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1-Historical research

Historical Research Wiersma (1986) defines historical research in this way; it is a


process of critical inquiry into past events, in order to produce an accurate
description and interpretation of those events.(development of school)
The Steps of historical research

o Identification of the research problem (including formulation of


hypothesis/questions
o Systematic collection & evaluation of data
o Synthesis of information(including confirmation/disconfirmation of
hypothesis)
o Interpreting and drawing conclusions

Definition of a problem Historical research problems are identified in the same


way as problems of other types of research. It is much better to study in-depth a
well-defined problem with one or more specific well stated questions or
hypotheses, then to investigate either too broadly stated problems or a problem for
which insufficient data are available (Gay, 1997).
Systematic collection & evaluation of data the sources of historical information
are commonly classified as primary or secondary. Primary sources are firsthand
access of the events or experience under study; secondary sources are accounts at
least one level removed from the event or experience (Wiersma, 1996).
Collection and evaluation of source material According to Wiersma(1986) a
basic rule of historical research is to use primary sources whenever it is possible to
locate them. Historical evidence is derived from historical data by the process of
criticism, which is of two types; external and internal.

External Criticism External criticism in historical research evaluates the validity of the
document-this is ,where, when and by whom it was produced(Wiersma, 1986, p.223).
Internal criticism Internal criticism evaluates the meaning, accuracy and trustworthiness
of the content of the document (Wiersoma,1886, p.224).

Synthesis of information Wiersma (1986), states that central ideas or concepts


must be pulled together and continuity between them is developed. As a substantial
period of time-say, several years-is covered by the research study, the ideas can
often be organized chronologically.
Interpretation and formulating conclusions the final step of historical research
methodology is characterized by decision making about the research problem. At
the final step conclusions are formulated, and any hypothesis introduced earlier is
either supported or rejected.
Advantages of Historical research: Many current educational practices, theories
and issues can be better understood in the light of past experiences. Researchers
can apply scientific objectivity in attempting to determine exactly what did happen
in the past. If well-done, this research involves systematic, objective data
collection and analysis.
Disadvantages of Historical research: In conducting historical research, the
researcher can neither manipulate nor control any of the variables. There is no
way; historical researcher can affect events of the past. Historical research cant
collect data by administering instruments. Historical research is limited to
whatever data are available. Historical research excessively relies on secondary
source of data.
Some examples of problems in historical research: Essays written by elementary
school children during the Civil WarAttendee record from two different school
districts over a 40-years periodHigh school graduation diplomas from the 1920s
Conclusion Historical research is necessary to define the situations of the past and
its meaning in the light of the present problem. It can provide a perspective for
decision making about educational problems, and it assists in understanding why
things are as they are. Educational reform and even social reform are functions
often served by historical research. Issues are often better understood and
probably better dealt with-if the historical perspective is known.

Historical research is research involving analysis of events that occurred in the


remote or recent
Application
Historical research can show patterns that occurred in the past and over time
which can help us to see where we came from and what kinds of solutions we have
used in the past.
Understanding this can add perspective on how we examine current events and
educational practices.
The steps involved in the conduct of historical research
1. Identification of the research topic and formulation of the research problem or
question.
2. Data collection or literature review
3. Evaluation of materials
4. Data synthesis
5. Report preparation or preparation of the narrative exposition
Historical research gives a social scientist a better context for CORRELATIONAL
RESEARCH making realistic decisions.
Strengths
Provides a comprehensive picture of historical trends
Uses existing information
Provides evidence of on-going trends and problems .
Limitations
Time-consuming
Resources may be hard to locate
Resources may be conflicting
3

May not identify cause of a problem


Information may be incomplete, obsolete, inconclusive, or P inaccurate
Data restricted to what already exists
2-Descriptive research
Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of
characteristics of a particular individual, DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH situation, or
group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical research.
These studies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exists,
determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing
information.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied,
which has an impact of the lives of the HISTORICAL RESEARCH people it deals
with.
For example, RESEARCH finding the most frequent disease that affects the
children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that
disease thus; more people will live a healthy life.
Advantages:
The people individual studied are unaware so they act naturally or as they usually
do in everyday situation;
It is less expensive and time consuming than quantitative experiments;
Collects a large amount of notes for detailed studying;
As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions it is To start the research
with it

Disadvantages:
Descriptive research requires more skills.
4

Does not identify cause behind a phenomenon


Response rate is low in this research.
Results of this research can change over the period of time.
Survey Method:
Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to ask a large number of
people questions about their behaviors, thoughts, and attitudes.
Surveys should be large, random samples.
Surveys should be clear, concise, and not too wordy or too lengthy (Target)
Conducting a survey requires a representative sample, or a sample that
reflects all major characteristics of the population you want to represent.
If you are attempting to survey "America's attitude towards exercising", then
your sample cannot include only Caucasian, upper-class college students
between the ages of 18 and 22 years.
This does not represent America.

Positives

Negatives

Quick and efficient

Questions may be confusing or


biased

Can poll large number of


people

People may not take it


seriously

Relatively inexpensive

Sometimes difficult to gain in


depth knowledge

Reliable measure (everyone


gets the same survey)

Case Study:
In depth examination of a specific group OR single person that typically
includes interviews, observations, and test scores.
This method is especially useful for understanding complex or rare
phenomenon. (Genie)
Clinical psychologists frequently do case studies. (longitudinal kids study)
Positives

Negatives

Very detailed information

Not applicable to larger


populations

Not very expensive

Takes a lot time, effort, and


attention to detail

3-Experimental research
Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the
purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and
causality among selected variables.
Advantages
Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships
Disadvantages
Artificiality
Feasibility
Unethical
The simplest experimental design includes two variables and the two variables
(Independent versus Dependent variables). The IV is the predictor variable
whereas the DV is the outcome variable. Researchers manipulate and control the
IV to study its effect on the DV.
6

The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental group).


Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns his/her
sample to two different groups: the control group and the experimental (treatment
group or clinical group).
The control group receives no manipulation of the IV (no treatment), whereas the
experimental group receives the manipulation of the IV

4-Comparative research
to identify similarities and differences between units at all levels, utilize historical
sources to study events of the past
Often used together with historical research to compare peoples experience of
different societies, either between times in the past or in parallel situations in the
present
Conducted at a macro level (revolutions) or at a micro level individual experience
Experimental research where the researcher controls causal factors is not really
possible in social research but history and comparisons can supply researchers with
a natural experiment in which non-essential characteristics of a phenomena can be
eliminated by looking at multiple instance of it

FURTHER READING:
"Flexible Working Practices Boost Business Success." Leadership & Organization
Development Journal. February-March 1997.
Graham, Baxter W. "The Business Argument for Flexibility." HRMagazine. May 1996.
Kirrane, Diane E. "Wanted: Flexible Work Arrangements." Association Management.
November 1994.
Leveen-Sher, Margery. "Flexibility Is the Key to Small Business Benefits." Washington
Business Journal. February 16,1996.
Mullins, Robert. "Flex Timeand Frustrations with ItContinue to Grow." The
Business Journal-Milwaukee. May 7,1994.
Olmstead, Barney, and Suzanne Smith. Creating a Flexible Workplace: How to Select
and Manage Alternative Work Options. AMACOM.
Peak, Martha H. "Why I Hate Flextime." Management Review. February 1994.
Sheley, Elizabeth. "Flexible Work Options." HRMagazine. February 1996.
Skyrme, David J. "Flexible Working: Building a Lean and Responsive Organization."
Long Range Planning. October 1994.
"A Workstyle Revolution? A Survey of Flexible Employment Practices." Leadership and
Organization Development Journal. November 1999.

Read more: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/small/Eq-Inc/Flexible-WorkArrangements.html#ixzz3LVMRfd1j

References[edit]
1. Jump up ^ http://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1877/479.pdf
2. Jump up ^ "Key indicators of women's position in Britain" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-01-27.
3. Jump up ^ "UK Department of Trade and Industry employment guidance". Dti.gov.uk. 2009-1106. Retrieved 2012-01-27.
4. Jump up ^ "ONS Survey 2005" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-01-27.
5. Jump up ^ "Reform of flexible parental leave | News". BIS. Retrieved 2012-11-14.
6. Jump up ^ ClearSky Business - Flexible Working
7. Jump up ^ http://www.lewissilkin.com/Journal/2012/November/Changing-the-clapped-outrules-on-flexible-working.aspx
8. Jump up ^ Leah. "O: Open, Flexible Work". Momsrising. Retrieved 2012-01-27.

"Do flexible work hours improve


employeeproductivity?
"How do flexible hours influence
employees'work?"
The corresponding Hypothesis
Flexible work hours improve
employeeproductivity. (True or False /
Accept orReject)

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