EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, 9/e,

ACTIVE LEARNING EDITION

2005

Anita E Woolfolk-Hoy

0-205-43529-7

ISBN

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Page i

Educational
Psychology
Ninth Edition

Active Learning Edition

Anita Woolfolk
The Ohio State University

ALLYN & BACON

boston new york san francisco
mexico city montreal toronto london madrid munich
hong kong singapore tokyo cape town sydney

paris

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Page ii

To 35 years of students.
You are a gift, and my greatest teacher.
AWH
President: NANCY FORSYTH
Vice President and Editor-in-Chief: PAUL A. SMITH
Developmental Editor: ALICIA REILLY/ VIRGINIA BLANFORD
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Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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or by an information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright
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Portions of this book first appeared in Educational Psychology, Ninth Edition, by Anita Woolfolk,
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hoy, Anita Woolfolk
Educational psychology / Anita Woolfolk.Active learning ed., 9th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-205-43529-7
1. Educational psychology. I. Title.
LB1051.W74 2005
370.15dc22
2004040068
Credits appear on page 671, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page.
Printed in the United States of America
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B R I E F

Preface xxi
Cluster 1

Teachers, Teaching, and Educational

Psychology 1

Module 1

Teachers, Teaching, and Educational

Psychology 1

Point/Counterpoint: What Is Good Teaching? 7

Cluster 2

Cognitive Development
and Language 18

Module 2

Development: Some General Principles 20

Point/Counterpoint: Brain-Based Education 25

Family/Community Partnerships: Promoting Literacy 28

Module 3

Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development 31

Module 4

Vygotskys Sociocultural Perspective 43

Module 5

Implications of Piaget and Vygotsky

for Teachers 51

Guidelines: Teaching the Preoperational Child 37

Guidelines: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 39
Guidelines: Helping Students to Use Formal
Operations 41
Guidelines: Applying Vygotskys Ideas in Teaching 57

Cluster 3

Personal, Moral, and

Social Development 60

Module 6

Understanding Ourselves and Others 62

Guidelines: Encouraging Initiative in Preschool Children 64

Guidelines: Encouraging Industry 64
Guidelines: Supporting Identity Formation 66
Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools Do
to Encourage Students Self-Esteem? 70
Family/Community Partnerships: Building Self-Esteem 74
Guidelines: Encouraging Emotional Competence 75

Module 7

Moral Development 78

Guidelines: Dealing With Aggression and Encouraging

Cooperation 84

Module 8

Socialization: Family, Peers,

and Teachers 88

Guidelines: Helping Children of Divorce 89

Guidelines: Supporting Personal and Social
Development 91
Guidelines: Safety on the Internet 94

C O N T E N T S

Cluster 4

Learner Differences and

Learning Needs 100

Module 9

Individual Differences: Intelligence, Cognitive

Processing, and Learning Styles 102

Guidelines: Interpreting IQ Scores 110

Module 10

Integration and Inclusion: Teaching Every

Child in Todays Classroom 116

Family/Community Partnerships: Productive Conferences 118

Guidelines: Encouraging Language Development 122
Guidelines: Teaching Students with Mild Retardation 124
Guidelines: Disciplining Students with Emotional
Problems 126

Module 11

Ability Differences and Teaching 136

Point/Counterpoint: Is Tracking An Effective Strategy? 138

Guidelines: Grouping by Achievement 139

Cluster 5

Culture and Community 146

Module 12

Diversity in Todays Classrooms 148

Family/Community Partnerships: Building Learning

Communities 158

Module 13

Girls and Boys: Differences

in the Classroom 160

Guidelines: Avoiding Sexism in Teaching 169

Point/Counterpoint: Do Boys and Girls Learn Differently? 170

Module 14

Creating Culturally Compatible

Classrooms 173

Guidelines: Dialects in the Classroom 178

Guidelines: Culturally Relevant Teaching 184

Cluster 6

Behavioral Views of Learning 188

Module 15

Behavioral Explanations of Learning:

Contiguity, Classical Conditioning,
and Operant Conditioning 190

Guidelines: Applying Classical Conditioning 194

Module 16

Applied Behavior Analysis 203

Guidelines: Using Praise Appropriately 204

Guidelines: Encouraging Positive Behaviors 207
Guidelines: Using Punishment 209

Module 17

Behavioral Approaches to Teaching

and Management (includes Recent
Approaches, Problems, and Issues) 212
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Family/Community Partnerships: Student

Self-Management 218
Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Rewarded
for Learning? 221

Cluster 7

Cognitive Views of Learning 226

Module 18

Elements of the Cognitive Perspective:

Information Processing 228

Guidelines: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 234

Module 19

Long-Term Memory: The Goal

of Teaching 241

Guidelines: Using Information Processing Ideas

in the Classroom 249

Module 20

Cognition, Metacognition,
and Teaching 252

Point/Counterpoint: Whats Wrong with Memorizing? 259

Family/Community Partnerships: Organizing Learning 261

Cluster 8

Complex Cognitive Processes 264

Module 21

Learning and Teaching about Concepts 266

Guidelines: Applying Bruners Ideas 272

Guidelines: Applying Ausubels Ideas 273

Module 22

Problem Solving 276

Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Allowed to Use

Calculators and Spell-Checkers? 283
Guidelines: Problem Solving 286

Module 23

Teaching for Transfer 289

Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Student 295

Family/Community Partnerships: Promoting Transfer 299

Cluster 9

Social Cognitive and Constructivist

Views of Learning 302

Module 24

Social Learning and Social Cognitive

Theories 304

Guidelines: Using Observational Learning 310

Module 25

Constructivism and Situated Learning 314

Module 26

Applications of Constructivist and Situated

Perspectives on Learning 324

Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical

Thinking and Problem Solving? 332
Family/Community Partnerships: Communicating
about Innovations 334

Guidelines: Coping with Anxiety 358

Module 29

Guidelines: Supporting Self-Determination

and Autonomy 365
Guidelines: Encouraging Self-Efficacy and Self-Worth 367

Module 30

Motivation in Learning and Teaching 338

Module 27

Motivation: A Definition and Four

General Approaches 340
Goals, Interests, and Emotions 350

Module 28

Guidelines: Building on Students Interests 355

Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun Make
for Good Learning? 356

iv
Brief Contents

Motivation to Learn in School 370

Family/Community Partnerships: Motivation to Learn 382

Cluster 11 Creating Learning Environments

Module 31

386

Creating a Positive Learning

Environment 388

Guidelines: Establishing Class Procedures 394

Guidelines: Designing Learning Spaces 399

Module 32

Maintaining a Good Environment

for Learning 402

Guidelines: Keeping Students Engaged 403

Guidelines: Imposing Penalties 406
Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance a Good Idea? 406

Module 33

The Need for Communication 410

Family/Community Partnerships: Classroom

Management 418

Cluster 12 Teaching for Academic Learning

Module 34

422

The First Step: Planning 424

Guidelines: Using Instructional Objectives 429

Module 35

Teacher-Directed Instruction
and Teacher Expectations 434

Guidelines: Teaching Effectively 436

Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework a Valuable Use
of Time? 441
Family/Community Partnerships: Homework 442
Guidelines: Productive Group Discussions 446
Guidelines: Avoiding the Negative Effects
of Teacher Expectations 450

Module 36

Student-Centered Teaching
in Content Areas and Inclusive
Classrooms 453

Guidelines: Teaching for Conceptual Change 459

Cluster 13 Teaching for Self-Regulation, Creativity,

and Tolerance 468

Module 37

Cluster 10

Self-Schemas 361

Self-Regulation and Agency 470

Family/Community Partnerships: Parents Supporting

Self-Regulation 472
Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Character
and Compassion? 478
Guidelines: Using Cooperative Learning 486

Module 38

Creativity and Community 489

Guidelines: Encouraging Creativity 492

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Cluster 14 Evaluation, Measurement,

and Assessment 502

Module 39

Definitions and Concepts 504

Guidelines: Increasing Reliability and Validity 514

Family/Community Partnerships: Explaining
and Using Test Results 515
Guidelines: Becoming an Expert Test-Taker 516

Module 40

Standardized Tests 519

Point/Counterpoint: Should Tests Be Used to Hold

Teachers Accountable? 525
Guidelines: Accommodations in Testing 531

Module 41

Getting the Most from Traditional

Classroom Assessment Approaches:
Testing and Grading 534

Guidelines: Writing Objective Test Items 537

Guidelines: Minimizing the Detrimental Effects
of Grades 542
Guidelines: Using Any Grading System 547
Family/Community Partnerships: Conferences 550

Module 42

Innovations in Classroom Assessment 553

Point/Counterpoint: Which Is BetterTraditional Tests

or Authentic Assessment? 554
Guidelines: Creating Portfolios 558
Guidelines: Developing a Rubric 560

Appendix A

Becoming a Professional 567

Passing the PRAXIS 567

Becoming a Teacher 571
Enhancing Your Expertise With Technology 576
Appendix B

Standards and Licensure: PRAXIS II

and INTASC 585

Glossary 601
References 611
Name Index 649
Subject Index 661

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C O N T E N T S

Preface xxi

Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 17

Point/Counterpoint: What Is Good Teaching? 7

Cluster 1

Teachers, Teaching, and

Educational Psychology 1
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 1

Module 1 Teachers, Teaching, and

Educational Psychology 1
Overview 2
Teacher-Student Relationships 2
Teacher Preparation and Quality 2
Inside Four Classrooms 4
A Bilingual 1st Grade 4
A Suburban 5th Grade 4
Two Advanced Math Classes 5
Expert Knowledge 5
Beginning Teachers 6
The Role of Educational Psychology:
Is It Just Common Sense? 8
Taking Turns 9
Helping Students 9
Skipping Grades 9
Obvious Answer? 10
Using Research to Understand and Improve
Teaching 10
Descriptive Studies 10
Correlational Studies 11
Experimental Studies 11
Single-Subject Experimental Designs 12
Microgenetic Studies 12
The Role of Time in Research 13
Theories for Teaching 13
Teachers as Researchers 14
SUMMARY 14
KEY TERMS 15
CHECK YOURSELF 16

Cluster 2

Cognitive Development
and Language 18
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 19

Module 2 Development: Some

General Principles 20
Overview 20
The Brain and Cognitive Development 21
The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 21
Specialization and Integration 22
The Developing Brain: Neurons 22
Implications for Teachers 24
The Development of Language 24
Diversity in Language: Dual Language
Development 26
Language Development in the School Years 26
Pronunciation 26
Syntax 27
Vocabulary and Meaning 27
Pragmatics 27
Metalinguistic Awareness 27
Partnerships with Families 27
SUMMARY 29
KEY TERMS 29
CHECK YOURSELF 30

Module 3 Piagets Theory of

Cognitive Development 31
Overview 31
Influences on Development 31
Basic Tendencies in Thinking 32
Organization 32

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Adaptation 32
Equilibration 33
Four Stages of Cognitive Development 33
Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage 33
Early Childhood to the Elementary Years: The
Preoperational Stage 34
Later Elementary to the Middle School Years: The
Concrete-Operational Stage 36
Junior and Senior High: Formal Operations 38
Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage? 40
SUMMARY 41
KEY TERMS 41
CHECK YOURSELF 42

Module 4 Vygotskys Sociocultural

Perspective 43
Overview 43
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 44
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 45
The Role of Language and Private Speech 45
Language and Cultural Diversity 46
Vygotskys and Piagets Views Compared 46
Self-Talk and Learning 47
The Role of Learning and Development 48
Vygotskys and Piagets Views Compared 48
The Role of Adults and Peers 48
SUMMARY 49
KEY TERMS 49
CHECK YOURSELF 50

Module 5 Implications of Piaget and

Vygotsky for Teachers 51

Overview 51
Understanding and Building on Students Thinking 51
Activity and Constructing Knowledge 52
The Value of Play 52
Some Limitations of Piagets Theory 53
The Trouble with Stages 53
Underestimating Childrens Abilities 53
Cognitive Development and Information
Processing 54
Cognitive Development and Culture 54
Assisted Learning 55
The Zone of Proximal Development 55
Private Speech and the Zone 56
Teaching 56
viii
Contents

SUMMARY 57
KEY TERMS 57
CHECK YOURSELF 58
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 59
Point/Counterpoint: Brain-Based Education 25
Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting
Literacy 28
Guidelines:
Teaching the Preoperational Child 37
Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 39
Helping Students to Use Formal Operations 41
Applying Vygotskys Ideas in Teaching 57

Cluster 3

Personal, Moral, and Social

Development 60
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 61

Module 6 Understanding Ourselves

and Others 62
Overview 62
Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development 62
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy,
and Initiative 62
Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry
versus Inferiority 64
Adolescence: The Search for Identity 65
Identity Statuses 65
Consequences of Different Statuses 65
Beyond the School Years 66
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 66
The Structure of Self-Concept 67
How Self-Concept Develops 68
School Life and Self-Esteem 69
Gender, Ethnicity, and Self-Esteem 71
Diversity and Self-Esteem 72
Personal and Collective Self-Esteem 73
The Self and Others 74
Intention 74
Taking the Perspective of Others 74
Emotional Competence 75
SUMMARY 76
KEY TERMS 76
CHECK YOURSELF 77

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Module 7 Moral Development

78

Overview 78
Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development 78
Alternatives to Kohlbergs Theory 80
Cultural Differences in Moral Reasoning 80
Diversity in Reasoning: The Morality of Caring 80
Moral Behavior 82
Aggression 82
Bullies 83
Relational Aggression 83
Victims 84
When Aggression Leads to Violence 84
Cheating 85
SUMMARY 86
KEY TERMS 86
CHECK YOURSELF 87

Module 8 Socialization: Family, Peers,

and Teachers 88
Overview 88
American Families Today 88
Divorce 88
Effects of Divorce 89
Peer Relationships and Peer Cultures 89
Who Is Likely to Have Problems
with Peers? 90
Peer Cultures 90
New Roles for Teachers 91
Navigating Transitions 92
Young Children: Starting School 92
Students in the Middle Grades:
Another Transition 92
Children and Youth at Risk 94
Child Abuse 94
Eating Disorders 95
Drug Abuse 96
Suicide 96
SUMMARY 97
KEY TERMS 97
CHECK YOURSELF 98
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 99
Point/Counterpoint: What Should Schools
Do to Encourage Students Self-Esteem? 70
Family and Community Partnerships: Building
Self-Esteem 74

Guidelines:
Encouraging Initiative in Preschool Children 64
Encouraging Industry 64
Supporting Identity Formation 66
Encouraging Emotional Competence 75
Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging
Cooperation 84
Helping Children of Divorce 89
Supporting Personal and Social Development 91
Safety on the Internet 94

Cluster 4

Learner Differences and

Learning Needs 100
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 101

Module 9 Individual Differences: Intelligence,

Cognitive Processing,
and Learning Styles 102
Overview 102
Language and Labeling 102
Person-First Language 102
Disabilities and Handicaps 103
Individual Differences in Intelligence 103
Intelligence: One Ability or Many? 104
Multiple Intelligences 104
Multiple Intelligences Go to School 106
Intelligence as a Process 107
How Is Intelligence Measured? 109
Binets Dilemma 109
Group versus Individual IQ Tests 109
What Does an IQ Score Mean? 110
Intelligence and Achievement 110
Intelligence: Heredity or Environment? 111
Cognitive Styles 111
Field Dependence and Field Independence 111
Impulsive and Reflective Cognitive
Styles 112
Learning Styles and Preferences 112
What Are Learning Preferences? 113
Cautions 113
SUMMARY 114
KEY TERMS 114
CHECK YOURSELF 115
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Module 10 Integration and Inclusion:

CHECK YOURSELF 144

Teaching Every Child

in Todays Classroom 116

Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 145

Overview 116
Least Restrictive Placement 116
Individualized Educational Program 117
The Rights of Students and Families 117
Prevalent Problems and Mild Disabilities 118
Students with Learning Disabilities 118
Student Characteristics 119
Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities 121
Students with Communication Disorders 121
Speech Disorders 121
Language Disorders 122
Students with Mental Retardation 123
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders 125
Less Prevalent Problems and More Severe
Disabilities 126
Students with Health Impairments 126
Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities 127
Seizure Disorders (Epilepsy) 127
Students Who Are Deaf and Hard of Hearing 128
Students with Low Vision and Blindness 128
Section 504 Protections for Students 129
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention
Disorders 130
Treating and Teaching Students with ADHD 131
SUMMARY 133
KEY TERMS 134
CHECK YOURSELF 135

Module 11 Ability Differences and Teaching

Overview 136
Between-Class Ability Grouping 136
Within-Class Ability Grouping 137
Students Who are Gifted and Talented:
Who Are These Students? 139
What Is the Origin of These Gifts? 140
What Problems Do The Gifted Face? 141
Strategies for Identifying and Teaching Gifted
Students 141
Recognizing Gifts and Talents 142
Teaching Gifted Students 142
SUMMARY 143
KEY TERMS 144
x
Contents

136

Point/Counterpoint: Is Tracking an Effective

Strategy? 138
Family and Community Partnerships:
Productive Conferences 118
Guidelines:
Interpreting IQ Scores 110
Encouraging Language Development 122
Teaching Students with Mild Retardation 124
Disciplining Students with Emotional Problems 126
Grouping by Achievement 139

Cluster 5

Culture and Community 146

Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 147

Module 12 Diversity in Todays Classrooms

148

Overview 148
Individuals, Groups, and Society 148
American Cultural Diversity 150
Culture and Group Membership 150
Cautions in Interpreting Cultural Differences 150
Social Class Differences: Being Poor 151
SES and Achievement 152
Poor Health Care 152
Low ExpectationsLow Self-Esteem 152
Learned Helplessness 153
Peer Influences and Resistance Cultures 153
Tracking 153
Childrearing Styles 154
Home Environment and Resources 154
Ethnic, Racial, and Cultural Differences:
The Changing Demographics 155
Cultural Conflicts 156
Cultural Compatibility 156
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School
Achievement 157
The Legacy of Discrimination 158
The Development of Prejudice 159
Continuing Discrimination 160
Stereotype Threat 161
Short-Term Effects: Test Performance 161
Long-Term Effects: Disidentification 162
Combating Stereotype Threat 162

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SUMMARY 163

SUMMARY 185

KEY TERMS 163

KEY TERMS 185

CHECK YOURSELF 164

CHECK YOURSELF 186

Module 13 Girls and Boys: Differences

in the Classroom 165

Overview 165
Gender-Role Identity 165
Gender-Role Stereotyping in the Preschool Years 166
Gender Bias in the Curriculum 167
Sex Discrimination in Classrooms 167
Sex Differences in Mental Abilities 168
Eliminating Gender Bias 169
SUMMARY 171
KEY TERMS 171
CHECK YOURSELF 172

Module 14 Creating Culturally Compatible

Classrooms 173
Overview 173
Social Organization 173
Learning Styles 173
Possible Differences 173
Cautions about Learning Styles Research 175
Sociolinguistics: Language Differences
in the Classroom 175
Participation Structures 175
Sources of Misunderstanding 175
Dialects 176
Dialects and Pronunciation 176
Dialects and Teaching 176
Bilingualism 177
What Does Bilingualism Mean? 177
Becoming Bilingual 178
Bilingual Education 179
Research on Bilingual Programs 181
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 181
Students Must Experience Academic Success 181
Develop/Maintain Their Cultural Competence 181
Develop a Critical Consciousness to Challenge
the Status Quo 182
Teaching Every Student: Know Your Students,
Respect Your Students, Teach Your Students 183
Know Your Students 183
Respect Your Students 183
Teach Your Students 184

Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 187

Point/Counterpoint: Do Boys and Girls Learn
Differently? 170
Family and Community Partnerships: Building
Learning Communities 158
Guidelines:
Avoiding Sexism in Teaching 169
Dialects in the Classroom 178
Culturally Relevant Teaching 184

Cluster 6

Behavioral Views of Learning 188

Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 189

Module 15 Behavioral Explanations of Learning:

Continguity, Classical Conditioning,

and Operant Conditioning 190
Overview 190
Learning: A Definition 190
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 191
Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and
Classical Conditioning 192
Pavlovs Dilemma and Discovery: Classical
Conditioning 192
Generalization, Discrimination, and Extinction 193
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 194
The Work of Thorndike and Skinner 195
Types of Consequences 195
Reinforcement 196
Punishment 197
Reinforcement Schedules 198
Extinction 198
Antecedents and Behavior Change 199
Cueing 199
Prompting 200
SUMMARY 201
KEY TERMS 201
CHECK YOURSELF 202

Module 16 Applied Behavior Analysis

203

Overview 203
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 203
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Reinforcing with Teacher Attention 203

Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle 205
Shaping 205
Positive Practice 206
Coping with Undesirable Behavior 206
Negative Reinforcement 206
Satiation 208
Reprimands 208
Response Cost 209
Social Isolation 209
Some Cautions 209
SUMMARY 210
KEY TERMS 210
CHECK YOURSELF 211

Module 17 Behavioral Approaches to

Teaching and Management 212

Overview 212
Mastery Learning 212
Group Consequences 213
Token Reinforcement Programs 213
Contingency Contract Programs 214
Recent Approaches: Self-Regulation and
Cognitive Behavior Modification 215
Self-Management 216
Goal Setting 216
Monitoring and Evaluating Progress 216
Self-Reinforcement 217
Cognitive Behavior Modification
and Self-Instruction 218
Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 219
Ethical Issues 222
Goals 222
Strategies 222
SUMMARY 223
KEY TERMS 223
CHECK YOURSELF 224
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 225
Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be
Rewarded for Learning? 221
Family and Community Partnerships:
Student Self-Management 218
Guidelines:
Applying Classical Conditioning 194
Using Praise Appropriately 204
xii
Contents

Encouraging Positive Behaviors 207

Using Punishment 209

Cluster 7

Cognitive Views of Learning 226

Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 227

Module 18 Elements of the Cognitive Perspective:

Information Processing 228

Overview 228
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views 228
The Importance of Knowledge in Learning 229
General and Specific Knowledge 230
Declarative, Procedural, and Conditional
Knowledge 230
An Overview of the Information Processing
Model of Memory 230
Sensory Memory 232
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory
Memory 232
Perception 232
The Role of Attention 233
Attention and Teaching 233
Working Memory 234
The Central Executive 235
The Phonological Loop 235
The Visuospatial Sketchpad 236
Duration and Contents of Working Memory 236
Retaining Information in Working Memory 237
Forgetting 238
SUMMARY 238
KEY TERMS 239
CHECK YOURSELF 240

Module 19 Long-Term Memory:

The Goal of Teaching 241

Overview 241
Capacity, Duration, and Contents
of Long-Term Memory 241
Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 242
Propositions and Propositional Networks 243
Images 243
Schemas 243
Episodic Memory 245
Implicit Memories 245

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Storing and Retrieving Information

in Long-Term Memory 246
Levels of Processing Theories 247
Retrieving Information from Long-Term
Memory 247
Forgetting and Long-Term Memory 248
SUMMARY 250
KEY TERMS 250
CHECK YOURSELF 251

Module 20 Cognition, Metacognition,

and Teaching 252

Overview 252
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 252
Individual Differences in Metacognition 253
Individual Differences and Working Memory 253
Developmental Differences 254
Individual Differences 254
Individual Differences and Long-Term
Memory 255
Development of Declarative Knowledge 255
Making it Meaningful 255
Mnemonics 257
Rote Memorization 258
Becoming an Expert: Development of Procedural
and Conditional Knowledge 258
Automated Basic Skills 259
Domain-Specific Strategies 260
Learning Outside School 260
SUMMARY 261
KEY TERMS 261
CHECK YOURSELF 262
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 263
Point/Counterpoint: Whats Wrong
with Memorizing? 259
Family and Community Partnerships:
Organizing Learning 261
Guidelines:
Getting and Maintaining Attention 234
Using Information Processing Ideas
in the Classroom 249

Cluster 8

Complex Cognitive Processes 264

Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 265

Module 21 Learning and Teaching

about Concepts 266

Overview 266
Views of Concept Learning 266
Prototypes and Exemplars 266
Concepts and Schemas 267
Strategies for Teaching Concepts 267
An Example Concept-Attainment Lesson 267
Lesson Components 268
Lesson Structure 268
Extending and Connecting Concepts 270
Teaching Concepts through Discovery 270
Structure and Discovery 270
Discovery in Action 270
Teaching Concepts through Exposition 271
Advance Organizers 272
Steps in an Expository Lesson 273
Teaching Concepts in Diverse Classrooms 273
SUMMARY 274
KEY TERMS 274
CHECK YOURSELF 275

Module 22 Problem Solving

276

Overview 276
Problem Solving: General or Domain-Specific? 276
Identifying: Problem Finding 277
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 277
Focusing Attention 278
Understanding the Words 278
Understanding the Whole Problem 278
Translation and Schema Training 279
The Results of Problem Representation 280
Exploring Possible Solution Strategies 280
Algorithms 280
Heuristics 281
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 281
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 282
Functional Fixedness 282
Response Set 283
The Importance of Flexibility 284
Effective Problem Solving: What Do the Experts Do? 284
Expert Knowledge 284
Novice Knowledge 286
SUMMARY 287
KEY TERMS 287
CHECK YOURSELF 288
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Module 23 Teaching for Transfer

289

Overview 289
Learning Strategies and Tactics 289
Deciding What Is Important 290
Summaries 290
Underlining and Highlighting 290
Taking Notes 291
Visual Tools for Organizing 292
Reading Strategies 292
Applying Learning Strategies 294
Valuing Learning 294
Effort and Efficacy 295
Epistemological Beliefs 295
A Contemporary View of Teaching for Transfer 296
Teaching for Positive Transfer 297
What Is Worth Learning? 298
How Can Teachers Help? 298
Stages of Transfer for Strategies 298
SUMMARY 299
KEY TERMS 300
CHECK YOURSELF 300
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 301
Point/Counterpoint: Should Students Be Allowed
to Use Calculators and Spell-Checkers? 283
Family and Community Partnerships: Promoting
Transfer 299
Guidelines
Applying Bruners Ideas 272
Applying Ausubels Ideas 273
Problem Solving 286
Becoming an Expert Student 295

Production 307
Motivation and Reinforcement 307
Factors That Influence Observational Learning 308
Observational Learning in Teaching 308
Directing Attention 309
Fine-Tuning Already-Learned Behaviors 309
Strengthening or Weakening Inhibitions 309
Teaching New Behaviors 309
Arousing Emotion 309
Reciprocal Determinism 310
SUMMARY 312
KEY TERMS 312
CHECK YOURSELF 313

Module 25 Constructivism and Situated

Learning 314
Overview 314
Constructivist Views of Learning 315
Psychological/Individual Constructivism 315
Vygotskys Social Constructivism 316
Constructionism 316
How Is Knowledge Constructed? 317
Knowledge: Situated or General? 318
Common Elements of Constructivist Perspectives 318
Complex Learning Environments and
Authentic Tasks 319
Social Negotiation 319
Multiple Perspectives and Representations
of Content 319
Understanding the Knowledge Construction
Process 320
Student Ownership of Learning 320
Looking Back at Learning 320
SUMMARY 322

Cluster 9

Social Cognitive and Constructivist

Views of Learning 302
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 303

Module 24 Social Learning and Social

Cognitive Theories 304

Overview 304
Parents, Peers, and Teachers 304
Learning by Observing Others 306
Attention 306
Retention 307
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KEY TERMS 322

CHECK YOURSELF

323

Module 26 Applications of Constructivist

and Situated Perspectives

on Learning 324
Overview 324
Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 324
Examples of Inquiry 324
Problem-Based Learning 326
Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based
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Dialogue and Instructional Conversations 328

Cognitive Apprenticeships 329
A Cognitive Apprenticeship in Learning
Mathematics 330
Cognitive Apprenticeships in Thinking 331
Developing Thinking in Every Class 331
Critical Thinking 331
The Language of Thinking 333
An Integretated Constructivist Program: Fostering
Communities of Learners 333
Working with Families 335
SUMMARY 335
KEY TERMS 335
CHECK YOURSELF 336
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 337
Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach Critical
Thinking and Problem Solving? 332
Family and Community Partnerships:
Communicating about Innovations 334
Guidelines:
Using Observational Learning 310

Cluster 10

Motivation in Learning
and Teaching 338
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 339

Module 27 Motivation: A Definition and

Four General Approaches 340

Overview 340
Meeting Some Students 340
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 341
Behavioral Approaches to Motivation 343
Humanistic Approaches to Motivation 343
Maslows Hierarchy 343
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 344
Attribution Theory 344
Attributions in the Classroom 345
Teacher Actions and Student Attributions 345
Expectancy Value Theories 346
Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation 346
SUMMARY 348
KEY TERMS 348
CHECK YOURSELF 349

Module 28 Goals, Interests, and Emotions

350

Overview 350
Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 350
Four Goal Orientations in School 351
WaitAre Performance Goals Always Bad? 351
Beyond Mastery and Performance 352
Feedback and Goal Acceptance 353
Goals: Lessons for Teachers 353
Tapping Interests and Emotions 353
Arousal: Excitement and Anxiety in Learning 354
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 355
Anxiety in the Classroom 357
How Does Anxiety Interfere with Achievement? 357
Coping with Anxiety 357
Interests and Emotions: Lessons for Teachers 358
SUMMARY 359
KEY TERMS 359
CHECK YOURSELF 360

Module 29 Self-Schemas

361

Overview 361
Beliefs about Ability 361
Beliefs about Self-Efficacy 362
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 362
Sources of Self-Efficacy 362
Efficacy and Motivation 363
Teacher Efficacy 363
Self-Determination 364
Self-Determination in the Classroom 364
Information and Control 364
Learned Helplessness 365
Self-Worth 366
Self-Schemas: Lessons for Teachers 367
SUMMARY 368
KEY TERMS 368
CHECK YOURSELF 369

Module 30 Motivation to Learn

in School 370
Overview 370
On TARGET for Learning 370
Tasks for Learning 370
Task Value 371
Authentic Tasks 371
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Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing

Accomplishment 373
Supporting Choices 373
Recognizing Accomplishment 375
Grouping, Evaluation, and Time 375
Grouping and Goal Structures 375
Evaluation 375
Time 376
Bringing it All Together: Strategies to Encourage
Motivation and Thoughtful Learning 377
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive
Expectations 378
Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning 379
Attainment and Intrinsic Value 379
Instrumental Value 380
What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying
Focused on the Task 381

Procedures 393
Rules 393
Rules for Elementary School 394
Rules for Secondary School 395
Consequences 395
Who Sets the Rules and Consequences? 396
Planning Spaces for Learning 397
Interest-Areas 397
Personal Territories 397
Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 398
Effective Managers for Elementary Students 398
Effective Managers for Secondary Students 400

SUMMARY 382

Module 32 Maintaining a Good Environment

KEY TERMS 383

CHECK YOURSELF 384
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 385
Point/Counterpoint: Does Making Learning Fun
Make Good Learning? 356
Family and Community Partnerships: Motivation
to Learn 382
Guidelines:
Building on Students Interests 355
Coping with Anxiety 358
Supporting Self-Determination and Autonomy 365
Encouraging Self-Efficacy and Self-Worth 367

SUMMARY 400
KEY TERMS 400
CHECK YOURSELF 401

for Learning 402

Overview 402
Encouraging Engagement 402
Prevention Is the Best Medicine 402
Withitness 403
Overlapping and Group Focus 403
Movement Management 403
Dealing with Discipline Problems 404
Special Problems with Secondary Students 405
SUMMARY 408
KEY TERMS 408
CHECK YOURSELF 409

Module 33 The Need for Communication

Cluster 11

Creating Learning Environments 386

Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 387

Module 31 Creating a Positive Learning

Environment 388
Overview 388
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 388
The Goals of Classroom Management 389
More Time for Learning 390
Access to Learning 390
Management for Self-Management 391
Some Research Results 392
Rules and Procedures Required 392
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Overiew 410
Message SentMessage Received 410
Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? 411
Counseling: The Students Problem 411
Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 412
I Messages 412
Assertive Discipline 412
Confrontations and Negotiations 413
Student Conflicts and Confrontations 414
Peer Harassment 414
Violence in the Schools 415
Summing It Up: Learning Environments for All
Students 416
Culturally Responsive Management 417

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Communicating with Families about Classroom

Management 418
SUMMARY 419
KEY TERMS 419
CHECK YOURSELF 420
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 421
Point/Counterpoint: Is Zero Tolerance
a Good Idea? 406
Family and Community Partnerships:
Classroom Management 418
Guidelines:
Establishing Class Procedures 394
Designing Learning Spaces 399
Keeping Students Engaged 403
Imposing Penalties 406

Cluster 12

Teaching for Academic Learning 422

Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 423

Module 34 The First Step: Planning

424

Overview 424
Objectives for Learning 425
Mager: Start with the Specific 425
Gronlund: Start with the General 426
Flexible and Creative PlansUsing Taxonomies 427
The Cognitive Domain 427
Bloom 2001 427
The Affective Domain 428
The Psychomotor Domain 429
Another View: Planning from a Constructivist
Perspective 429
An Example of Constructivist Planning 430
Integrated and Thematic Plans 430
SUMMARY 432
KEY TERMS 432
CHECK YOURSELF 433

Module 35 Teacher-Directed Instruction and

Teacher Expectations 434

Overview 434
Characteristics of Effective Teachers 434
Teachers Knowledge 434
Clarity and Organization 435
Warmth and Enthusiasm 435

Explanation and Direct Instruction 436

Direct Instruction 437
Rosenshines Six Teaching Functions 437
Why Does Direct Instruction Work? 438
Criticisms of Direct Instruction 439
Seatwork and Homework 439
Seatwork 440
Homework 440
Making Seatwork and Homework Valuable 440
Questioning and Recitation 442
Kinds of Questions 443
Fitting the Questions to the Students 444
Responding to Student Answers 445
Group Discussion 445
Teacher Expectations: Two Kinds of Expectation
Effects 446
Sources of Expectations 447
Do Teachers Expectations Really Affect
Students Achievement? 448
Teacher Behavior and Student Reaction 448
Instructional Strategies 448
TeacherStudent Interactions 449
SUMMARY 451
KEY TERMS 451
CHECK YOURSELF 452

Module 36 Student-Centered Teaching

in Content Areas and Inclusive

Classrooms 453
Overview 453
Learning to Read and Write 454
Balance in Reading and Writing 454
Comprehension Monitoring and Reading:
Reciprocal Teaching 454
Applying Reciprocal Teaching 456
Learning and Teaching Mathematics 456
Learning and Teaching Science 457
Beyond the Debates to Outstanding Teaching 459
Effective Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms 460
Resource Rooms, Collaborative Consultation, and
Cooperative Teaching 461
Working with Individual Students 462
Technology and Exceptional Students 462
SUMMARY 464
KEY TERMS 465
CHECK YOURSELF 466
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Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 467

Point/Counterpoint: Is Homework a Valuable
Use of Time? 441
Family and Community Partnerships:
Homework 442
Guidelines:
Using Instructional Objectives 429
Teaching Effectively 436
Productive Group Discussions 446
Avoiding the Negative Effects of Teacher
Expectations 450
Teaching for Conceptual Change 459

Cluster 13

Teaching for Self-Regulation,

Creativity, and Tolerance 468
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 469

Module 37 Self-Regulation and Agency

470

Overview 470
What Influences Self-Regulation? 470
Knowledge 470
Motivation 471
Volition 471
Family Influences 471
Self-Regulation Processes 471
Social and Emotional Learning 473
What Is EQ? 474
EQ Goes to School 475
Cautions 475
Social Skills 475
Life Skills: Preventing High-Risk Behaviors 476
Compassion and Tolerance 477
Group Work and Cooperation in Learning 479
Beyond Groups to Cooperation 479
What Can Go Wrong: Misuses of Group
Learning 480
Making Cooperative Learning Work 481
Setting Up Cooperative Groups 481
Giving and Receiving Explanations 481
Assigning Roles 482
Strategies for Cooperation 483
Jigsaw 483
Reciprocal Questioning 484
Scripted Cooperation 485
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STAD 485
SUMMARY 487
KEY TERMS 487
CHECK YOURSELF 488

Module 38 Creativity and

Community 489
Overview 489
Defining Creativity 489
What Is the Source of Creativity? 489
Creativity and Cognition 490
Creativity and Diversity 490
Assessing Creativity 490
Creativity in the Classroom 491
Brainstorming 491
Take Your Timeand Play! 492
The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 493
Creating a Classroom Learning Community 493
Getting Started on Community 496
Conflict and Negotiation 496
Respect and Protect 497
Community Outside the Classroom:
Service Learning 497
SUMMARY 499
KEY TERMS 499
CHECK YOURSELF 500
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 501
Point/Counterpoint: Should Schools Teach
Character and Compassion? 478
Family and Community Partnerships:
Parents Supporting Self-Regulation 472
Guidelines:
Using Cooperative Learning 486
Encouraging Creativity 492

Cluster 14

Evaluation, Measurement,
and Assessment 502
Teachers Casebook: What Would You Do? 503

Module 39 Definitions and Concepts

Overview 504
Norm-Referenced Tests 505
Criterion-Referenced Tests 505

504

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What Test Scores Mean 506

Frequency Distributions 507
Measurements of Central Tendency
and Standard Deviation 507
The Normal Distribution 508
Types of Scores 509
Percentile Rank Scores 509
Grade Equivalent Scores 510
Standard Scores 511
Interpreting Test Scores 512
Reliability 512
True Score 512
Confidence Interval 513
Validity 513
Absence of Bias 514
SUMMARY 517
KEY TERMS 517
CHECK YOURSELF 518

Module 40 Standardized Tests

519

Overview 519
Achievement Tests: What Has the
Student Learned? 519
Using Information from a Norm-Referenced
Achievement Test 519
Diagnostic Tests: What Are the Students
Strengths and Weaknesses? 522
Aptitude Tests: How Well Will the Student Do
in the Future? 522
IQ and Scholastic Aptitude 522
Discussing Test Results with Families 523
How Widespread Is Standardized Testing? 523
Accountability and High Stakes Testing 524
Testing Teachers 526
PRAXIS 527
National Board Certification 527
The Uses of Testing in American Society 528
Preparing for Tests 528
New Directions in Standardized Testing:
Authentic Assessment 529
Changes in the SAT 530
Accommodating Diversity in Testing 532
SUMMARY 532
KEY TERMS 532
CHECK YOURSELF 533

Module 41 Getting the Most from Traditional

Assessment Approaches:
Testing and Grading 534
Overview 534
Formative and Summative Assessment 534
Planning for Testing 535
When to Test? 535
Judging Textbook Tests 535
Objective Testing 535
Using Multiple-Choice Tests 536
Writing Multiple-Choice Questions 536
Essay Testing 538
Constructing Essay Tests 538
Evaluating Essays: Dangers 538
Evaluating Essays: Methods 539
Grades, Grading, and Students 540
Effects of Failure 540
Effects of Feedback 541
Grades and Motivation 541
Grading and Reporting: Nuts and Bolts 542
Criterion-Referenced versus Norm-Referenced
Grading 543
Criterion-Referenced Systems 543
Norm-Referenced Systems 543
The Point System and Percentage Grading 543
The Contract System and Grading Rubrics 546
Grading on Effort and Improvement 546
Cautions: Being Fair 548
Diversity and Grading 548
Beyond Grading: Communication 549
SUMMARY 551
KEY TERMS 551
CHECK YOURSELF 552

Module 42 Innovations in Classroom

Assessment 553
Overview 553
Authentic Classroom Assessment 553
Performance in Context: Portfolios and Exhibitions 555
Portfolios 556
Exhibitions 557
Evaluating Portfolios and Performances 558
Scoring Rubrics 558
Reliability, Validity, Generalizability 561
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Diversity and Equity in Performance

Assessment 561
Assessing Learning Potential:
Dynamic Assessment 561
SUMMARY 562
KEY TERMS 563
CHECK YOURSELF 564
Teachers Casebook: What Would They Do? 565
Point/Counterpoint: Should Tests Be Used
to Hold Teachers Accountable? 525
Point/Counterpoint: Which Is BetterTraditional
Tests or Authentic Assessments? 554
Family and Community Partnerships: Explaining
and Using Test Results 515
Family and Community Partnerships:
Conferences 550
Guidelines:
Increasing Reliability and Validity 514

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Becoming an Expert Test-Taker 516

Accommodations in Testing 531
Writing Objective Test Items 537
Minimizing the Detrimental Effects
of Grades 542
Using Any Grading System 547
Creating Portfolios 558
Developing a Rubric 560

Appendix A: Becoming a Professional

567

Appendix B: Standards and Licensure:

PRAXIS II and INTASC 585

Glossary 601
References 611
Name Index 649
Subject Index 661