
to demonstrate
they are
to law.
will be devoted to providing a
from
active
with
view to
principles of popu-
by concrete examples how
arbitrariness,
and how subject
CHAPTER
III.

ILLUSTEATED.
dealing with population
IN
statistics,
it
worse
is
than useless to select facts here and there in
Such a mode
order to prove a general law.
of pro-
ceeding has been one of the reasons that have brought

into discredit the value of arguments founded
upon the
presentation of statistical facts.
The populationist must be able

years
long
sufficiently
show the action
to
through a period of successive
of his principles ruling
allow
to
the elevations and
depressions of the individual years to subside into a

,
general level, so that he

are
perfectly
bring
may
trustworthy.
phenomena
that
arrive at averages that
He
are,
at
is
thus enabled
the
first
to
glance,
apparently conflicting into a demonstrable harmony
with the general principle which he
is
illustrating.
In illustrating the general law of the movement of

population,
the
for
most part confine
myself
to
those European countries whose vital statistics for the
period
under review
consider
deserving
of
full
reliance.
I have, where
it
is
possible,
169
begun
my
tables with
tfo
the year 1864, so as to
But
decades.
embrace a period
not been possible, as in certain cases the
by me do not extend
accessible
other
have not attained
cases
of four
some countries that has
in regard to
statistics
so far back,
to accuracy
and in
till
later
than 1864.
Even
in regard to England, the desiderated accuracy
not attained
is
about the year 1850, while in
till
1863
regard to Scotland the year
marks
its
The
vital
desired point
of
statistics
of
the
Ireland only
reliability
The system
registration
of
in
till
But while the people are becoming

its
system
which
operation,
of
results until
it
is
registration
some years
During the
reach
the
was not claimed
not established by Act of Parliament
with
first
accuracy in the year 1872, up to
which year, indeed,

them.
is
attainment.
first
invariably
does
not
the
Ireland
for
was
1864.
familiarised
case that a
produce
accurate
after its introduction.
eight years in which the Act was
in operation in Ireland, the reports of the Begistrar-
General gave the annual death-rate as 16 "4 per 1000

of population,
which would make the average
life
of
the Irish people to have been at that time 60 years
and 302 days.
But the sudden and thenceforward continued

in the death-rate
column
rise
of Irish vital statistics in the
year 1872 signified the more stringent application

the
of
Act, and accordingly a closer approximation to
accuracy in the annual reports.
Hence from 1872
to
LAW OF POPULATION ILLUSTRATED

1880 the
registered average death-rate rose at
from 16 4
-
to
abound
18 3 per 1000 persons, and reduced

-
the life-term by more than six years, making
236
years and
It
the error
reliable,
it
54
days.
obvious that where vital statistics
is
171
are un-
always of defect and never of
is
excess.
My
information as to the vital statistics of the
drawn from the annual

the Eegistrar-General of England, and
Europe
is
them which
is
different countries of
reports
of
from that part

Vital
of
The
Statistics.''
columns
that
give
entitled " International
earlier
the
annual
reports
carried
the
births,
deaths,
and
marriages as far back as to the middle of the nineteenth century, where
it
was possible
to obtain
them
from the foreign bureaus.
But
in
systematic registration was
not
introduced until a
later period.
introduced
statistical
Chili,
and
some countries
The Eegistrar-General has but recently

into
his
annual
reports
details
of
Eussia,
Eoumania, Japan, and
the
registered
also of our Australian colonies.
With the exception
of the
statistical
which Malthus derived from his Swedish

which have a certain approximation
information
authorities,
to accuracy, all
the vital statistics with which he was furnished by

the different bureaus of Europe were such as statistical
experts of the present day would, at a glance, fling
aside as impossible rubbish.
But even Malthus was staggered by the vital

he obtained from St.
statistics of Eussia which
172
Petersburg, for he writes
The
"
lists of births, deaths,
and marriages in Eussia present such extraordinary

results that it is impossible not to receive
a considerable degree of suspicion
at the
them with
same
time,
the regular manner in which they have been collected,
and their agreement with each other in

entitle
them
That
of
may
it
be clearly perceived to what amount
the
attention
Malthus by
different years,
to attention."
Eussian
statistics
bestowed, upon
his St. Petersburg authorities are entitled,
from them the average length
I give
of life in six
out of the twelve Governments of European Eussia.
The Government
longevity of
its
of
Voronesch stands
first
for the
inhabitants, their average span of
The Government
being no less than 79 years.
comes next with an average life-span
of
of
life
Tver
75 years;
next comes the Government of Pskovsk with 7 Of years

as
the average
Governments
of
life
of its people.
Then
follow the
Novgorod with 68 years, the Arch65 years, of Kostroma with
bishopric of Vologda with
59
years.
was made
In
Eussia the average length of
all
to appear as not less
this at a time
when
life
than 58 years; and
in Sweden, which has all along
been foremost of European countries for the longevity

of its
30
average
people, the
life
was not more than
years.
Very
obtained
different
from
the
by Malthus from
statistical
St.
information
Petersburg
is
that
received to-day from the same quarter by the Eegistrar-
General of England.

The
173
which he furnishes in
vital statistics of Eussia
annual reports give the births, deaths, and mar-
his
riages of the twenty-one yearB
1879-99, and
show that the present death-rate
of Eussia transcends
these
that of any European country, and that her birth-rate
much higher.
From 1879 to 1888 the average annual death-rate
was 34*3 per 1000 persons, giving the average length
of life at 29 years 56 days; and from 1889 to 1898,
34 65 per 1000 persons, giving the average length
of life at 28 years 317 days.
There can be no
is
also
doubt that the difference
between the
information
supplied more than a century ago to Malthus, and

that
supplied
England,
is
to-day
to
due entirely
the
Eegistrar-General
to the greater
of
approximation
to accuracy of the latter.
now
present in juxtaposition the three highest
death-rates in Europe and contrast with

of
Sweden and Norway
for the
them those
same decades.
i74
The
birth-rate
by the
affected
directly
is
even more than the marriage-rate
death-rate, for
countries illegitimacy
and where
it is
the birth-rate which
market.
labour
the
supplies
In
more than
prevails
some
in others,
this is the case marriage is less frequent,
partly because
it
often happens that those
who have
to support illegitimate children are thereby rendered
unable
marry, and
to
Again, there
place.
is
because
partly
by marriage
unsanctioned
not
cohabitation
unfrequently
growing
some
in
takes
countries
the practice, that has long been a characteristic of

the French, of married people limiting the number
of their children
we
growing,
and where
this practice is beheld
becoming elevated
find the marriage-rate
without affecting the birth-rate in the degree we should

expect.
Again,
the
differences
peoples in
various
that
exist
between the
the fecundity of their marriages
advisable to measure
by the
birth-rate rather
than by the marriage-rate the
effect
upon the move-
renders
ment
it
of
population caused by the
death-rate.
In
every case the birth-rate supplies the labour demand,
and never provides a surplus or an

Let us now see the
rates
of
Eussia,
effect
insufficient supply.
produced upon the birth-
Hungary, and Eoumania by
their
elevated death-rates, and place alongside the results
thus obtained the results of the lower death-rates of

other countries.
The table which I now submit contains the pronumber of deaths and births annually in
portional

10,000
persons
for
the
period
1879-98, with the percentages
of
i7S
twenty years,
of the
natural and
actual increases for the period, and the percentage of
excess of
excess
is
emigration
over immigration
where such
found, and of excess of the immigration, in
the two countries France and Belgium.
176
the approximation to accuracy
surprising in a do-
is
minion at once so uncivilised and so extensive, yet

the approximation attained is still very far from the
my
degree of correctness that would justify
any nice
In only four
twenty-one years over which the
of the
range
registered vital statistics
Eussia
making
calculations from the figures as they stand.
estimated, viz.
the population of
is
1885,
in
1886, 1897, and
1899.
In the year 1885 the excess

registered
as
was only 1,120,000,
estimated population
1886
that of
of births over deaths
is
that
of
while the
yet,
year
81,725,000,
is
85,395,000, or 3,670,000
more an
impossible increase.
Another feature in the Eussian table as furnished
by the
Eegistrar-General
suspicious, is that,
is
higher than that of any other country,
too low for the
ing
the
to
marriages
One
to
renders
that
is
number
number
for
apparent
this
:
native
are
is
100
may
great
be adopted
fecundity
of
marriage
really
is.
greater
we have know-
secondly, that a large proportion of Eussian
births are illegitimate

tables
Accordto
that in Eussia the average
first,
of children to a
or,
me
yet seems
births
of
than in any other country of which

ledge
to
550.
Eussian marriages
number
it
of registered births.
the
table,
or other of three hypotheses
account
it
though the marriage-rate as given
unreliable.
that which
or, thirdly,
To
my
recommends
that the registration
mind the
itself.
last alter-

I incline to believe that the registered
births
and the registered number
defect,
and that
we
if
and the actual
average length of
years
five
than
proportionally
we should
in Eussia
life
of
find that
population
the
was nearer twenty-
and that the
thirty,
to
number
deaths err by
possessed the actual death-rate
birth-rate,
of
177
births
were
more
considerably
numerous.
I have already stated that
statistical
character.
make
it
whom
statistical details
this
cannot
interesting to those,
chapter
therefore
is
of
hope to
and they are many,
to
are a weariness to the flesh
but these details provide the data and set forth the
phenomena that are required

of the
law
to illustrate the operation
I hold to the belief that
of population.
an understanding of that law, besides delivering the
human mind from
the frightful phantasmagoria of the
Malthusian theory,
may
in the future be practically
useful in the cause of advancing civilisation.
the principles affecting the
which I have endeavoured
when the mortality
of
movement
From
of population,
to establish, it follows that
community undergoes a
continuous decrease from decade to decade, the number

of births proportional to the population
ence
a corresponding
what always takes
may
decline.
This
place, although in
must experi-
is,
of
course,
no single case
it
be apparent.
The appearance
of a corresponding decline is taken
away by the constant action
of factors that operate to
elevate the birth-rate, viz. the extension of the labour

12
178
market and the

the degree
in
visible effect
birth-rate
which
of
these
Ever
neutralised.
operate,
factors
declining
the
According to
emigration.
of
effect
it
the
upon the
mortality
since
is
has
become
possible to regard the tables of vital statistics compiled
by most
reliable,
of
the European countries as substantially
both of the above-mentioned factors
tion have been constantly
From some
making
their action
again, in
from others
some countries the labour market has
expanding
been
felt.
countries there has issued forth, year by
year, a larger stream of emigration than
and
of eleva-
more rapidly than
in
others.
In
almost every country both factors have, in a greater

or less degree, been operative during the period of our
Thus the decline
survey.
lower the birth-rate
in the mortality tending to
encountered by the two factors
is
which tend to elevate
it
ment
we
of the birth-rate
and in the resultant moveperceive neither the force of
the lowering factor nor the force of either of the

elevating factors
made
visibly manifest, notwithstand-
ing that the forces of all the three are producing their
full effects.
In the following
tion the death-rates
countries
tables,
which exhibit in juxtaposi-
and birth-rates
upon whose
of those
European
statistics I place reliance, I
taken the four decades extending from the year

to the year
have
1864
1903, and have made, when the occasion
seemed
to call for them, such explanatory statements
may
tend to elucidate anything that seems peculiar
as
in the
movement
of population.
179
i8o
emigration acting in concert have elevated the birthrate in the degree in

of falling to
now
which
its
decline has
an equipoise with that
come
of the death-rate.
present the vital statistics of
Sweden and
Norway, two countries in which the elevating

of
the
has
birth-rate
emigration
short
factor
been mainly the amount
of
a continuous stream has flowed
that in
outward, directed mostly to the United States.
In the annual reports

England, the vital
of the Eegistrar-General of
statistics
back than the year 1871.
1871-1903,
of
Norway go no
The period
of
further
33
years,
I have divided into four parts, the
first
three consisting of 8 years each, the fourth part of

9 years.
NORWAY

SWEDEN
181
i8a
The third point which
remark
invites
is
that
notwithstanding the fact that the labour market was

calling for proportionally decreasing additions to the
the
population,
a tendency to
natural
in
fall
show
not
did
increases
so that in the
like ratio;
decade 188493, while the labour market only called

for
an increase
amounted
to
Thus we
the
for
of
no
4'8 per cent., the natural increase
less
than 12'1 per cent.
see that the birth-rate made'provision both
labour
demand
and
the
for
emigration
demand.
fourth point
is
the rise of Swedish emigration
from the almost immaterial amount
of
27,000
for the
1854-63, till it reached 332,000 for the

ten years 188493, equivalent to 7"3 per cent, of the
ten years
population.
The decade 185463 was a period that seemed to

be one of unexampled prosperity, though in truth this
apparent prosperity was due to an inflated industrial
and commercial
activity, fostered
to
a considerable
extent by the contemporaneous introduction of
rail-
ways into the country.

In these ten years the population increased by
1 2*4
per cent., a proportional increase which Sweden had
never before known, and to which she has never since

attained.
we have
The emigration during those years was,

seen,
on a very modest
scale.
as
In the three
decades that followed, the aggregate excess of emigration over immigration
was equal
to
47 per
cent, of the
natural increase, and amounted to 730,000 persons.

If
no
of-
had been
of emigration
field
demand
the
determined the
183
available, the
home labour market would alone have

number of marriages, and consequently
would not have
of births, so that the natural increase
exceeded what was required to provide for the supply
The marriages
of that market.
home caused by
at
departure of emigrants leaving their several posts of
employment
were
sufficient,
by the number
yielded, to replace the
Sweden
its
own
by younger men,
to be filled as a rule
which they
of births
numbers who
left
for a continuous emigration
is
the shores of
maintained by
In the last
action in elevating the birth-rate.
decade of our table,
we
see the emigration
movement
sustaining a severe check, and the bulk of the natural

increase retained for the
same phenomenon
home
visible
is
labour market.
The
Norway.
The
also in
population of Sweden, which advanced by only

per cent,
in
the previous
increase of 8*2 per cent.
Norway was
cent, to
years
to
in this
4'
an
while the actual increase of
one of 10-2 per cent.
1887-94
1895-1903
made
raised from a decennial date of 3 3 per
Whereas
the emigration from
147,000 persons,
We
decade,
it
amounted
in the eight
Norway amounted
for the nine years
to only 47,000.
have in these
figures a convincing proof that a
season of prosperity had come to both countries, marked
by a greater advance
in the
home labour demand, accom-
panied with an elevation of the standard of comfort that

neutralised to a considerable degree the attractiveness
of
a settlement in the United States of America.
184
In Sweden the figures for the second decade of our

table,
viz.
1864-73,
rendered
are
abnormal by the occurrence
marriages
76
60
10,000
in
average
the
the
of
of
preceding
10,000 persons, to an average
of
persons.
In the year 1867 there
upon Norway a
happens
and
number
proportional
the
from
fell
decade, viz.
in
which
during
years,
exceptional
of a series of five disastrous
fell
upon Sweden and
commercial
terrible
after a course of over-production
which
trading, the effect of
in
also
such as
crisis,
and over-
throwing great numbers
out of employment was continued throughout a series of
This calamitous state of matters was further
years.
accompanied by a period
of agricultural depression, the
result of Sweden's adoption of the free-trade policy of
England.
This depression continued to be the normal
condition of agricultural
Sweden
Government reversed the
policy,
until
the
Swedish
and returned
to that
of protecting the country's greatest industry.
In
this
time of distress
were not content to
more prosperous
stirred
anew
Vikings
sit
times.
the Scandinavian
and await the advent
still
The
in their breasts.
who conquered and
people
of
instinct of their ancestors
The descendants
of the
colonised a great part of
England, overran and founded kingdoms in Normandy,

Apulia, and Sicily, and by
terror on every coast
were brought to
their, .depredations
spread
from the Baltic to the Levant,
realise
that in a far country there
existed an illimitable field of colonisation possessing

fairer lands
than their own, and richer soiL for cultiva-

tion,
185
which promised to their industry a more abundant
store of material well-being than they could ever expect
Then
to find at home.
in that season of distress
began
the great efflux from Scandinavia to the United States

of America,
istic of
which has been the distinguishing character-
the
movement
Norway up
greatly
the
to
accelerated
another commercial
Sweden and
of population in
present
by the
crisis,
day.
This
incidence
in
efflux
1878
was
of
the effect of which was more
widespread than the former, and lasted over a longer

period, as
may
be seen from the figures for the decade
188493, when the numbers who emigrated
greatly
who were added to the population.

The native instinct of the race made their selfexpatriation to take possession of a new home less painful
exceeded the numbers
than
it
would have been
to peoples not possessed of
their inherited spirit of adventure,
the emigration long after

distress
it
and has maintained
ceased to be impelled by
and became a purely voluntary movement.
The next
countries whose vital statistics I tabulate
are Prussia, the Netherlands, and Belgium, which show

as a
common
characteristic a decline in the birth-rate
exceedingly small compared with the decline in the

death-rate
a result in each case mainly due to the
expansion of the labour market, and in a comparatively

small degree to the effect of emigration.
As
Prussia had
its
boundaries largely extended in
the decade 1864-73, I
am
unable to furnish the
natural and actual increases of the kingdom

following decade.
till
the
186
PRUSSIA

was elevated
187
almost as great a degree by the

numbers who died at home from the effects of their
wounds and of exposure during the campaign. In
1873, Prussia suffered severely from a visitation of
The
cholera.
effect of
in
mortalities of these four years
had the
producing an abnormal number of marriages,
bringing up the average marriage-rate of the decade to

the high figure of 88 per 10,000 persons.
three
years
1871,
1872,
1873, the
In the
number
of
marriages per 10,000 persons was respectively 104,
101, 97.
The explanation
of the
birth-rate
being
somewhat higher in the decade 1874-83, which was

from abnormal mortalities, than in the decade
free
which had the four calamitous
years, notwithstanding
fell from an average of 88 to

82 per 10,000 persons, is found in the
that the large number of marriages in the last
that the marriage-rate
an average
fact
of
four years of the
first
decade yielded the greater number
of their resultant births in the second.
Before the Franco-Prussian War, the industries of
were
Prussia
in
flourishing
expansion of the labour
condition,
and
the
market was represented by a
decennial growth of population of more than 11 per
The excess of emigration over immigration did

not amount to more than 5 per cent, of the natural
But the access of militaryism after the war,
increase.
the stringency of the conscription, and the burdens it
cent.
entailed,
were the inciting causes
of a vastly increased
emigration.
In
place
of
an
annual
departure
of
10,000
188
emigrants prior to the war, the excess of emigration

over immigration rose to an annual average of 75,600
decade
the
in
1874-83, and
of
79,100
the
in
Nevertheless, the actual decennial
following decade.
population continued to exceed 11 per
increases of
cent.
But the policy
protecting
of
Germany and keeping out the

other countries that competed in
the same products of
German
the
industries
of
industrial products of
German markets with
industry, established and
fostered under the auspices of Bismarck, imparted such
a stimulus to industrial
throughout
seemed to awake
industry
and commercial
empire, that
the
to
began to
every town
enterprise
and
city
new life, and centres of

up and fill with large
spring
populations.
One
result of this great
market was
expansion of the labour
whereas between 1893 and 1903
that,
the death-rate declined by nearly 14 per

birth-rate declined
by only 3 5 per
cent.,
the
cent.,
and the
decennial increase of the population of Prussia bounded
up from three
five
millions
of increase
millions
in
the
in
the decade
1884-93
decade 18941903, the
to
rate
having risen from ll'l per cent, to 16"2
per cent.
Prom 79,000
persons in the previous decade, the
annual excess of emigration
fell
This decline in the amount of
to less than 18,000.
emigration was con-
sequent upon the great material betterment that had

accrued to the working classes of Prussia, and rendered

them more
satisfied
with their
lot in the
home
189
country.
Notwithstanding that fewer posts of employment were

vacated by death and by emigration, the multitude of
posts created by the vast development that took place
in the industries and trade of Prussia
continually greater
number
and thus an increase

greater than had been
of
of
men
population
made
in
demanded a
to supply them,
proportionally
any past decade was
this decade called into being.
THE NETHERLANDS
in
igo
the Netherlands have extensive and populous posses-
beyond
sions
sea,
on a moderate
yet the emigration has always been
With
scale.
a larger population than
amounted only
Scotland, Holland's emigration has
to
a fractional part of that of the former country, while

her,
expanding labour market has, as a
rule, called for
a proportionally larger supply of labour,
words, for a proportionally greater
That the
population.
prosperous
increase of 16'1
To the
rates I
the
decade has been singularly
per cent., and by the larger actual
14 6 per
-
cent.
have added the

to
exhibit
marriage-rate
as
labour market and
vital statistics of the decade
more
fully the
heightened
annual
was
inappreciable,
in the
marriages
in
first
the
of
the
not caused
it is
signifies
to
a greater
two decades beginning

the variation of the
and
as
the
marriage-rate per 10,000 persons
79 marriages
fewer
in the
1854 and 1864
with the years

death-rate
As
of
by an increased emigra-
marriage-rate
degree of prosperity.
state
by a declining death-rate.
also
pestilential mortality, or
tion,
fluctuation
by the
affected
There cannot be a doubt that where
by a
and death
table giving the marriage, birth,
1854-63,
her
to
evidenced both by the larger natural
is
increase of
last
in other
or,
addition
73
latter
average
fell
from
in the second, the
decade
must have
been owing to a lessened ability on the part of the

people to marry.
But
it
will be observed that the birth-rate in the
second decade was considerably higher
than in the

former, which
witnessed
In
decade
the
first
marriages
485
were but
children were
was not
tion of
made
whereas
the
fecundity
greater
This
the
of
in that decade, but to a large propor-
the marriages
made
in the
first
continuing
In any decade we
estimate that one-half of the births are due to
made
marriages
often happens
it
though a decade has a higher
that
decade with
following
lower marriage-rate
may have
This fact makes
evident that
it
Thus
preceding decade.
in the
marriage-rate, the
to
second
marriages.
their productiveness in the second.
may
100
to
the
in
100
to
marriages.
born
children
425,
born
owing to
marriages
many more
so
the
191
a greatly
the higher birth-rate.

is
it
utterly futile
hope to ascertain the average fecundity
any
of
people by using for that purpose only the marriages
and births
of
decades.
By
to
1903, I
marriages
which
is
to
a single decade, or even of two successive
1854
taking in the half -century from

fecundity
average
find the
be 456 births to
100, a
Dutch
of
proportion
not shown in any one of the five decades.
I do not doubt that,
if
to obtain exact returns
it
had been
the
of
possible for
marriage-rates
me
and
birth-rates for a century, I should have attained to a

still
must
closer approximation
not, however,
to
the
be lost sight
computations I have treated
all
exact
tion as to the average fecundity of
high.
It
above
the registered births
as legitimate; which doubtless renders
somewhat too
ratios.
of that in the
my
calcula-
Dutch marriages
iQ2
What
is
most noteworthy in
I consider as
this table
the small drop in the birth-rate as compared with
the great
fall
in the death-rate.
1864-1903
In the forty years
the average
life
in
the Netherlands has been lengthened by no less than
18
years.
died
Whereas
decade
1864-73
in the decade
257
annually
per
persons
1894-1903
only 172
while the posts of employment
10,000,
persons
there
in
the
But
died.
made vacant by death
have thus undergone a great reduction, those created
by the expansion
of
the
trade
and industries
of
Holland have become so much more numerous as to

raise the natural increase of the population
from 10*3
per cent, decennially to 16'1 per cent., and the actual

increase from
commercial and industrial
may
of
14'6 per cent.
per cent, to
development
of
The
Holland
be estimated from the fact that to a population
3,431,000 in 1863 she in the space
of forty years
added no fewer than 1,958,000 persons, an increase

of rather
more than
5 7 per cent., while the standard
of comfort of her people has

If neither trade
been greatly elevated.
nor industry had increased since
1864, but had remained in statu quo

rate
would have
commensurate degree
in
fallen
ante, the birth-
with the death-rate, and would in the decade
1903 have amounted

10,000
persons,
high as 322.
rate been kept
To
to
instead
so great
220
of
being,
1894-
annually to
births
as
it
was,
as
an extent has the birth-
up and prevented from
commercial and industrial expansion
falling
by the
of the country.

BELGIUM
193
194
the adoption by a considerable portion of the population
Belgium
of
people
without
multiplied
limiting
corresponding
Were
to the population.
it
population, which
room
high
as
is
Netherlands, would
is
in
number
of
in
its
adoption
of marriages to
France as in the
an increment
yield
being
addition
not for
by the French people, the proportion
what there
prevails
the
This system enables marriages to be
their children.
made
the system which
of
married
France, of
far
market
for in the labour
beyond
of France.
But such an increment the French prevent by

making
their marriages comparatively infertile.
number
the same
of marriages that in the
Thus
Netherlands
100 children, in France yields only 68. The

average number of births in 100 marriages in the
latter country is 310 compared with 456 in the
former.
The economic conditions of France impose
yields
upon
people
its
comparative
either
infertility
comparative infrequency or
chosen the latter mode of

to the
demand
marriage.
of
France are prosperous, and

is
with what
the other
embraces
is
market
is
industries of
population in the large
But even
increasing.
of the labour
have
of the labour market.
The manufacturing and commercial

towns
They
adjusting the population
in these the expansion
very moderate when compared
taking place throughout Europe.
hand, the
many
other industries,
times
is
agricultural
the
population
decreasing.
On
population, which
The
so
supported by
much lauded
system of peasant proprietors has, when weighed in

the
an
proved
balances,
egregious
195
The
failure.
peasant whose patrimony joined to his wife's dowry
forms an estate of a few acres,
last
beams
the sun,
of
pittance which, were
heir to the drudgery
is
from
of a galley slave, toiling
to
earliest
earn
an
morn
to the
average daily
proposed to him as a daily
it
wage, would move the scorn of an English ploughman.
The wife who by her

is
very early
her
in
doubled
has
dot
married
creature, prematurely aged
by
life
toil
his
estate,
faded,
and carking
jaded
care,
while their children, born and bred in a joyless home,
embryo before they enter
are misers in
Their cottage
is
their teens.
brightened by no flowers and by no
The vintage song and dance have long
amusements.
passed away from the pleasant land of France.
John Stuart
Mill,
who
disliked luxury
and hated
the independent classes in England, glorified the lot

of
the
French peasant
proprietor,
drawing fancy
sketches of his abiding happiness in the feeling that

the land which he cultivates
industry, of
his
great
his
is
intelligence.
own, of his joyous
He warned
his
him from the filthy hut in

and from the foul rags which cover
for the man, outwardly seemingly so
readers against judging of
which he
lives
his nakedness
miserable,
may
possess thousands of francs stuffed into
stockings or hidden
away
in the thatch of his hovel.
To earn a living at all the French peasant probut in spite of the

prietor must be very penurious
;
utmost penuriousness many fail in the struggle for existwith their properties.
ence, and are compelled to part
196
whom
Nevertheless, those in
ness
the gift of penurious-
very highly developed, and
is
numerous, do succeed in their
they are fairly

not only to
effort
live,
hut to save money, which they lend on mortgage at

usurious interest to their struggling neighbours
and
they prove the most inexorable of creditors.

the peasant proprietary system of
lauding
Mill,
France, mentions as one of
prominent features
its
deserving commendation, that under

is
as free as
it is
in this country,
it
the sale of land
and that more land
changes hands in France yearly than in England, not

his affirmation is
perceiving that
very
many more
in England,
proprietors are ruined in France than
and compelled to part with their properties.
For no French peasant

he
is
substantially that
will part
from his land until
driven to do so by stress of circumstances
owing to the smallness
their
of
French proprietors must be ruined

land as
while,
many
much
properties,
to sell as
comprised in the average estate of a single
is
To
English landlord.
this result the
French law that
compels an equal division of the property of a parent
among the
whose
children
estate,
the property can
is
one
selected
of
the
farm
by
his
wife's,
and leaves three
support
to
largely responsible.
augmented
acres, dies
to eight
family,
is
amounts
children.
As
no more than a single
children,
the
father
generally
whole,
the
purchasing
eldest,
from
the other two their inheritances, and borrowing the

necessary
In
this
money to do so.
way he hangs a
millstone of debt round his

neck, which, as often happens, drags
utter
from the
him down
Accordingly for some decades the
ruin.
possessed
197
have been flying in numbers
proprietors
soil,
in
dis-
seeking the poorest Government employ-
ments to rescue them from
starving, or flocking into
the towns in search of work connected with their
The law
industries.
eminently
and
fair
doctrinaire laws,
is
equal
of
just
to
inheritance,
appearance,
though
most
like
By
economically disastrous.
con-
stantly dispersing accumulations and preventing the
growth
of capital, it has
any large
One
hampered
all
and hindered improvement
of France,
the industries
of the land
on
scale.
which accrues from
however,
benefit,
thinning out of the agricultural population,
is
the
that
large properties are increasing, and well-to-do tenants
are taking the place of wretched petty landowners.
The
fact noted
appreciation of
by
it,
Mill, with
rather a triumphant
that the wealthy peasant proprietors
exhibit the same rags and live in the same squalor
and misery as the most struggling of their class, is

an evidence that the blessings and elevating influences
of
modern
not
indeed
The law
male
exist,
of
heirs.
as
marry.
land.
far
inheritance
Upon
his
own
as
they
The farmer,
concerned.
as
as a rule, needs
portion of land to enable
His penurious soul hungers
He
are
makes as many female
this fact hinge the marriages of
the petty proprietors.
more than
have not reached them, do
civilisation
marries, therefore,
partly
him
to acquire
to
satisfy
to
more
this
198
craving,
and partly
drudge in the
to obtain a wife to be his fellow-
labours
of
farming.
To a married
couple thus circumstanced a large family would prove,

at least in prospect, too
The custom
number
of
in
their
heavy a burden to
France of
children
parents
came
in
bear.
limiting
with,
the
and was
necessitated by, the present law of equal inheritance.
CHAPTER
IV.
EETROSPECT AND FOEECAST.
nnHE
-*-
years
forty
embraced in the tables
several countries, which I have used
of
the
to explain
the action of the law of population, have in those
been characterised by industrial and com-
countries
mercial expansion, which, indeed, has been the characteristic
communities
civilised
of. all
may
civilisation
and
The ancient
were isolated episodes in the

import was
their
boundaries.
One
fell in its turn.
Eome
the era in which
which progressive
contemplates the elevation and material
betterment of the whole species.
of
solidarity is being achieved, in
tions
the
be regarded as the beginning of the new era
upon which humanity has entered

its
since
That century
beginning of the nineteenth century.
fell
life of
circumscribed by their
here, another
Only the
rose there,
civilisations of
own
and
Greece and
have, since their disappearance, transmitted

that
live
to-day
through
the
ages
forces
literature
and
art of
Modern Europe.
way
But the new
era, that, in a loose
several pregnant discoveries
preparing
civilisa-
humanity,
man
for
it),
may
in
the
(for, in truth,
and inventions had been

be said to have been in-
200
found
in the nineteenth century,
augurafced
the
all
progressive nations of the world acknowledging some
form
Christianity as
of
the
possessed of
their
and thus were
faith,
that form
principles
essential
This century
foundation of a progressive civilisation.
was as the burst

awakening
of spring after a long winter
human mind
the
of
to
the
an investigation
by degrees the
of the forces of Nature, as
the
veil
which
had hitherto concealed them from man's knowledge

was withdrawn, and he began
and
acter
of
possibilities
More and more
his
to perceive the char-
material
environment.
the century advanced,
as
man
dis-
covered his power of utilising the active principles

that
termed natural laws in a thousand ways
are
undreamed
hitherto
for
of,
the development of the
resources of the earth that avail for the support of
human
the
race,
and
for the material
human
of the conditions of
improvement
Passed away
existence.
were the slow-creeping and slumberous ages, in which

whatever
principles
were operating, as
showed
or
development
of
were
were, underground, or
it
at
work
if
they
head above the surface were unnoted
their
misunderstood.
The former generations
of
men,
with their limitations of knowledge and power, seem

to
pass
before
me
as
but caretakers for posterity,
occupying the earth until the advent of civilised man,
who
as the
fuller
estate.
heir of
and ever
The
civilisation
all
the ages should enter into
fuller possession of his great
victorious
march
of
our
and
rich
progressive
can never be seriously checked before
its
201
goal
is attained.
It is impelled by forces material
and moral that are naturally active and averse from
The
quiescence.
its
civilised
Eoman
civilisation of the
It
cannot
repeat
in
Empire.
not subject to internal decadence, but
is
formed throughout with

change.
The
existing
civilisation
anticipations
progress
submergence
the
by a deluge
of
an
of
barbarism has
But
all
having reference to the ultimate goal
must be
to the particular
We
and the
action
of
from human experience.
large
and disregarding existing

be attained.
in-
is
vital principles of progressive
possibility
for ever vanished
of
world
experience the downfall and disappearance of the
and
general, overleaping
and speculations as
theories
modes and means by which
it
will
do not know enough of the precise

final
possibilities
mutation that are stirring around
of
us,
the forces
of
and that are
abroad in the world, to be enabled to say what will
happen
to influence
or next day.
of
the
trend of events to-morrow
It is easier to forecast with a feeling
assurance that far future to which the trend of
events
is
bearing the race.
It is indubitable, however, that
into a larger consciousness of its
mankind
is
entering
solidarity.
As we
sweep our glance from San Francisco to the Ural

Mountains, and beyond the Cape of Good Hope to
Australasia
and Japan, we perceive
that
all
the
strong and powerful nations of the earth are being
knit more closely together in indissoluble bonds by

such agencies as the locomotive power of steam,
202
communication, and the ubiquitous printing
electrical
press, that transmit
principles
and
discovery
is
recorded, no
made, that does not become the

all.
It
is
no knowledge
that
so
civilisation
of
acquired, no
and
diffuse the active forces
invention
common
is
is
property of
importance also to consider that the
of
noteworthy events that occur upon any day in one

country circulate
as
news next morning, and are
matters of general interest in
all
Add
the others.
to
this that all progressive nations are developing their
material resources in a
unexampled,
expanding
manner and degree

trade and
their
and are thereby being brought
to realise
their predestined interdependence
hitherto
commerce,
more
clearly
and their community
of interest.
From
all
these causes the
more backward
or less
advanced nations of the progressive group, the more

recent recruits, so to speak, in the
are
receiving
army
of progress,
continuous influences from the
more
highly civilised, and are being potently acted upon
by them, and have, accordingly,
their progress acceler-
ated, so that they are being raised to the level attained
by the
latter.
The forward advance made
the
in
nineteenth century was undoubtedly inaugurated by

the shaking of
the nations caused
by the French
Eevolution and the Napoleonic wars, that overthrew

the props and bulwarks of the feudal system, and
laid
the
foundations
pregnant result of
the
it
human mind by
of
new
social
order.
One
was the stimulus imparted
to
the convulsions, upheavals, and

innovations
momentous epoch.
that
of
203
From
the
moral and intellectual stimulus thus produced have

proceeded the triumphs of practical science in mechanical invention, in chemical discovery, in the utilisation
of
steam and
tion
of
electricity,
and therapeutic
and in the progress
of sanita-
The means and
skill.
factors
progress evolved by scientific inventions and dis-
man
coveries have enabled
to increase
and multiply
his species, to cheapen the products of his industries,
weaving, chemical
and
metallurgic,
them the most distant marts, and

them in turn whatever ministers to
to
supply with
to
receive from
his needs or to
the gratification of his tastes, in a fraction of the
time that was required for their transit half a century

ago,
and
to arrange
commercial transactions within
the space of a few minutes across thousands of miles
and
of sea
land.
Accompanying
race,
there
has
this extraordinary energising of the
been
in
the nineteenth century a
prodigious development of the food resources of the

soil,
that has permitted the population of the world
to increase
by at
even this increase
least
to
50 per
cent.,
and has caused
be attended with an
ampler
supply of food and a greater material comfort for

the individual
The
human
being.
vast increase that has taken place in so brief
time in the earth's production of food,

and in the numbers of the human species, is evidence
a
space of
that up
till
a recent period a very large portion of
the cultivable surface of the globe was insufficiently
204
utilised for production or not utilised at
a great part, waste, dormant,
in
It lay,
all.
judged by the
or,
standard of the present day, poorly cultivated.
Now, equipped with the knowledge

its
Nature and
of
powers that has been gained in the past century,
and with the resourcefulness acquired through
his
inventions and discoveries, enormously enriched with
the material results of his recent energising, inspired
new
to further enterprise in exploring
vestigation
and
filled
and
everywhere
day
developed
in-
the evidences of social progress
visible, the
come
to
from
be
his
eighteenth century.
under new conditions
man
civilised
distinctly
at
the
new
ancestor
He
its fulness.
his
He
yield in ever larger measure of

tribute to his sustenance
of
the
world, brought
new moral and
has attained to a greater
realisation of his heritage, as the
and
close
and
he has been wrought
of being,
material environment.
in the earth
of the present
differentiated
Living in a
and moulded into harmony with
its
of
with the hopes of a brighter future for the
race founded upon
has
fields
in developing old sources of wealth,
Crown of Creation,
is making its soil
its
resources to con-
and comfort.
He
is filling
waste places with energetic and industrious popu-
lations, forcing heretofore thirsty deserts to give forth
streams of water, and what were formerly neglected

solitudes to produce bread for his support.
In the historic past divers forms of
growth in divers lands,

In their seats
of
flourished,
civilisation
had
and passed away.
power, while empire and military
205
domination lasted, industry and commerce maintained

large populations, reared opulent
from the
soil
But these
agriculture could produce.

tions rarely
and extracted
cities,
the richest harvest that the existing
had a long
isolated civilisa-
As
existence.
fire
unsupplied
with fresh fuel dies out, so they began to degenerate
and
fall into
when
decrepitude
the energy evoked by
aggressive ambition and external aggrandisement was
no longer called
forth,
when
it
did not happen that
they were summarily blotted out or cast down from

their pre-eminence
by the ruthless hand
of a foreign
conqueror.
The
civilisation
that
awoke
to
development and
century embraced, as
progress in the
nineteenth
have
strong and virile nations of mankind,
said, all the
have
the foundations of whose polity and social
life
been laid in their common Christian
and that
faith,
share in degrees differing according to their several

stages of
advancement in the various elements of

have come into force and operation
that
progress
with the discoveries
and inventions that form the
characteristic features of the past century.
No
civilised
isolation.
All
community now
existing
bound together by many

gether
towards
industrial
one
and moral
end,
civilised
ties,
the
in a state of
communities
and are working

ingathering
solidarity of
mankind, and the conquest of
all
all
into
are
to-
an
the races of
the material re-
The bonds of material

that are being formed among them by com-
sources of the spacious earth.

interest
exists
206
merce and community
of the elements of civilisation
are of far greater importance, because of their greater
permanency and growing stringency, than the mistrusts

and
keep the Great
racial antipathies that at present
Powers armed to the
teeth,
and that burden
their
peoples with an almost intolerable load of taxation.
The present military

regarded as an
civilisation,
situation
marking the
what may be
period
in
of
the march of
transition
from
pre-nineteenth century civilisa-
called
by the
tion, characterised
Europe may be
in
phase
evanescent
isolation of the individual
communities of the world, to the era whose harbinger

radiance
"
may
dawning,"
to
almost
use
be
the
seen
by hopeful watchers
eloquent words of
orator, " over the hilltops of time,"
a great
when men
shall
beat their swords into ploughshares and their spears

into pruning-hooks.
Alongside of the great, strong, civilised nations
of
the world embraced in Christendom, a new, highly

civilised
is
Power has
in recent years ranged
itself.
It
a mistake to assume that the civilisation of Japan
took
its rise
when
she began to equip herself with the
material resources of what
is
called
The Japanese possessed an
old
Western
civilisation.
civilisation
and an
enlightened social order, graced with a high refinement,
when Europe was sunk in the barbarous rudeness of

the dark ages.
When, half a century ago, Japan
realised her inability to cope with nations possessed
of the material resources of the
Western Powers, she
astounded the world by putting herself to school until
207
she acquired, in the different seats of civilisation in
Europe and on the continent

of the attainments of
of
America, the knowledge
each in every department
of
progress,
and by adopting whatever she perceived
to
be
best
the
civilisation
every
in
Japanese not
the
of
Had
country.
the
been
such
native
as
to
elevate their intellectuality to a high pitch, the rulers

of
Japan could never have contemplated
innovation, nor,
if
so great an
they had, would the nation have
submitted to a departure from old ways, manners, and
customs so radical and far-reaching.
ment upon the

exhibited
lines of
power
of
In her develop-
Western progress she has

organisation and scientific
thoroughness that has enabled her to

her
surpass,
tellectually
science
material
to
rival,
if
were both
people
and morally prepared
civilisation all the
modern
Her
teachers.
add
resources
not
in-
to their old
developed by
and approved by experience, existing
in the civilisation of the alien peoples of the West.
In the moral and intellectual elevation achieved
them by
their
native
civilisation
their so rapidly acquiring

of our
their
Western
own
In the
war
with
secret of
and assimilating the
civilisation
social order
lay the
Eussia,
results
and adapting them
and national
for
to
ideas.
Europe
beheld
admiration the patriotic self-devotion and
with
irresistible
bravery of the troops of Japan, and at the same time

the innate humanity, courtesy, and gentleness of her
people, with the wisdom, purposefulness,
of her statesmen.
and moderation
208
That
of
recent accession
this
to
Japan a source
Continental
and
rulers
of
to
the
ment
Western
of
statesmen
of
necessity
against all the world,
fearful anticipation
her
is
infusing a spirit of
into the vast population
eyes
and
of anxious
ascertained purpose
its
man
no
fulfil,
But that which renders the advent
living can doubt.

of
the great Powers
to
the world has a great destiny to
China, and
of
making
itself
of
well
progress
opening
strong
by adopting the material equipIt is unreasonable to
civilisation.
suppose that a people so intelligent and so proud as

the Chinese will long continue to suffer
a subject of cheap insult

to
remain in a position
insular
Power
itself
to be
by any European Power,
or
of humiliating inferiority to the
when once
of Japan,
it
is
summoned
to tread the same path by which that Power attained

its
greatness.
Empire
The reconstruction
of
the
will of necessity prove a fateful
one, I believe, of
happy augury
Chinese
event,
and
for the preservation
of the peace of the world.
To soothe the agony
of
her
irreparable
defeat,
Eussia endeavoured to appal Europe by conjuring up

the spectre of the Yellow Terror
it is likely to be
when prepared
strength,
is
no
idle
and
for her, I grant,
for the conflict
and conscious
of her
almost certain to recover her old empire
in Central Asia, wrested
from her helplessness by the
aggressions of a European
far less
menace, inasmuch as China,
civilised
Power whose people
than her own.
are
I feel assured that
in the course of the present century, Eussia, except
209
in her Siberian dominion, will be driven from. Asia to
the western shores of the Caspian Sea.

is
of the advent of the
Yellow Terror.
in the development of China
ambition
too,
She perceives
the frustration of her
an Asiatic
to acquire
Germany,
European Powers apprehensive
striving to render the
dominion, and
her
ultimate dismissal from the waters of the Far East.
But
Europe one great factor
in the alarm of
future has
not
received
due
its
of the
consideration.
It
requires no gift of prophecy to foretell that in the
near future
the English-speaking peoples will be
all
federated so as to act as one body corporate in relation

to the rest of
Their
the world.
different
political
constitutions and forms of government will prove no
bar to
their
mutual harmony and mutual
action.
This federation will stretch out the hand of friendship

to the ruling
them an
Powers
Far East, and form with
of the
alliance to curb senseless ambitions of con-
quest and territorial aggrandisement on the part of
any Power whatsoever.
The
communities
English-speaking
number
present one hundred and thirty millions of

at the end of the century will amount
hundred
It
milli ons,
with
would make
still
this
souls,
to
at
and
three
large powers of increase.
chapter too long were I to
endeavour to enumerate the signs that are from day

to day becoming more pronounced, that the moral
sense of civilised
mankind
is
revolting at the horrid
spectacle of war, conducted, as
any war between great
Powers must be nowadays, on an enormous scale with

14
2io
modern weapons wielded by modern science and that

the peoples of Europe are both becoming tired of their
;
burdens of military expenditure, and apprehensive of the

consequences that
may
ensue to themselves and their
prosperity in any conflict the issues of which are at

all
All the trend of material progress, of
doubtful.
developing political interests, of the enlarging ideas
and thoughts
of
drawing
nations
men,
is
and mutual confidence,

of the
in the direction of civilised
bonds
the
closer
friendship
of
in their increasing recognition
community and interlocking
of their material
interests.
The ancient Greeks had a saying that events and

issues still in the
of the future lay
on the knees
Certainly unexpected happenings arise
of the gods.
from time
womb
to time to
What human
confound the calculations of men.
sagacity, for instance, could half a century
ago have foretold the advent of the Empire of Japan

to its present position
World Powers,
struction of the
among what
or the probable
Empire
of
if
China
the Germans call
not certain recon-
In the forecast that I have made, I have merely

given
my
individual
and
convictions,
conclusions
derived from a long study of the trend of the forces

that I have discerned operative during the past halfNevertheless,
century.
admit,
lie
those
upon the knees
remain there in ceternwm.
of
conclusions,
the
gods,
freely
and may
In the following forecast
I speak of the inevitable.
For the sustenance
of
by
far the
major part
of her

population, Great
Britain
is
211
indebted to the ample
supplies of food that are poured into her from the
grain-growing plains and rich pasturelands of
fertile
countries whose populations are as yet too sparse to
consume the food they produce
Germany
is
and in
this respect
beginning to resemble this country.
But the countries from which our teeming population

draws
its
necessary supplies of food are increasing in
population at a great
and
ratio,
will, it
can scarcely be
doubted, continue to increase until the amount of food
they are capable of producing

provide for their
own
The population
of
is
to
United Kingdom amounts
the
at present to forty-three millions
rate of
only sufficient
wants.
growth continues,
it
and
if
its
existing
will in the middle of the
century show a population of more than sixty millions,
and
of
at the
commencement
more than one hundred
of the twenty-first century

millions.
I apprehend, however, that before the end of the
present century the ratio of increase will have been

considerably retarded from the growing difficulty of
purchasing from abroad sufficient food to maintain so

great a population,
if
not from the increasing inability
experienced by this country of expanding

in a
its
degree sufficient to support a further
commerce
expansion
of its industries.
This inability will arise partly from those countries

which afford us markets manufacturing to supply their
wants, and partly from the competition of other
manufacturing countries in these markets.
own
2i2
But
sake of argument, assume that
us, for the
let
something like the proportional

fifty
years will be maintained
Kingdom
the United
hundred years hence contain one hundred
will one
at present about sixty millions.
increase
But
per cent.
let
Germany
Its rate of
numerical
1890-1900 was about 16
decade
the
for
of
The population
millions of inhabitants.
is
increase of the last
us assume that
average growth
its
per decade in the present century will be 10 per cent.,
the population at
and
fifty millions.
its close will
amount
to one
hundred
Belgium and the Netherlands, two
highly industrial and progressive communities, have

together at present thirteen million souls.
Let
us
suppose them to contain at the end of the century
The combined populations
thirty millions.
.
and the Netherlands, aggregate
of
those
Germany, Belgium,
four countries, the British Isles,
the present day
at
one hundred and sixteen millions, while the amount

of
food raised by these countries
more than
supporting
not capable of
is
eighty-three
million
people,
leaving thirty-three millions to be supported entirely
by the
produce
other
of
So
countries.
ample,
abundant, and ready to hand are the supplies of food

furnished
and
by
fertile
but
so small the cost of
porting
countries, that
in
sparsely peopled countries,
importation into the imthe
British
Isles,
thirty-five years ago boasted the noblest
agriculture
profitable
agriculture has
so
that
it
is
ceased
the
to
world
had
which
and most
ever
known,
be a flourishing industry,
scarcely worth
while, except
on the

richest lands, to
grain.
grow wheat,
striking
is
any kind
or indeed
testimony to
our agricultural industry
the
given
decadence
of
of
in the fact that
1870 two thousand square
since the year
213
miles in
had been redeemed from the waste and

brought under culture, have been again restored to
Ireland, that
the waste as not repaying the cost of cultivation.
But a century hence matters will have materially

The four countries I have particularised will
altered.
then contain an aggregate population of two hundred
and eighty
assumed
millions.
20
probable,
per
capacity, they will

their
own
and food
the progress of
If
have added, which I think
to
cent,
be
to
their
capable
of
science be
is
food
of
But whence are
they to receive so prodigious a supply of

'
food?OThe
soil
imported
present European granaries, Eussia and
no longer have food to export, as their
will
populations will then consume
all
the food their
can produce.
century hence the agricultural resources of the
United
to
from
one hundred and eighty
have to be imported.
milliofiS} will
own
producing
supporting
resources one hundred millions of people,
for the support
Hungary,
not very
States will
support
for
not be far off
the
most part be required
own population and the hour will

when that population shall have grown
its
so great as to need all the food that can be produced
The rebetween the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

sources of the Dominion of Canada and of Australasia,
which appear
illimitable
now, will not appear to be
2i 4
so
an
hundred
years
when
hence,
and their
in
the lapse
populations have been multiplied tenfold
extreme limit will have been reached

of
We
another century.
may
region in the globe capable
man, and having food
present
their
well believe that no
producing
of
food for
to export, will be overlooked
by those nations that require
importation
its
while
the inevitable end will certainly be anticipated and
provided
tion
for, if
not by legislation, by the due opera-
law
of the
of
The competition
population.
the importing nations will grow to
and the price
of
height
great
will proportionally rise, until
of food
the ability of the working classes to enter into the
married state becomes greatly curtailed.

will begin
will
and the process
to decline,
continue
until
it
soil is
I do not
capable of supporting.
anticipate
the
that
declension
population of Great Britain, from

of attainment
between
it
the
more numerous
inhabitants of the country are not
than the
when
point
reaches
Population
of declension
its
of
the
highest point
until the equipoise has been reached
and the produce
accompanied by suffering or
of
the
distress or
will
soil,
by
be
deteriora-
tion in the standard of comfort.
On
I feel assured that, during the
two centuries that
will elapse
the other hand,
from the present date until the
communities of the world are obliged to

produce of their own
of the conditions of
soil,
civilised
live
on the
the influences ameliorative
human
life,
proceeding from the
further utilisation by science of the forces of Nature,
215
as its knowledge of these forces increases, will suffice

to render the process of a rapidly declining population
a kindly and undistressf ul one.
It is not to be imagined
that civilised nations, which depend for the sustenance
upon imported
of a great part of their people

will not foresee long before
it
it
food,
day when
arrives the
from foreign shores
will be impossible to receive
food sufficient to support the existing numbers, and

will
not
make
necessary provision to avert
all
calamitous issue from the inevitable cessation of the
That such a process as I have
imported food supply.

described, in
what may be termed the near
reckoning by the
I
think,
be
humanity,
reasonably
increase at
continue to
rate,
life of
according
expand and
as
to
is
Population will
doubted.
a
more or
less
the labour market
provide
future,
inevitable, cannot,
sustenance
accelerated
continues
to
increasing
for
numbers.
That sustenance will not suddenly
fail
but when
the difficulty of procuring food supplies from abroad

begins to be felt, the law of population will begin
with unerring action to adjust the relation between

the population and the food supply, until the former
has fallen to a level at which
on the produce
So much
of the soil
may
which
it
can be maintained
it
occupies.
be predicated with absolute certainty,
but what must for the present remain in the region

phases
of the theoretical are the conditions and the
of
change through which
the present transition
era.
civilised life will pass during
216
I apprehend that the era of transition will prove
one of great and continued progress throughout the

civilised world,
such as has been adumbrated in the
advance realised in the nineteenth century.

the assurance that every nation
to
that
I cleave
now a
is
upon
and become more
seat of civilisation shall be increasingly acted
by refining and humanising
influences,
make
enlightened and more equipped with powers that

for progress
won from
the conquest of Nature by the
attainment of increased
most
command
over
The
its forces.
brilliant seat of present-day civilisation
can only
be considered as refined by a reference to
its
past
ruder state, and will at a later day appear rude and
unenlightened to a generation which contrasts

the moral and material
status
to
which
it
itself
with
has
attained.
Eejecting
adopt
is
as
and
perfectibility
to
impracticable,
as
and assuredly
the
of
social
language
by the teaching
man
undesirable,
in the paths
of
the
impossible,
as
ideas
equality,
of experience
of
even
all
Greek
poet,
"
God
and suffering guiding
wisdom," and that
perplexing and complicated
human
of
I believe that,
social
the
problems of
most
the
present day will by insensible advances and ameliorations find their solutions
elevation of
life
that
foresight
is
mankind
to
in the
coming years.
The
the higher and purer social
to be will not
human
so much
be the effect of
or of far-seeing legislative action,
as the result of humanity's blind, unconscious gropings
that have their drift and direction determined by that
217
good Spirit which has achieved for us as a nation

that
higher
moral sentiment from which
down with shuddering and
we look
upon the
disgust
judicial
massacres of the legal code, the shocking inhumanities

of
the prison system, and the brutal sports of this
country as they existed one brief century ago.
If
the public sentiment of the English people has become

so
changed for the better and elevated in one century

has undoubtedly been the case, what
of progress, as
may
not be reasonably hoped for from the refining
and educative
We
influences of the
coming centuries
cannot anticipate a time when
however
refined,
however held in
and
ventional
sentiment,
activities
by happier
wholly
divorced
the
primitive
have up to the present day

history
in
its
will
be
that
passions
so largely
and wrecked
nations
of
by con-
restraint
arrangements,
nature,
however modified
social
from
human
moulded the
individual
lives.
I do not forecast a society so admirably organised
or so interpenetrated with the principles of morality

that
it
will
natures, a
no
contain
society in
vicious
which the
elements,
no
evil
policeman will
be
unnecessary, and in which courts of justice, criminal
and
trials,
legal
punishments will have ceased to be
indispensable to the maintenance of the social order.
But I do
behind
it
forecast
for
ever
society
the
that
possible
will
existence
have
of
left
such
of misery, debauchery,
vice-fostering slums
and dens
and crime as
exist
to-day in all our great towns.
I do
a time
forecast
when
the
refining
influences
218
that have elevated the conventional sentiments and
moulded into forms

manners
the
course
to
past
century,,
lower
strata
the
of
penetrated
the
and
greater grace the habits
of
our upper and upper-middle
of
classes
have
will
so
society,
of
that
very largely to bridge over the gulf
in
inter-
as
separates
the cultured gentleman to-day from the semi-savage
Such change, such pro-
coal-heaver and bricklayer.

gress will appear
to
trend of
the general
be inevitable,
the
we
consider
forces
that are
if
civilising
everywhere marking the process of time with their

beneficent results.
I believe that in the progress of science the surface
the globe will increasingly become the
of
home
of
miasmatic and pestilential
civilised
man, from
localities
being cleansed from the malarious influences
that render
Many
them
its
at present pernicious to
generations are not destined to
human
life.
elapse before
the seaboard and adjacent hinterlands of Africa shall
have yielded up to science the secret
of their fever-
breeding potency, and before science has discovered

the means of coping with
it
and overcoming
May
it.
we
not confidently cherish the belief that the banks of
the
Amazon and
its
mighty
affluents will, ere another
century has passed, be in process
of
preparation to
receive in plains of teeming fertility the millions that
are destined to occupy
As man
increases
bound
to disappear.
in the
wake
of
the
them
the more formidable ferae are
The
larger felines shall follow
mammoth and
the
dodo
and
219
ultimately only such animals as are useful to him

shall exist wherever the globe
When
in the remote past
is
habitable by man.
man was
defined upon
the earth, he was placed on a stage which had been
prepared
him by
for
seons
time,
geological
of
to
ascend from an animal existence, working out in this
mundane sphere his own salvation, until, in his attainment of the full growth of all the powers and faculties
of
his being, he
when
should reach his predestined goal,
the spiritual part of his nature shall become
predominant and hold in subjection
his purely
animal
inheritance.
I
am
not unaware what food for laughter I have
provided
above
the
in
whom
Darwinians of
sentence
orthodox
the
for
Hackel has made himself the
I have not obscurely hinted that there
exponent.
is
such a thing as design perceivable in the universe,
and have spoken

of
as one
Paley which, as
credited
by
all
is
who
believes in the
scientists
who
intelligently accept the
doctrine of Natural Selection:
my
gathered from
God who has
words that I
will, as
even be
it
still
retain belief in a
an old document has
not deny the impeachment.
my
may
nay,
foreordained all things according to the
counsel of His
surrender
argument
well known, has been long dis-
spiritual nature,
am
it.
I do
not prepared to
and that hope which
is
the anchor of the soul, to the teachings of a science
whose
fundamental
propositions
neither do I esteem Hackel a wise
conducts his eidolon of a Personal
wholly
reject;
man when
God
he
to the verge
220
of
the material universe, and
dismisses
it
into the
void of space with the intimation that, having served

its
provisional purpose,
of the
and survived
The truth
need not return.
usefulness,
its
it
that his contemplation
is
immensity of the material universe made the
conception of a Personal
God
nature to receive.
There
Hackel pertinent
my
to
but one argument of
present object which I need
He
the reader.
place before
too big for his unspiritual

is
expatiates
upon the
millions, nay, the hundreds of millions of years that
have elapsed since the germs of
upon the surface
of the earth,
of geological seons that
the forms of
asks
if
appeared
first
have been required to produce
at present inhabiting the globe, and
life
we can
life
and upon the succession
entertain the belief that
the grand
procession of ever-changing animal and vegetable forms
throughout the seons was but a preparation of the

earth to be the habitat of a creature so contemptible
as
man.
does the
paration
I think higher of
man and
his destiny than
German scientist. I think that such prefor human life was not unworthy of the Great
Architect.
I, too,
take refuge in the immensity of the
material universe, and think of the innumerable solar

orbs
that
were the
centres
planetary
of
illuminated by their rays, that

revolutions,
dead and dark, their
tinguished.
Doubtless
each
of
these
When
black masses
for
millions of years before its heat began to
their
for ever ex-
fires
burned like the sun in our heavens
light to die out.
systems
now accomplish
hundreds of
wane and
its
I think of the Intelligence
221
that planned, and that upholds the wondrous

whole,
and behold His working in the lighting and quenching

of solar systems " in the dark backward and
abysm of
am
time," I
helped to understand the expression that
one day
is with the Lord as a thousand years and

a thousand years as one day, and to realise as a truth
the conception that to Him one inch is as a million
leagues and a million leagues as one inch.
I hold that
it
is
the purest folly for the
attempt to measure or limit the

stand a
man
immensity
of the
Infinite.
finite
to
I can under-
bewildered by his contemplation of the
of the material universe, in
which the science

day beholds every atom throbbing with force,
persuading himself to accept, as a

vastest problem that can
solution
of
the
occupy the human mind,
the mathematical formulas of Spinoza, but T cannot
understand the position of the
scientist
who
denies
the existence of a designing Intelligence as necessary

to
account for the evidences of design everywhere
present
in Nature,
and
of
harmonious and harmonising
an
all-comprehending,
reign
of
order
that
embraces at once the interactions of the solar systems

that people space and the germination in some lonely
nook
of earth of flowers that are born to blush unseen.
It seems to me, therefore, not only not an intellectual

difficulty,
but an intellectual exigency, to accept the
view that from the beginning the
earth
preceded the
was the
human life, and that all that

advent of man is to be regarded as the
predestined theatre of
preparation of the globe to receive him.
222
At what
period
man was
first
upon the earth
defined
as a being possessed of reasoning
powers and
of far
higher possibilities than the most highly developed
forms beneath him,
There
time.
is
is for
ever lost in the abyss of past
nothing that forbids us to believe that
primeval man, as yet
little
removed from the
life
of
wild animals, roamed the woods a thousand centuries
Only well within the
ago.
thousand years
last ten
does he emerge to our knowledge as possessing the
rudiments of
is
of
civilisation.
The proof
of this civilisation
contained in the art productions and inscriptions
In the astronomical works and
ancient Egypt.
architectural glories of Babylonia, Assyria,
and Egypt,
and
in the extraordinary efflorescence of art
literature
we seem
human mind in historic
any new faculties or increased
in ancient Greece, as well as in mediaeval Italy,

to have evidence that the
times has not acquired
But
in power.
it
has broadened and become enlarged
by the knowledge that has come to

but more especially by
of
its discoveries
Nature and by the application
means
it
from the
past,
of the potencies
of its
powers to the
of utilising them.
It is a succession of kaleidoscopic changes that
is
presented to us in the pages of history previous to
the nineteenth century, with small apparent advance
from age to
view
of
much
historic
its
age.
In the
final goal,
greater
than
period before
last century,
mankind, in
has made a forward advance
that
it.
the nature of that advance.
made during
I
the
whole
have already indicated
The
civilisation that has

been attained
wherever
is,
it
223
binding together
exists,
the several races of mankind and preparing the
way
New
and
the universal conquest of humanity.
for
potent forces are working towards humanity's final
But we are
solidarity.
past
evil
civilised
is
with
still
man from
The throbbings
still
sway
its
far
from the
is
only in
of
of the war-spirit are still felt in every
ments, social and

of
The
its earliest stage.
vein, nor will they cease beating until
progress
goal.
and the emancipation
us,
many
readjust-
have marked the onward
political,
But the changes
civilisation.
in
this
direction that are taking place are not only of rapid
development, but they contain the elements of per-
manency, and always advancing and becoming more

stringent are the forces that in the present are
and that
for peace,
establish
point
it
and
we sweep
to
this
the prophetic words of
"
the
the inspiration of
Through the shadow
of the globe
into the younger day," towards the bright
future of the race
"When
in
truly voiced forth
Mother Age,
his
But
though rapidly attaining, has not
still,
who most
poet
the not distant future shall
as a law not to be broken.
civilisation,
attained
in
making
which he
forecasts
the war-drum throbs no longer, and the battle-flags are
furled,
In the Parliament of man, the Federation of the world."
To
my
thought the mundane history of
man
has
three stages of development, in the second of which
we
and
are living
first,
the prehistoric existence of man,
his historic period
up
till
the nineteenth century,
224
of the vine, its
which may be regarded as the planting

growth,
grape-bearing
its
and the vintage season
new era which (speaking somewhat loosely,

many glimpses as it were
secondly, the
as I have already said, for

of the
dawn had
former
in
sporadically
centuries
appeared) began a century ago, and which corresponds

to the treading of the grapes in the vat,
and to the
period of fermentation in which the forces of trans-
mutation are in active and vigorous development
and
of fulfilled prophecy, corresponding to
day
thirdly, the
the gradual purification and mellowing of the wine in

the cask,
when
and pleasing
it
becomes increasingly more generous
to the palate.
The fermentation
the
things
and
the
in
the
is
of
been
hitherto
multiplication
industrial
the time
trial
century,
past
life
of
unprecedented
large
of
civilised
distant
the
during
other
expansion
centres
the
indus-
great
day must have
numbers as
of
But
communities.
when
present
populations reduced to such
can maintain.
towns as
of
not far
nations
human energy has,

manifested among
their
their
soil
There will then be no room for such
immense town populations as London, Glasgow, and

Manchester, which latter towns with their
suburbs
contain each not less than a million souls.
In the
inevitable adjustments of population to the changing
conditions of existence
of
some
are at
crowded
of the
we may
most troublesome
anticipate a solution
social
present inseparable from the
tenements
and slums
of
problems that
unwholesomely
great
towns.
225
entertain the belief that in the growing approximation

to
the ideal
life
humanity
of
industrial life will be
distributed increasingly into smaller centres, so that
the enjoyment
country will
of
the
beauty and
be within the reach
salubrity of the
every artisan,
of
Man, possessing no capacity
tradesman, and labourer.
of intelligently foreseeing or determining the changes
that await him, will
future
under
which embraces
less
by
his
work towards the
the law
all living
of
issues of the
unconscious
organisms.
own purposed and
He
development
will
advance
deliberate efforts at
attainment than borne along towards a predetermined
consummation by the
carried
him on
present day.
15
its
drift
of the
tide
which has
breast from the beginning to the
CHAPTEE
V.
THE STEUGGLE FOE EXISTENCE.
BY
the operation of the law which I have expounded
second and third chapters, no
in the
surplus
population can be produced from the numbers of a
community
food
increasing at a
Yet
supply.
population
is
more rapid
prevalent
so
is
rate than the
the belief
that
always tending to outstrip the means of
subsistence, that the eagerness
displayed by several
European nations to acquire settlements and colonies

abroad
is
by the alleged necessity
justified
The
outlets for their surplus population.

this
plea
is
apparently established when, year after
men go
year, thousands of
to
settle in other lands
suffering
already
in sufficient
first,
ment that were
loss,
age
filled,
or that
filled,
than
this
emigration
to the
real,
men come
forward
to occupy the posts of employ-
thus obtain posts

earlier
that
apparent or
because younger
numbers
course have been
an
home countries
without the labour market
explained
no economical
home country
who
forth from the
any apparent detriment from their departure.
have
causes
of finding
justice of
would in the ordinary
by those who emigrated, and

that enable them to marry at
they
226
would have done
if
no
227
emigration
had taken place.

In this manner the
labour market continues to be supplied to the full
extent of its requirements.
Secondly, because this influx
younger men into the labour market produces within

two or three years an abnormal number of marriages
of
a number of marriages
much in excess of what

would have taken place if the men who emigrated had
remained in the country.
The abnormal production
that
is,
children caused by these
of
marriages adds to the
population numbers equivalent to the direct loss from

the emigration.
In the prevailing ignorance of

it
this economical law,
was inevitable that where large numbers were seen
leaving a country, year after year,
it
should be inferred
way being relieved of a

But when the operation of this
that the country was in this

surplus population.
law
is
fully understood,
it
will
arrangement in the economy
be seen to be a happy
of
Nature whereby the
more enterprising portion of a community are enabled,

without inflicting injury upon the home labour market,
to take advantage of the opportunities of bettering their
condition presented by countries that crave imported
labour for the development of their resources.
Under
this
arrangement
it
has come about that
continents and territories, which were originally

roamed over by a few unimprovable nomads, have
become in the present, or are destined to become in
the future, the populous seats of the most civilised

races of mankind.
It
is
a consequence of the operation of this law
228
Kingdom
that in the present era the United
is
more
densely peopled than she would have been had she
from her shores, become
not, as the result of emigration
the Mother Country of the United States of America
and
Canada, of Australasia and of
of
South Africa,
inasmuch as her commerce with their populations

the means of
supporting
enriching
engaged
millions
is
mercantile classes and
her
mining and
her
in
manufacturing industries.
Whether
ments
of
as the long result of time, in the develop-
the
future,
pauperism
will
be eliminated
from the economic conditions of the most

peoples,
is
pronounce any opinion

living
memory
but
it
is
a fact that within
the number of paupers proportional to
population in the United
one in twenty to one in

This
civilised
a question upon which I do not venture to
result
Kingdom
has declined from
forty.
must be
comfort and improvement
attributed
in
the
to
the
greater
condition of
the
them in a greater degree to

support indigent relatives who have survived their
working
classes,
enabling
ability to continue
market.
social
It
is,
as
active workers in the labour
however, scarcely conceivable that any
advance can be achieved that will obviate the
number of superannuated labourers,

women, and poor widows with their dependent
necessity of a large
of aged
offspring, being
supported either by private charity or
by statutory provisions
necessity
to
the
may
for their maintenance.
be regarded as
circumstances
This
inextricably attached
and conditions under which

human
it
society
human
of
organised
among
and,
other things,
the high end of calling forth the best
subserves
traits
is
229
and emphasising the claims
nature,
that his poorer brother has upon the richer and more
fortunate man.
not
fail
It
mark
that could
modem
civilisation,
moreover, a
is,
to be vouchsafed, of our
that the State should recognise as obligatory upon
the duty of providing for such of
by reason
market the means
find
procuring a
of
as cannot
its citizens
helplessness
of their
in
it
the labour
The
livelihood.
existence of this helpless class cannot be attributed to
population
the
outstripping
seeing that the
members
means
of it are
subsistence,
of
unable from obvious
causes to take any part in the struggle of

cannot,
driven
therefore,
to
regarded
be
as
pressed
the wall by the stronger,
They
down or
life.
or, to
appropriate Darwinian expression, by those
use the
who
are
possessed of more fortunate variations.
Besides the paupers
who
are maintained as a fixed
burden upon the community, there
is
the
class
of
able-bodied vagrants or tramps, the victims of their
own
disinclination
do
to
any form
of
work,
who
individually earn by begging, chiefly from the labour-
ing classes, what
man's
wage.
is
equivalent to an average working
These
number, I
under one hundred and
Kingdom.
Inured to
evil-smelling,
all
fifty
believe,
not
much
thousand in the United
weathers, avoiding ablutions,
roaming from place to
place in their
boundless freedom, though they obtain their means of

misery,
living by presenting an appearance of abject
23 o
they enjoy
of the
life to
much
the full as
community.
as
any other
In the sunny lands
class
Southern
of
Europe, where indulgence in the dolce far nierde
much more than
is
in this country the effect of climate
and temperament, the mendicants bear a much greater

proportion
to the
They
population.
numbers not because they could not
exist
in
such
find a place in the
labour market, but because they refused to enter the
labour
Accordingly, the labour market
market.
constrained to find supply as
they did not
if
seeing that virtually they do not exist for
is
exist,
purposes.
its
They do not exist as a class by reason of the labour

market being overstocked, but because they elect to
live outside the labour
subsistence
In a similar
army
market, and to depend for their
upon the charity
we may
category
of thieves, criminals,
the police,
who
the
place
great
and prostitutes known to
are to a large extent the product of
the evil conditions of slum
But few
propensions.
of the public.
life
of this
and
of their
army
own
vicious
of evil-doers
have
been driven to their present occupations from their

having been unable to find posts of employment in
the labour market.
Why
then,
it
may
be asked, are
they found existing in the midst of a community

so wealthy,
and in the heart
developed as
Man
of a civilisation so highly
that of the United
is differentiated
fact of his
own
is
Kingdom
from the lower creation by the
depending for his development upon his
efforts to better his condition,
full possession of
and attain to the
the powers and faculties with which

he
is
endowed.
The individuals
231
of the various species
of the lower creation are not differentiated in such a
manner that while some can obtain food others are

unable to do so.
The weaker individuals of a species
as well as the stronger live in such an abundance of
their
proper
food
normal
they cannot, under
that
conditions, starve for
want
of
Every one
it.
the
of
lower animals that survives to become a food-seeker

so far as regards his
power
of obtaining food,
is,
and as
regards all the other ends of his being, " in seipso totus
teres
atque rotundus."
Though no two
them
of
are
quite alike, there yet exist no important differentiations
between the members
of
individual well-being.
But
a species that affect

it
different with
is
the crown of the animated creation, and

of created things
capacities,
and
their
man,
therefore
the most complex in his powers,

It is
habits.
due
to the fact that
man
has a moral basis to his being, that men cast in

the same society differ to so great an extent as they
do in regard to the principles and motives

actions,
and
subject
so
of their
that their individual differentiations are

largely
to
be
modified,
accentuated,
or
weakened by the moral and material conditions and

circumstances in which they are reared.
This consideration
difficult
it
to conceive of
is
which renders
a Newton
it
almost as
or a Shakespeare
being born and reared in a London slum as in a tribe

The moral element as
of Australian aborigines.
instrumental in determining the characters and careers

within the
of men is exemplified by what is often seen
232
bounds
The moral atmosphere and
of a single family.
upbringing
the children
of
member
unfrequently one
same, yet not
the
are
family becomes, by
of
reason of his moral delinquencies, a social wreck, while

another,
above
by virtue
Nothing
among
of his
similar
moral
condition
original
his
found
is
the
the
in
same
individuals of the
qualities, rises
in
social
lower
high
scale.
creation
Each animal,
species.
except in the rare cases of monstrosities and such

as are possessed of congenital malformations, realises
and
the
fulfils
end
of
its
He
an imperfect being.
is
Man
being.
is
the process of
in
still
alone
development advancing towards a yet remote
ideal.
His
in
moral
greater
being
partakes
degree
bhan
men
differ
physically
lower animals.
his
imperfection
of
physical,
individually
man
In one respect
disadvantage compared with them.

protection
of
offspring, the
the
parents
is
though
even
more than the

is
at apparent
As soon
as the
withdrawn from the
individuals of the various species find
themselves possessed of the means of securing food
but man, as soon at least as he has emerged from the

rudimentary stages of existence into a civilised social
organisation, has to obtain his
livelihood
a place in the labour market.
community
diversity
of
by finding
In a great complex
like that of Great Britain, with its vast

trades,
occupations,
and employments,
commercial, manufacturing, mining, and agricultural,
and
unequal distribution of wealth, there cannot

be a long series of gradations in the material
its
fail to

conditions of the people, with
233
much apparent anomaly
in the general arrangement at particular points
there cannot
failure
fail
to be a constant drip drip of
from every part
of the social edifice,
nay,
human
forming in
places pools of foul sedimentary deposit, even while
the labour market
every
man
is
capable of giving employment to
willing to
The wretched
be employed.
victims of intemperance and of vicious propensions,

fallen in
many
cases from bright hopes
and promising
opportunities, have a tendency to herd together
form nurseries
slums
and
children
miasma
rookeries
that
of
of vice
are
and crime,
our
of
great
born and reared
these foul resorts
man
and
see in the
towns.
The
the
moral
in
are not born in
labour market, nor fitted for entering
Let no
we
as
the
it.
labour under the delusion that the vice
and misery that abound
in London's saddest places are
attributable either to a deficient labour market or to
the inhuman arrangements of a corrupt
would fain persuade us
Socialistic writers
They
is
the case.
are for the most part the effect of the unwhole-
some aggregation
of vicious individuals, the
tions of the continuous deposition of
that
civilisation, as
is
ever
falling
decidence that no
out
known
of
accumula-
human sediment
respectable
society,
or conceivable organisation
of benevolent agencies can
suffice
to prevent or, in
any great degree, to mitigate.

But the misery and destitution of great towns
dwell in slums
is not confined to the creatures who
and rookeries. In the crowded streets of London
234
where dwell the
found
wage-receiving classes, are
thousands of families living in conditions of inconceivable squalor, of hunger and nakedness, where the
fathers,
earning sufficient wages
families
in
in drink.
to
maintain
a decent comfort, spend
In these streets are to be found thousands
men who were once secure of a place in the

market, but who have been cast out from
of
consequence of their having become drunkards.
by
their
earnings
their
their misconduct,
labour market,
as
labour
it
in
They,
have thrust themselves out of the
men who
cannot be
trusted to
continue for a day or an hour at their work, and their
wretched wives and children suffer starvation in the

single
rooms which are their homes.
speak of
the dwellings
mothers.
It is
made
desolate
need not
by drunken
enough that I press home the truth
that by far the larger part of the misery of our great
towns
is
due neither to a defective and corrupt
social
organisation, nor to the hardheartedness of the rich, nor
the want of a sufficient labour market,
to
individual vice and self-indulgence, and
but to
we can only
deplore the fact that, from the nature of the case, the
innocent wives and helpless children,
who
suffer the
most acutely, are more numerous than the
trans-
gressors.
If
we add
to
prostitutes, the
the host of vagrants, thieves, and

victims of
drink and
their
hapless
dependants, and compute the aggregate of these classes

at seven
this
hundred thousand
estimate,
incline
to
for the
United Kingdom,
believe, will
err
rather

on the side
of
235
Adding
exaggeration than of defect.
again to these the pauper roll of the United Kingdom,
we
get out of a population of forty-three millions a
number considerably under two millions, of whom the

greater number have spent their day of labour and
become worn out
in
the labour market, while the
remainder have either refused to enter that market
have been cast out from
or
But these various
it.
categories are not all to be characterised as miserable
forasmuch as those persons comprised in the pauper
have an assured maintenance, while the vagrants
roll
accept their lot as more desirable than that of working
men.
Are we, I
ask, entitled to
speak of any part
of
the above aggregate of two millions or under that

figure as a surplus population due to the population
having increased faster than the means
of subsistence
Is it to provide outlets for such a surplus population
that European nations are seeking to acquire colonies
Does any
to other lands to seek material betterment
any
that
its
portion of it be received into

is
portion of such a surplus population go forth

?
Would
any young country
inviting emigrants from other lands to develop
resources
When
I consider the
cleaves to
human
amount
of imperfection that
nature, and also the complicated net-
work and interlocking arrangements
of our industrial
and commercial system, with the attendant instability

surprised at the
of human affairs, far from being
numbers represented
in the several categories I
have
236
mentioned being so
smallness,
am amazed
toward
of the progress of the race
which
of
large,
their
at
and regard the result as a manifest evidence

poet
the
infinitely worse, a
" the
younger day
Matters
speaks.
hundred years
were
"
worse,
ago.
Before I proceed to consider the bond fide unemployed,

I wish to discuss briefly this question
and inevitable condition
of
human
Is the natural
life
a competitive
struggle for existence in which the strong survive

flourish,
I need hardly say tbat the affirmative
question
those
is
answer to this
regarded as almost an axiomatic truth by
who apply
to
human
Natural Selection that

throughout
to the Stock
is
organic
all
survival of the
New
and
while the weak go to the wall and perish
the great principle of
assumed to be operative
existence,
determining
the
There are those who point
fittest.
Exchange
life
London and Wall
in
Street in
York, as well as to the various Bourses on the
Continent of Europe, and select the gambling speculators
who, in their struggle to make wealth rapidly,
seek to devour one another, as typical of the business
man
of
commerce, and their methods as representing

whereas these
men
and ulcers upon the useful
and
the ways of the business world

are
excrescences
necessary institutions where they pursue their infamous

practices,
and
would as soon think
of investigating
the laws and conditions of health in a lazar-house as
the laws and conditions of ordinary commerce

the bears
existence
and
of
bulls
this
of
the Stock Exchange.
class of
social wreckers
is
among
The
one of

the
of
anomalies that
human
spring out
237
the imperfection
of
nature, which imperfection can at no point
be wholly got rid
and
of,
in certain fostering conditions
breaks forth with startling prominence.
The conception
human
of
as
life
a competitive
struggle for existence, in which only^he fittest survive,

is
wholly incompatible with the conception
man
of
as
Four hundred and ninety-three years
a social animal.
before the Christian era, Agrippa Menenius, addressing
Eome on
the seceding plebeians of
showed a truer
logical perception
the Sacred Hill,
when he spoke
of
the State as a body corporate, whose several members
depended
for
mutual co-operation.
In several
of
mutually
other
members
very obvious
if
suffer in
that his
as being one
dependent
timately connected that
members,
one member
is
sympathy with
language
Paul
of his epistles St.
Church
elaborates the idea of the
composed
well-being upon their
their individual
is
body
so
in-
sick all the
it
and
it is
drawn from the
wider conception which he had formed of the inter-
dependence of individuals and
bond
of the
body
in
the social
politic.
Surely this conception

the phenomena
classes
is
far
of social life
more
in accordance with
than the Darwinian
idea.
For how, unless it were the truer idea, could the vast
material improvement that has been experienced in
Great Britain by every class in the community during
the
last
century have
industrial class
taken place?
within the bounds of
Every single
this
realm has
not only flourished, but has been elevated as to
its
2^8
'o
While
standard of comfort from top to bottom.
admit that in every class there

of
residuum
a certain amount
is
so small, however, in respect of the
as to be practically inappreciable
due to individual
composed
mass
of failures
myself justified in
vices, I yet feel
making the general affirmation that the whole body

of
men
of every class within the pale of the labour
market are survivors in the struggle for existenceIf this
can be said to be the case, and
it
surely cannot
be denied, what meaning can there be in asserting

that
mankind
that
in
survive
the
is
Where
subject
struggle
to be told that
is
it
or almost all
all
it is
Natural Selection, and
to
of life
because
all
the
who
are we
fittest
survive,
or almost all are the
fittest ?
But
is
it
asked:
Do we
not see the principle of
Natural Selection operating when in every department
human activity we
ful men outstripping
way over their heads
see those
of
in their businesses
society
in
who
their fellows
to
and
fill
are called success-
and making their
the more prominent posts
professions, as well as in the
which they move
I acknowledge
that,
when
the stronger and more self-assertive, the more
clever
and
outstrip
intelligent, the braver
and honours the

take
and more
self-reliant,
and leave behind them in the race
their
less
places
several spheres of
for wealth
happily endowed by nature, and
in
life
the
foremost
and
action, their success
ranks
of
their
may
be attributed to the operation of Natural Selection

if
in that
term we comprise, as we assuredly ought to

and phenomenon
do, every act
of
239
Nature, from an act
of chemical attraction or repulsion to a conclusion of
the mind
is
for every manifestation of natural activity
necessarily an evidence of Natural Selection.
But
we understand Natural
if
Darwinian sense as meaning

fittest,
do
think
not
Selection
the
survival
applies
it
to
in
of
human
its
the
life.
Those who are outstripped by more successful men

are not thereby destroyed, or driven to the wall
they are in no way
nay,
defrauded of any part of their due
share in the labour market, nor are they prevented
from advancing as
carry them.
reward
own
capacities
can
some believe that they have
It is true,
a right to complain
hopeful of
far as their
when
places to which they were
being promoted are given
to others as the
of greater industry or superior ability, or are
attained as the gift of fortune by favour or influence.
But they do not complain
of being driven to the wall,
inasmuch as they remain where they were in the

They have not been exterminated:
labour market.
Successful
they survive.
depress those
whom
men
also,
while they do not
they outstrip, in almost every case
up others relatives, friends, or dependantsand

secure for them advancement which they would not,
But we may bring higher
perhaps, attain otherwise.
lift
considerations to bear
differentiation
any organised
is
this question.
essential
society.
born to be equal.
differentiation
the
upon
For
Men
if
would not be
Individual
condition of
man
in
are not born equal, nor
they were, the individual

so great or so extremely
240
varied
in
Why
potter,
may
imagine
Why
price
it
cannot surely
has a right to say to
it
have you not valued
which you paid
for that
me
costly vase, for
it
its
same
at the
you paid a thousand times the sum you paid

though
poor
right
has to say to the
it
made me thus
hast thou
entertain the idea that
purchaser,
Whatever
character.
its
earthenware pot
which
for
me,
was fashioned by the same potter as myself
Yet many blame the arrangements

principles
and the
of society
which govern the labour market
for the
small account in which they are held, and the small

value that
Men
placed upon their labour.
is
and those who, by reason
entiations, gain the higher posts
differ
superior differ-
their
of
and play the foremost
human society, differ from their fellows, not

own advantage merely, but for the advantage
common weal for they are those who set on foot
parts in
for their
of the
enterprises that promote the general well-being of a
community, or who extend the businesses with which

they are connected, and so furnish the means of living
to a larger
energies
of
number
and
of persons.
It
the whole
community
to
earns
maintain
his
luxury and pride of
wage
daily
family
life
his
that
him
enables
regards
their
with an eye jaundiced with
envy and rancour, he shows
brought to
working
If the
comfort
in
material blessings which the
have
They are the
raised.
is
pioneers of an advancing civilisation.
man who
through their
is
intelligence that the standard of comfort
door
his
ignorance
objects
and
into
of
his
his
of
the
spleen
dwelling.
If
241
my
hands
he say to himself:
By
the labour of
I helped to raise the edifice of this man's prosperity,
why
much and he
then should I lack so
superfluity of the good things of
him
and
The man whom you
I answer
envy found
for you,
hundreds like you, a place in the labour
for
market,
so
enjoy such
Thus
life
is
feeding and clothing you, has elevated your
condition in
and your standard
life
Take
of comfort.
then with gratitude the daily wage which you are

able to earn, and learn this, that towards the pro-
moting and advancing
of
the general prosperity of a
nation, one ounce of brains
locality or of a
a ton-load of legs and arms.

legs
and arms, use them
If
for
worth
is
then you have only
your support, and in
discharging your duty to yourself and to society you

will ennoble your daily
I
come now
toil.
to consider the
amount
of competition
many
that exists in the labour market, and that in so

quarters
upper
is
and
so loudly
classes
and
bitterly
in the middle
In the
voiced.
ranks of
life
it
is
principally expressed in complaints by parents of the

difficulty
they experience
in
getting
their
children
But
placed out in the world in suitable situations.

the
competition
believed.
working
more limited than
is
It scarcely exists
classes.
experience any
Artisans
difficulty
in the labour market
in
among
and
the wage-earning
labourers
several professions, including literary
16
do
finding suitable
for their children.
and among those who
is
generally
not
places
It is in the
men and
artists,
aspire to be office clerks, that
242
amount
the greatest
competition for a livelihood
of
forward as a proof of
I have seen brought
exists.
the dire struggle for existence that takes place in
London, the affirmation that when advertisement
made
for
lads, in
an
office-boy or for a shop-boy,
every single case, compete as applicants for

a natural result
the post.
This
how many
lads are on the alert in
posts,
they
is
hundreds of
is
and how few
fall
consider
London
for such
such posts are advertised when
of
But the
vacant.
when we
lads
who have been
dis-
appointed in securing the advertised situations have
no
difficulty in finding similar situations that
been advertised.
to find, even in
I think that
would be
have not
difficult
London, a healthy boy, thirteen years
of age, willing to
employment
it
work, out of employment, or finding
difficult to procure.
When we
turn
the professional
to
class,
which
embraces medical men, lawyers, clergymen, engineers,
and other
special
but smaller groups,
we
several professions normally overstocked.
find
the
That over-
stocking should be the normal characteristic of this

particular part of the labour
inevitable effect of its
employment
in
power
market
is
obviously an
of attraction.
any department
Posts of
of professional
work
are regarded in the light of prizes in the social system.
They confer upon

conferring
their
occupiers a certain position
respectability.
rank as gentlemen.
Each
Their occupiers, in short,

profession
embraces
men
sprung from very different ranks of society, and derives

a certain standing and dignity from the presence in
it

of
who belong
those
the higher
to
social
243
grades.
Moreover, the utility of the various professions in the
scheme
modern
of
pre-eminent in
society
skill
and
the rank and
file
Thus
belong.
of
even the lowest post

posts that are
prizes.
who
are
wealth, above
of
the professions to which they
the arena of
in
those
both in respect of
honour and the acquisition
social
is
a profession, where
a social prize, there exist
beyond others
brilliant
and splendid
Professional posts are only for the specially
educated and trained.
which they possess

to
elevates
ability,
Nevertheless, the attractions
young men keep up the supply

a point rather beyond the demand.
But there is
this
principle
for
constantly
against a temporary great
which militates
operative
overstocking becoming a
permanent one, namely, that when the supply

profession
becomes much in excess
the knowledge that such
is
of
any
in
the demand,
the case acts as a deterrent
and prevents many young men from embracing that

This principle alone prevents the over-
profession.
when at
From
greater.
stocking in any profession
from being tenfold

case the race
strong,
and
if
is
to the swift
of the profession
office
clerks
The boy who
the nature of the
and the
fight in its arena,
long discovers his ineptitude for
is
greatest height
battle to the
there enter into a profession one
can neither run nor
There
its
it,
and
finds outside
some post that enables him
always in London
and a much
who
such an one ere
great
to live.
demand
for
greater available supply.
for the first time takes his place on
an
244
office stool
has ever in his mind's eye the prospect of
The majority
promotion
from the working
drawn
of office clerks are
and these naturally consider
classes,
that in becoming clerks they have risen above their
This has been their incentive to aspire to be
origin.
clerks, that
working
classes,
who
those
they will no longer be numbered among the

but will have a social standing above
are engaged as factory hands or in handi-
But when
crafts.
their
efforts
succeed in
to
fail
getting places as clerks,
many abandon
and seek and have small
difficulty in finding
ment
the attempt,
employ-
in other departments of the labour market.
The labour market has such a diversity

ments, that
it
of
employ-
seldom happens that, when one
achieve a post in the department of his
fails to
first choice,
he does not find a post in some other department
which perchance he
The
way
imagined to stand in the
difficulties that are
of
exist in
qualified
men
finding employment, as they
some minds, have
their origin in the belief
that the principle of Malthus
and making the supply

always greater
than
for
better qualified.
is
is
constantly operative
market
for posts in the labour
the
tendency of population
demand, arising from the
to,
etc. etc.
It
is,
however,
the fact that, barring imbeciles and the victims of

their
own prematurely developed
vices,
an ingrained laziness or an appetite

individual
willing
to
work,
with
brain
hands, according to his faculty, obtains
employment.
I insist
upon
be
it
either
for drink, every
this fact being
or
with
post
of
duly con-
an imbecile,
sidered, that every individual, not a sot or
who
if
245
seeks a place in the labour market finds one, and
he does not obtain the post to which he
gets one
which enables him to
aspires,
and which,
live,
if
he
he
has anything in him, gives him a starting-point for

higher achievement.
This
is
the fact that beyond
doubt proves that not more people are born
fit
all
for
posts in the labour market than are required to supply
demand.
its
when
there are born persons unfit
If
they are grown up to take posts in the labour market,

the
posts
which they are unfitted
occupied by young
men who
occupy are
to
obtain their place in the
labour market sooner than they would have done,

the persons
fit
who
are unfitted to occupy
if
them had been
to occupy them.
But
in our great towns the manifold eventualities
that arise in the industrial world are productive of
much
Among
individual suffering and misery.
eventualities
may
be
reckoned
capacitates for his daily work,
wage-earner of a
family,
throw many men out
of
it
ill-health
may
be for
life,
in-
the
failures that
and business
employment.
such
that
In the
latter
where multitudes are discharged from their

their own,
situations, owing to no fault or failure of
case,
of those
the search for other situations on the part
who are discharged is very often long and arduous, if
prove not an altogether hopeless task.

are elderly clerks and elderly craftsmen
Especially
it
count;
for in the demand younger
preference.
Those who devote their
men
lives
at
dis-
obtain the
and energies
246
to ameliorating the condition of the poorer population

of our great cities are able to tell
many a
heartrending
tale of the sufferings of families whose wage-earners
The perturbations
are unable to find employment.
of
the labour market have their exciting causes in the

imperfections
of
human
money leading
to
hazardous
inalienable
greed
of
stances, brings
down
circum-
in sudden ruin private firms
commercial and
of
and
In the inter-
old established commercial institutions.
lockings
speculation
the incalculable combinations of
joined to
The
nature.
industrial
affairs,
the
catastrophe that plunges in ruin a bank or a great

firm
may involve in its
engulfing whirlpool thousands of
private fortunes, and disturb, to the ruin of multitudes,
the credit system over a vast area.
Bold speculation often leads to great success and

to the acquisition of large fortunes
case
of
the
roulette-table, ,the
winners proves
an
irresistible
whose ventures end
but, as in the
success
of
temptation
disastrously.
The
to
few
many
safe paths of
commerce and industry are forsaken for bold strokes

and high play, with fatal result to the majority of
those
who
disaster
yield
does
victims.
not
to
the
always
speculative
mania.
But
end with the immediate
Frequently a multitude of employees, and of
firms associated in business with a great firm that has

failed, are
involved in the shipwreck of the latter.
The numbers rendered
destitute
by such
and the consequent misery it would be
eventualities
folly to connect
with an assumed tendency on the part of population

to increase faster than the food supply, as
to regard
them
due
as
Natural Selection.
would be
it
to the operation of a
247
Darwinian
There are trades that one might
characterise as varying normally from time to time
in the
amount
employment they
of
such as the
give,
building trade, and such trades as supply works of decorative art
and minister
their prosperity
community.
These depend for
to luxury.
upon the general prosperity
There
come
every
to
In the
and seasons when money
is said
said to be
is
to be plentiful.
and industries that minister
latter case all arts
who
to luxury maintain those
in the receipt of sure
and
industrial
commercial country seasons when money

scarce
the
of
are employed in
and good remuneration
former case the demand for the productions
them
in the
of such
Many
pro-
ducers cease to be employed, and most of those
who
employments becomes very attenuated.
continue to be employed are obliged to submit to be
remunerated on a more meagre
scale.
Take, again, the building trade.

are
almost
shooting
out
all
streets
like the rays of a
to
be
made
and
beforehand
case that
mark
directions
all
the
and
who
it
requirements
is
are,
of the
of
invariably the
in
compelled to erect streets and houses upon

so far overshoot the
eases
Provision has constantly

for
master builders,
great cities
many
in
suburbs in
starfish.
an increasing population
Our
extending,
rapidly
manner,
speculation,
immediate need, that
when there takes place any slackness in the industries

of the town, or even without such an impelling cause,
248
they are obliged to bring their building operations to

a
Then multitudes
halt.
necessarily
for
earning wages.
trade
most
employees are
their
of
deprived
fat
of
of the building
seasons followed by lean
and the workmen at the time when they are
fully
employed cannot
fail to
know
coming a time when work for them

precarious,
and
difficult
to
be
that there
is
will be slack,
The same
obtained.
employments that are occupied
conditions prevail in all

in
means
the
of
The normal condition
thus one of
is
seasons
time
making anticipatory provision
for the
wants
of
an
increasing population.
The question
arises
Should we expect, when a
time of slackness occurs in such employments, the
unemployed
to suffer destitution
objects of public compassion
earned by them
brisk
and to become the
and charity
when employed
seasons requiring all
The wages
are high, owing to the
hands, and also to the
strong trade organisations, which take due cognisance

of
of
What
the urgency of the labour demand.
should be expected of
men who
then
earn twice the wage
an ordinary labourer, and who know that a slack
time follows a season of good wages as surely as night

follows day
The time when work
be obtained by the bulk of
compared
with
employed, yet
the
no
time
the
them by circumstances the
make
difficult
workmen
during
men have more
against a rainy day,
is
which
is
small
they
necessity of
Many,
are
impressed upon
providing
and no men are better able
the required provision.
to
of course,
do
to
so,
249
and neither they nor their families suffer when the

evil day comes.
But this is not the case with too
large a proportion of the class.
Too many are the
victims of intemperance, and spend their earnings as
their good times
if
were assured against any interBut there are many who have not even the
mission.
wretched excuse
them out
find
of
who do not
wages,
intemperance for dissipating their
save in view of the day which
No
work.
of
grudge the working
man
his
things he can lawfully use
man would
reasonable
enjoyment
that
is,
may
of
what good
what
his
means
But to ascertain what his means permit he

must look not merely to the passing hour, but to the
permit.
future with
It is
bilities.
ward
do
so,
off
certainty of change and
its
from
one of his
his family,
its
responsi-
duties as a citizen to
first
when
it
the possibility of famine.
lies in his
power
Notwithstanding
to
all
the evils and anomalies of our social and industrial

life,
this
would be a happy and
working men
its
able thrift
if
they would only exercise a reason-
and keep themselves
When we
desirable country for
sober.
turn to consider the commercial rivalry
of the different nations,
opinion that in this
we
field of
find a general consensus of
human
action
is
illustrated
the great law of Natural Selection, or the survival of
the
fittest,
in that internecine struggle for existence, in
which, according to the orthodox Darwinian doctrine,

all life is of necessity involved.
But a wider outlook
way
will correct this conventional
of thinking in regard to industry
and commerce.
250
I
have already endeavoured to show how, in a com-
munity, the
is
effect of the
keenest individual competition
and that the successes and
to elevate every class,
triumphs
of
such
as
individuals
more highly
are
favoured and exceptionally endowed prove the means

of raising the status
the whole community

tion
the law of
is
and the standard

:
life,
that, in short, while competiit
Nature's ordinance for
is
making each individual contribute

manner
comfort of
of
most
in the
to the general benefit of society,
effective
and a salutary
and aim the distribution
principle having for its end
and dissemination over the whole

by the brains and the hands
of the wealth created
of its
It is the principle of one for all
component
and
units.
for one, not
all
definitely realised as the rule of individual action, but
necessarily involved in the concept of
and
being,
Not
ally
of society as
less
marked
is
man
the operation of what
and fundamentally the same principle
of international
trade
into
is
to,
as a social
an organic whole.
commerce.
The action of
is
essenti-
in the arena
international
bring the different nations of the world
communication with each other, and thus to
create
among them
a sense of
as well as to stimulate their
thus becomes,
if
community
of interests
several industries.
It
not the supreme, yet one of the most
important factors in the advancement and develop-
ment
of civilisation as well as in the extension of its
area.
The commercial prosperity
of a nation
can in no
case prove a detrimental element in the great com-
251
munity
of nations.
It must, on the other hand, be
attended with beneficial effects beyond the borders of
that nation.
Thus the enormous development
Germany
industry
of
upon her adoption
that followed
in
the
of
made her
But the subsequent growth
principle of protecting her native industries
a great exporting country.
new wants and an
of wealth created in her people
enlarged desire for the products of the
manufactured
articles
other lands;
of
which upon these countries was
to
soil
and the
the effect of
cultivation of the special productions and special
factures which
As
Germany
society
in
the
stimulate
manu-
required.
man's
first
care
and duty
lies
obviously in studying the interests and well-being of
own
his
nation's
household, so the
first
care and study of a
Government should be the welfare
people whose interests are entrusted to
The inner
circle should be
first
its
of
the
keeping.
cared for before the
claims of the outer circle begin to engross the attention

of
an individual or
of a
community.
influence for good of the inner

will
become increasingly
greater.
In
this
way
upon the outer
the
circle
INDEX
PAGE
Advent of man, preparation of the world for

Ages at which different classes marry do not
market
'
Agricultural
life
Amount
.220
affect the labour
......
belongs to low stage of
Agrippa Menenius
human development
of illegitimacy does not affect labour market

.
Analogy of Nature makes it unnecessary in any case to have
recourse to the imaginary action of individual differences .
.
Analytic review of passage in chap. iv. Origin of Species

Analytic review of paragraph in which Darwin maintains that
individual characters may lie latent and reappear after
.
many generations
Ancestors, our, their belief in a Benevolent Deity
races
Balance of
, ,
life
,
45
199
50
227
191
137
in Nature, how it is preserved

between herbivorous and carnivorous animals
....
......
....
....
84
Average fecundity of marriages, how obtained

Average life-terms of European nations, their great differences
27
.94
Ancient civilisations, isolated episodes in life of humanity

Anecdote of female cat devouring her kittens
Apparently fortuitous, the, falls under domain of law
Arrangement of Nature to supplant unimprovable by civilised
.
156
128
237
154
Battle between two great tigers
49
8
24
Bear family non-prolific, males remain with females and their
young
Belgium, falling birth-rate and rising marriage-rate

Birth-rate declines as death-rate
falls
Building trade, its fluctuations

Business of science not to deal with the immorality but with
the falseness of doctrine
Carnivorous animals keep their numbers at same point
Oat and her kittens, anecdote of
Causes that have impoverished peoples once great and wealthy
.
253
193
177
247
46
53
33
118
INDEX
254
Chance cannot enter into Nature's arrangements
Characteristic of Darwin
.
50
98
of varietal forms .
,,
Check, Nature's, not the same for all species
Cholera in Mysore, recovery of havoc caused by it
Civilisation, modern, refined only by reference to the ruder
79
past
57
....-
159
216
205
communities to-day bound together by many bonds

Classes that elect to live outside the labour market
that are outside of labour market do not form a surpli
Civilised
population
Cod,
its
230
235
58
great procreativeness, etc.
......
.....
Combats between males of gregarious species

Commercial prosperity of one nation beneficial to the community
of nations
30
250
Competition in labour market does not drive the weaker to the

238
242
241
250
wall
in the professional classes
,,
young people for employment

life and Nature's ordinance
Confidence that his health and power of earning wages
of
,,
the law of
......
will
continue, the labouring man's best asset in contemplating
marriage
151
Conscience speaks of more than molecular movement

Continuous efflux of emigrants keeps up the normal population
new
Creation of
111
164
posts of employment, all growth of population
due to it
Creed of science, the, not a
146
scientific creed
106
composed of speculative audacities and

imaginary forces
Cubs of carnivora when first seen abroad accompanied by both
,,
,,
parents
......
.....
106
31
Darwin, his acquaintance with phenomena of Nature and lack

of true insight
,,
his allegation that free intercrossing does not necessarily
,,
his
eliminate the effects of Natural Selection
86-87
assumed factors have no vital connection with the

facts they are invented to explain
his argument that we can only judge whether his
hypothesis is an unwarrantable assumption by seeing
how far it accords with and explains the general
,,
108
phenomena
of Nature, its cogency
107
.71
INDEX
255
Darwin, his
,,
belief that individual variations can lie latent, and

transmitted for almost any number of generations .
his concept of developmental ascent from a variety to a
distinct species
, ,
.70
prolific species after
,,
he looked for the checks upon

had done their work
they
.19
100
his assertion of the indefinite
power of latency of
his greatest triumph over the
individual variations,
intelligence of his contemporaries
.93
his struggle for existence could not remain in obscurity
,,
his
his theory accepted without examination of its basal
his inability to account for the non-increase of the
suppression
of
the
radical
individual and specific variation

principles
16
between
difference
.78
.65
most
.5
.....
....
vigorous species
Declining industries, their effect
Decrease of pauperism in Great Britain
Deficiency of labour, no, caused by emigration
.
Design alone in Nature's arrangements
Domestic pigeons,
all
man in society
how
of,
how
restrained
Economic purpose of Nature in giving

prolific species
Effect of declining industries
obtained
power to
.57
.147
.
.....
28
.28
103
191
.29
their procreative
Elephants, destruction of young by the great carnivora

.
their slow breeding
Elevation of humanity in refinement not the effect of

foresight
239
breeds occasionally shed their varietal
Dutch marriages, average fecundity

Eagles, their increase,
147
228
226
.51
.......
Differentiation, individual, essential condition of
characters
human
21
Elimination of excess of reproduction of carnivorous animals

18-19
.
takes place in infancy
by males of young broods stops at predetermined
52
point
54
regulated
how
males,
by
,,
226
Emigration causes no deficiency of labour
160
its effect in producing marriages
.....
.
,,
(Irish) distressful
and compulsory
continued, keeps up the normal population

from Norway and Sweden, its rise accounted for
.
161
164
182
INDEX
256
English-speaking race,
Epidemical scourges,
1875
....
had sent out no emigrants

its rapid growth
their disappearance from Europe
England as populous as
if it
PAGE
166
209
since
136
206
European military situation to-day, an evanescent phase
Excess of tigers, not eliminated by famine or mutual slaughter 12-15
Explanation of effect caused by light breaking in upon nursing
.
lioness
.34
....
178
Factors that elevate the birth-rate

Fecundity, difference in, of marriages of different countries
Fineness of Nature's adjustments
.52
......
.
Food supply, forecast

France, small percentage of children to the average marriage
French peasant proprietor, fanciful description of him
J. S.
155
211
194
by
195
Mill
Galton on inherited genius

General consensus as to a Nature-creed, of no value
Generic characteristics that appear sporadically
.
.87
.79
Generic characters that appear occasionally in individuals are

fading
,,
persist in appearing
,,
vigour has waned
German
industries, effect of a protective policy
Gregarious
species,
males
significance
Hagenbach's, Mr., experiment

his breeds
Hypothesis,
its
creation of
How man forms
place in science
the
of
Growth of population due to
.99
long after their pristine

.
103
188
among
combats
.
new posts
of
.30
employment 146
.10
.85
.60
.61
when legitimate ?
how Newton verified his Hypothesis of Gravitation
,,
Hypotheses, Can Darwin's assumptions be called legitimate ?
.
,,
Illegitimacy does not affect labour market

India, effect
of
sources
......
British
Raj
as to
its
population and
62
63
154
re-
125-128
Individual differences, pre-requisite necessary for their accumulation
.78
Nature's object in bestowing them

.
Individual differentiation, essential condition of man in society
,,
82
239
INDEX
257
Individuals cannot go out of their

specific form to originate
varieties
new
82
Individual variation (the evolutionary),

a creature of Darwin's
imagination
.
"
.63
assumed action in each generation

its assumed action through illimitable time
>>
".
Individual variations only used by man in
forming his breed
>'
cannot elude the destructive action of
its
>>
marriage
>>
in free
)>
65
83
69
.91
intercourse that takes place
in
....
Nature die out in the course of a few

generations
Inferior productions not rigidly destroyed
by Nature
Inheritance, its governing laws in certain respects incalculable

of individual variations ruled by the same principle
,,
as inheritance of blood
how
it acts
in the pairing of
,,
effect of stringent application of Registration
emigration from, distressful and compulsory
Japan,
its
Act
.
170
161
rank of a Great Power, its ancient

adoption of Western civilisation
the
to
rise
civilisation
and
its
..:...
......
Labour market, the, supplies the means that enable men to

marry
,,
,,
how
,,
posts of
it is
,,
supplied with labour
of equal inheritance in France, its operation

affecting the
man who
contemplates marrying
extinguish individual variations

life
in European countries
149
for
158
.197
.
of marriage affecting inheritance cannot be evaded .
acts in nature to preserve specific characters and
,,
Lengthening of the average
207
.152
employment limited by the demand
labour
Law
Law
67
141.
121-125
,,
90
.76
'.
Ireland, increase from 1690 to 1845
81
.88
men and
animals
Injurious variations not necessary to Darwin's theory
Insanitary conditions of Mediaeval Europe
Intermediate forms, their absence
.
,
103
67
150
91
92
134
not due to decrease of infant mortality
135
Lioness in confinement must bring forth in darkness

Faimali's statement as to effect of light
,,
32
,,
,,
intruding on
Luxury maintains the more highly paid forms
17
of skilled labour
.32
149
INDEX
258
Male and female
cat devours
,,
......
......
......
.....
....
cats, their
livery
young
behaviour when latter nearing de
22
21
of female
25
domestic rabbit, guinea pig, and boar

ferret, anecdote of
24
24
tigers
Males of all prolific species removed from cages when females
pregnant
Malthus, his principle that population increases faster than the
food supply
, ,
his positive checks
,,
practically eliminates check of moral restraint
,,
moral aspect of his theory

effect of his
theory upon Pitt
34
116
130
131
132
134
Man differentiated
,
231
232
from the lower animals

an imperfect being advancing to a remote ideal
Mankind
201
entering into larger consciousness of its solidarity
Marriages limited by labour demand

Mediseval Europe, its insanitary conditions
159
Men marry
153
206
141
as soon as they are able
Military situation of Europe to-day, an evanescent phase

Mill's fanciful description of French peasant proprietor
195
223
Mundane
history of man, three stages
Natural Selection in progress, incapable of being observed or

traced
,,
,,
.72
73
cannot be Nature's evolutional principle

cannot pair similarly varied individuals through
.
.90
.......
successive generations
Nature's arrangement to supplant unimprovable by civilised

races
,,
method
of elimination
meant
227
to avert a cruel struggle
for existence
19-20
and
congruous
,,
,,
painless
,,
,,
prevails in the vegetable king-
,,
nature of the species
dom
reconciles
phenomena
the
to
.20
of
.
26
86
feral life with observation

Nature cannot isolate her similarly varied individuals, why
shows few traces of her footsteps in her evolutional march
Nature's productions far truer than man's, why
Nineteenth century inaugurates a new era
.
23
80
.85
.
200
INDEX
Paul's,
St.,
259
PAOB
...
conception of society as a mutually interdependent
organism
Pauperism, decrease
of, in the United Kingdom

.
Peace, reign of
.
Pessimistic view of Nature since
publication of Origin of Species
Policy of protection, effect on industries of
Germany
'.
237
228
223
47
188
Population of each wild species remains normally at same point 17-18
Positive cheeks of Malthus, greatly curtailed
since his day
134
.
....
....
.
Practical science,
why it is
progressive
Preparation of the world for the advent of man

Prevailing comity among the larger carnivora
Principle of selection used by man cannot be used by.Nature
Professional classes, competition among
Progress made since beginning of the nineteenth century
Prolific species, their
power of recuperating
losses
......
......
Rabbit, cause of increase in Australia

domestic
,,
Eat and weasel

Recuperative power of prolific species
Registration Act in Ireland, effect of its stringent application
Reserve of young men always sufficient for labour supply of
community
Reversion not a happy term to express appearance of generic
markings
Romanes, Dr., his attempt to prove operation of Natural
......
......
......
.....
Selection
Rudimentary forms
Russian vital
statistics furnished to
Malthus
Severity of struggle for existence defined by Darwin
Similarly varied individuals can rarely copulate in Nature

Skilled labour,
luxury
......
......
......
the more highly paid
Solidarity of mankind,
ofit
Specific characters only
men
kinds
fixity
69
242
204
56
59
25
24
56
170
165
104
77
79
172
4
89
maintained by
149
entering into larger consciousness
201
employed by Nature in modifying her
forms
cannot be given by man to his breeds
Spiritual nature destined to predominate man's animal inherit
ance
Stages, three, of development in mundane history of man
Standing armies, how they affect the labour market
.220
83
83
219
223
167
INDEX
26o
PAOE
Struggle for existence averted by Nature's method of elimination

as
,,
,,
Darwin
defines
it,
.48
......
......
were realised
men advance civilisation and elevate the general
standard of living
Sufficient subsistence for a married life, how determined
Surplus population never arises from numbers increasing faster
than food supply
if it
Successful
Survival of the average, result of Nature's method of elimination

of the fittest not in the arrangements of
Sweden and Norway,
Nature
effect of industrial depression
Tigers, battle between
....
.....
Varietal forms, characteristic of
240
150
226
43
43
184
24
230
two
Tramps and vagrants
what would happen
79
Vegetivorous animals born for two ends

Vice and misery of great cities not due to labour market nor
.
social
by
233
arrangements
Vicissitudes of business
.
and mutability of fortune, misery entailed

.
"Weaker, the, do not go to the wall in the competition of
Wealth inherited
or acquired,
how
245
it
life
maintains labour
"Wolf, the male,
when admitted
147
to the female assists in feeding
42
the cubs
Young men, always

market
238
promotes industry and
a sufficient reserve for supply of the labour
164
INDEX TO TABLES OF VITAL

STATISTICS
PAOE
Table
I.
Showing
between the average life-terms

of different European nations
Showing fall of the death-rate in England and
"Wales among children under five years of age
compared with fall in the general mortality
Showing high average life-terms in the Australdifference
II.
III.
.....
asian Colonies
,,
who marry in each class,

the proportional number who marry at each
of three ages, among miners, factory hands, etc.
....
European countries
179
180
....
....
....
decennially since 1874

XI. Marriages, deaths, and births in 10,000
Prussia since 1864
XII. Marriages, deaths, and births in 10,000
the Netherlands since 1854
XIII. Marriages, deaths, and births in 10,000
Belgium, showing also the birth-rate
.
175
VIII. Annual number of marriages, deaths, and births in

Norway since 1871
IX. Annual number of marriages, deaths, and births in

Sweden since 1854
X. Population of Prussia, natural and actual increases,
,,
173
VII. Annual number of deaths and births per 10,000 in

England and Scotland decennially since 1864
.
,,
157
VI. Death-rate and birth-rate of Kussia, Hungary, and

Roumania compared with death-rate and birthrate of other
,,
143
V. Showing the three highest death-rates of Europe,

viz., those of Russia, Hungary, and Roumania,
contrasted with the two lowest, viz., those of
Sweden and Norway

,,
139
IV. Showing, of 1000 males
,,
138
in relation to the marriage-rate

261
181
186
persons in
186
persons in
189
persons in
declining
.
,193
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it should be, is a new treasure for either a public

the recent advance in all the studies pertaining to
be what
Such
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the origin, contents, and interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, the documents of the
Christian religion, that the "Dictionary of the Bible," of which the first volume has
just been issued, ministers to a real want, and it promises to minister to it well. . . .
Of this first volume of the "Dictionary," as a whole, it can be truly said that it com-
amount of investigation by scholars

that they are candid, and well equipped for their
Professor G. P. Fisher, D.D., in the Book Buyer.
presses into a moderate space the results of a vast
of
whom
work.'
this at least can be affirmed
'The need of a new " Dictionary of the Bible" has been made imperative by recent
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Note.
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Buddha and Buddhism.
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By Principal T. M. Lindsay, D.D.
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The Medici and the Italian RenaisBy Omphant Smeaton,
sance.
M.A., Edinburgh.
Plato.
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now
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Professor W. Clark, LL.D., D.C.L.,
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J.
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versity of Edinburgh.
io
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1
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Critical Review.
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.
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me
f
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indispensable to the understanding of the New Testament.'
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Selections
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Some
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With Introductory and
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The Religious Controversies of

Henrt
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Contents
Prof. Simson's Affair The Marrow Men Hume's Essay on Miracles
The Playhouse Battle An Ayrshire New Light The Apocrypha Controversy
Edward Irving The Row Heresy The Rise of Morisonianism The Scotch
Sermons Robertson Smith and the Higher Criticism The Dods-Bruce Case.
:
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and
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Principal Patrick, D.D.
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topic which Mr.
i2
T.
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13
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A Concordance to the Greek Testament.
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'
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- Theological
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'
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Church
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"
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of a century ago.
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The Kingdom
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A.
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BRUCE, P.P.
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24
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life, or, let
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One
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INDEX
...
....
...
The
...
....
...
....
Adams, Prof. J., Primer on Teaching

Adamson, Rev. R. M., The Lord's Supper
Adamson, Dr. T., Spirit of Power
Alexander, W. L., Biblical Theology
Kidd, Dr.
Kilpatrick, Prof. T. B., Christian Character .

Konig, Prof. Ed., Exiles' Book of Consolation
Krummacher, Dr. F. W., Works by .
Laidlaw, Prof. J., Works by
21
21
Ancient Faith in Modern Light,

Ante-Nicene Christian Library
Augustine, St., Works of
Bain, J. A., M.A., New Reformation
Balfour, Dr. R. G., Central Truths
Ball, W. E., LL.D., St. Paul and Roman Law
.
Ballard, Frank, The Miracles of Unbelief
Bannerman, Dr. D. D., Doctrine of the Church
Barty, J. W., LL.D., Duty of Christian Churches
Bayne, Dr. Peter, Free Church of Scotland
.
Beck, Prof., Works by
36
36
2
27
11
5
32
2
32
26
Bengel's Gnomon
37
The Westminster Assembly
10
Beveridge,
12
Beyschlag, Prof. W., New Testament Theology
Bible Class Handbooks
35
Bible Class Primers
35
22
Blake, Buchanan, Works by
Brockelmann's Syriac Lexicon
13
Bruce, Prof. A. B., Works by
17
10
Bruce, Canon R., Apostolic Order
12
Dr.
W.
S.,
Works
by
Bruce,
11
.
Caldecott and Mackintosh, Profs., Theism
Calvin, John, Works of
34
8, 27, and 35
Candlish, Prof. J. S., Works by
30
Caspari, C. E., Life of Christ
28
Caspers, Footsteps of Christ
22
Cave, Prof., Works by
18
Chapman, Principal C., Pre-Organic Evolution
.
.
....
....
Christlieb, Prof., Works by

Clark, Prof. W., Pascal
Concordance to the Greek Testament
...
...
Cooper-Maclean, The Testament of our Lord

Crawford, J. H., Brotherhood of Man
Creiner's Greek Lexicon
Crippen, T. G., Christian Doctrine
Works by
Curtiss, Prof.,
Dahle, Bishop, Life after Death

Dalman, G., The Words of Jesus
Davidson, Prof. A. B., Works by
Davies, Principal, Atonement
Deane, W. J., Pseudepigrapha

Deissman, Prof. A., Bible Studies
Delitzsch, Prof. F.,
Works by
9
13
10
21
13
....
....
34
20
15
11
.14 and 35
33
13
....
.
and 39
31
.20 and 39
2
Deussen, Prof. P., Philosophy of the Upanishads
Dictionary of the Bible
4
Dods, Prof. Marcus, Works by
35
15
Dods, Marcus, Forerunners of Dante
Dollinger, Ignaz von, Works by
24
.23 and 3g
Dorner, Dr. I. A., Works by
5
Drummond, Dr. R. J., Apostolic Teaching
24
Duff, Prof. D., The Early Church
27
Eadie, Prof. J., Commentaries
Ebrard, ProfT, Works by
23 and 39
28
Edgar, Dr. R. McC, A Risen Saviour
Ewald, Prof., Works by
29 and 39
Expository Times
34
and 35
.
Fairweather, W., Works by
21
Falconer, J. W., Apostle to Priest
2
Ferries, Dr. George, Growth of Christian Faith
Forbes, J. T-, Socrates
9
.38 and 39
Foreign Theological Library .
2 and 6
.
.
Forrest, Dr. D. W-, Works by
28
Funcke, Pastor, World of Faith
8
Garvie, Prof. A. E., The Ritschlian Theology
7
Geere, H. V., Nile and Euphrates
19
Gloag, Dr. Paton J., Works by
16 and 39
Godet, Prof. F., Works by
.
...
....
....
...
....9
...
.
....
....
....
Gotthold's
Emblems
Gwatkin, Prof., Works by

Halcombe, J. J., The Gospels
Hall,
Newman, Works by
28
2 and 3
29
28
34
...
.21,
...
Hamilton, President, Beyond the Stars

Hastie, Prof. W., Works by
Hastings, Dr. Tames, Works
Heard,
J.
25, 29,
by
and 31
and 34
....
B Works by
Hefele, Bishop, Church Councils

Henderson, Dr. Arch.. Palestine
Henderson, H. F., Religious Controversies
Herkless, Prof., Francis and Dominic
Hill, Dr. J. H., St. Ephraem
Hodgson, G., Primitive Christian Education
Hodgson, Principal, Theologia Pectoris
Holborn, Rev. A., The Pentateuch
.
...
...
....
....
.
Hudson,
Prof.,
Rousseau
Lambert, J. C,
Lange, Prof. T.
The Sacraments
9
6
2
21
.269
.9
.10
and
31
and 35
35
31
....
9 and 35
13
'
.1
and
39
3i
30
27
33
Mackintosh, Prof. R.. Hegel

Macpherson, J., Works by
19
Mair, Dr. A., Christian Evidences .
Martensen, Bishop, Works by
33 and 39
Matheson, Dr. G., Growth of the Spirit of Chris.
tianity
34
Testament
.
.
37
Milligan, Dr. G., Theology of Epistle to the Hebrews 8
Milligan, Prof. W., Resurrection of the Dead
.
17
Moffatt, Dr. T., The Historical New Testament
Meyer, Commentary on
New
...
Monrad, Bishop,
"shoi World of Prayer
Moulton-Geden, Concordance to Greek Testament
Moulton, Dr. J. H., Grammar of New Testament
Greek
and 35
30
and 39
Naville, Ernest, Works by

Nicoll, W. R., LL.D., The Incarnate Saviour
Oehler, Prof., Theology of the Old Testament
Oosterzee, Dr. J. J. van, Works by .
Orelli, Prof.,
25
17
39
.24
.
Works by
20 and 39
Orr, Prof. J., David Hume

Patrick, Principal W., James
Plummer, Dr. A., Works by
Profeit,
13
....
Muirhead, Dr. L. A., Times of Christ

Muller, Prof., Doctrine of Sin
-3
2
W., The Creation of Matter
Riehm, Dr., Messianic Prophecy
Funjer, Prof., Philosophy of Religion'

.
Purves, Dr. D The Life Everlasting
Rabiger, Prof., Encyclopaedia of Theology
Rainy, Principal, D.D., Christian Doctrine
Rashdall, Dr. Hastings, Christus in Hcclesia
Reusch, Prof., Nature and the Bible
tB
32 and 39
16
18
Ritchie, Prof. D. G., Plato

Ritschl, Albrecht, Justification, etc.
Rooke, President, Inspiration, etc
Ross, Rev. C. B., Our Father's Kingdom
...
Ross, Dr. D. M., Teaching of Jesus

Rothe, Prof., Sermons for the Christian Year
Saisset, Emile, Modern Pantheism
Sanday, Prof. W., Life of Christ
9
5
33
33
35
28
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.
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...
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New Testament Times
12
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12
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Scott, Dr. J., New Testament Quotation
Shaw, Dr. R. D., Pauline Epistles
Sime, James, Herschel
Simon, Principal, Reconciliation by Incarnation
23
32
39
Smeaton, O.,
....
....
....
...
....
The Medici
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.
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35
IS
P., Life of Christ

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24
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25
.
.
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.
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6
28
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Hebrew
Jesus
.
17
Ideals
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.23
37
9
26
5
33
30
13
9
21
25
35
30
and 39
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.
18
...
6
30
Tophel.G., Work of the Holy Spirit

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35
'
a
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35
iS

No Struggle For Existence, No Natural Selection

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No Struggle For Existence, No Natural Selection

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THE

Cornell University Library

No struggle for existence, no natural se

3 1924 003 047 580

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

No Struggle for Existence

No Struggle for Existence

Critical Examination of the

S1MPEIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT,

HEW YORK CHARLES

the majority of those

appear that I have undertaken

a useless labour in writing

or intentionally sets himself to the task of writing a

not himself convinced will serve

some useful purpose.

that the theory

obtained the general consensus of the civilised world

too late in the day to examine into its founda-

and place them under

been too late in entering upon this

calls its creed

perception of the fact that

aware, has ever before inquired

and examined the fundamental

think that I have

seem, at this time of

day, to be a most extraordinary statement to make,

Even when the

assured, will be found,

Darwin and the opponents

Evolution, the latter,

being in truth too

occupied with assailing other

points of his doctrine, did not attack his fundamental

an axiomatic statement requiring

neither investigation nor verification.

agreement with him accepted

neglected to do, namely, to inquire

in Nature, such a struggle for existence as

formulated and stated to be the universal experience

upon which Darwin based

small surprise was the very insufficient grounds

struggle for existence," he

from the high rate at which

pronounces, " follows

organic beings tend to

Hence, as more individuals are produced

than can possibly survive, there must, in every

be a struggle for existence, either one individual with

I looked for the signs

sign or evidence of its being in progress I

here affirmed to be inevitable.

nowhere the reign

tooth and claw,

except in the single case where carnivorous creatures

nowhere starvation working havoc among creatures

perceive the inevitableness of a struggle for existence

fact of there being

duced than can possibly survive.

more individuals proIn asserting such a