NDT

Category: MECHANICAL
IPCL NC: Training Module

Module No IPCLDSMEC095
INDIAN PETROCHEMICAL S CORPORATION LTD NAGOTHANE
TRAINING MODULE FOR
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTINGS
LEARNING CENTRE NC
Prepared by: DN Rev: 01
Reviewed by: RPG Date: 09-11-2004
Approved By: AKS Pages: 1 of 83
OBJECTIVE:
Non destructive testing (NDT) is one of the important topic in day today life. T
hough NDT techniques are used in industries, certain techniques like X-ray, ultr
asonic testing is used in medical field. It is very interesting to know that X-r
ays were first used in medical field, later in industry. In this module various
NDTs / NDE are listed out but NDTs, which are most commonly used are explained i
n little detail to familiar with NDTs.
MODULE IMPLEMENTATION PLAN TOPIC: NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING FOR: NDT REV:0 SR CONT
ENTS AUTH RESOURCES NO OR 1 Introduction DN ASM NDT Handbook
2 Techniques of NDT Liquid Penetrant Test DN ASM NDT Handbook / ASME hand book A
SM NDT Handbook / ASME hand book ASM NDT Handbook / ASME hand book ASM NDT Handb
ook / ASME hand book ASM NDT Handbook / ASME hand book
CODE NO: IPCLDSMEC173 DATE : 09-11-2004 SITE: IPCL-NC AVAILABLE LEARNING VALIDAT
ION ( Y/N) Y
Y
3
DN
Y
4
Magnetic Particle DN Testing Radiography DN
Y
8 Hrs.
Quiz
5
Y
6
Ultrasonic Testing
DN
Y
INDEX CHAPTER NO. 1 2 DESCRPTION INTRODUCTION TO NDT TECHNIQUES LIQUID PENETRANT
TESTING 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 Introduction Principle Basic steps
of Liquid Penetrant Testing Quality control of Penetrant Quality control of Deve
loper Selection of Penetrant Technique Process control of Temperature Common use
s of Liquid Penetrant Testing Nature of Defects PAGE NO. 6 12
2.10 Advantages & Disadvantages of LPT 2.11 Health & Safety Precautions in LPT
3
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 History of Radiography
Natural Radioactivity Inverse Square Law Absorption Radiographic Technique Sharp
ness of Radiographic Images Filters in Radiography Controlling Radiographic Qual
ity Film Processing
21
3.10 Viewing Radiographs 3.11 Image considerations 3.12 Radiographic Interpretat
ion 3.13 Discontinuities
4
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Introduction Princ
iple Magnetising Current Lighting Particle Concentration & Condition Magnetic Fi
eld Indicators Quantitative Quality Indicators Pie Gage Slotted Strips
48
5
ULTRASOINIC TESTING 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Introduction Wave Propag
ation Wavelength Frequency & Velocity Sound Propagation in Elastic Material Mate
rial Affect on Speed & Sound Acoustic Impedance Ultrasonic Wave Generation Refra
ction & Snells Law Calibration Methods
61
5.10 Introduction to Common Standards 5.11 The IIW Type Calibration Blocks 5.12
Couplant 5.13 Normal Beam Inspections 5.14 Angle Beams Inspection 5.15 Weldments
(Weld Joints) 5.16 Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) 5.17 Wavelength & Defect
Detection
7
Bibliography
83
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, interdisciplinary fie
ld that plays a critical role in assuring that structural components and systems
perform their function in a reliable and cost effective fashion. NDT techniques
that locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise
result in failure of pressure vessels, pipelines or machinery components. These
tests are performed
in a manner that does not affect the future usefulness of the object or material
. In other words, NDT allows parts and materials to be inspected and measured wi
thout damaging them. Because it allows inspection without interfering with a pro
duct s final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and
costeffectiveness. Generally speaking, NDT applies to industrial inspections. Wh
ile
technologies are used in NDT that are similar to those used in the medical indus
try, typically nonliving objects are the subjects of the inspections.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) is a term that is often used interchangeably wit
h NDT. However, technically, NDE is used to describe measurements that are more
quantitative in nature. NDE method would not only locate a defect, but it would
also be used to measure something about that defect such as its size, shape, and
orientation. NDE may be used to determine material properties such as fracture
toughness, formability, and other physical characteristics.
NDT / NDE METHODS
The number of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and make measur
ements is large and continues to grow. There are six NDT methods that are used m
ost often. These methods are visual inspection, penetrant testing, magnetic part
icle testing, electromagnetic or eddy current testing, radiography, and ultrason
ic testing. These methods and a few others are briefly described below.
1. VISUAL OR OPTICAL TESTING (VT)
Visual inspection involves using an inspector s eyes to look for defects. The
inspector may also use special tools such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, borosc
opes or fibroscopes to gain access and more closely inspect the subject area. Vi
sual examination involves procedures that range from simple to very complex.
2. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING (LPT)
Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is
then removed from the surface, and a developer is applied. The developer acts as
blotter, drawing trapped penetrant out of imperfections open to
h visible dyes, vivid color contrasts between the penetrant and
bleedout" easy to see. With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light
the bleedout fluoresce brightly, thus allowing imperfections to
the surface. Wit

developer make "
is used to make
be readily seen.
3. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MPT)

This NDT method is accomplish by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic ma
terial and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended
in liquid). Surface and near-surface imperfections distort the magnetic field a
nd
concentrate iron particles near imperfections, previewing a visual indication of
the flaw.
4. ELECTROMAGNETIC (ET) OR EDDY CURRENT TESTING
Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced alterna
ting magnetic field. The electrical currents are called eddy currents because th
ey flow in circles at and just below the surface of the material. Interruptions
in the flow of eddy currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes, or c
hanges in the material s conductive and permeability properties, can be detected
with the proper equipment.
5. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING (RT)
Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or X-radiation to examine part
s and products for imperfections. An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is u
sed as a source of radiation. Radiation is directed through a part and onto film
or other imaging media. The resulting shadowgraph shows the dimensional feature
s of the part. Possible imperfections are indicated as density changes on the fi
lm in the same manner as a medical X-ray shows broken bones.
6. ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
Ultrasonic testing uses transmission of high-frequency sound waves into a materi
al to detect imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most
commonly used ultrasonic testing technique is pulse echo, wherein sound is intro
duced into a test object and reflections (echoes) are returned to a receiver fro
m internal imperfections or from the part s geometrical surfaces.
7. ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING (AET)
When a solid material is stressed, imperfections within the material emit short
bursts of acoustic energy called "emissions." As in ultrasonic testing, acoustic
emissions can be detected by special receivers. Emission sources can be evaluat
ed through the study of their intensity, rate, and location.
8. LEAK TESTING (LT)
Several techniques are used to detect and locate leaks in pressure containment p
arts, pressure vessels, and structures. Leaks can be detected by using electroni
c listening devices, pressure gauge measurements, liquid and gas penetrant techn
iques, and / or a simple soap-bubble test. In this module most commonly and wide
ly used NDTs explained in detail as under: 1. Liquid Penetrant Testing 2. Radiog
raphic Testing 3. Magnetic Particle Testing 4. Ultrasonic Testing
CHAPTER 2 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING (LPT)
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Liquid Penetrant testing (LPT) is one of the Non Destructive Testing (NDT) metho
ds of inspection to locate discontinuities those are open to the surface. LPT ca
n be used on any material except those are extremely porous & irregular surface.
Discontinuities such as cracks, porosities etc. those are open to the surface a
re detected by `blotting action after the surface has been treated with penetra
nt. This method is used as an effective NDT in welding fabrication / maintenance
/ condition monitoring / quality control.
2.2
PRINCIPLE:
In LPT, a liquid penetrant (contrast colour dye or fluorescent) is applied over
the thoroughly cleaned and dry surface, which is having flows(discontinuities) t
hose are open surface due to capillary action. Sufficient time is allowed so tha
t the penetrant can enter in narrow discontinuities. Excess penetrant is removed
by cleaning and developer (a fluffy chalk like powder) is applied over the surf
ace. Due to blotting nature of the developer, entrapped penetrant in the discont
inuities flows out and gives an indication, which can be viewed either in normal
light for contrast dye or in black light (UV light) for fluorescent dye. The indi
cation is always greater than the discontinuity due to diffusion of the penetran
t in the developer.
2.3
BASIC STEPS OF A LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
2.3.1 SURFACE PREPARATION
One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection is the surface p
reparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminant
s that may prevent penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require et
ching if mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting
have been performed. These and other mechanical operations can smear the surface
of the sample, thus closing the defects.
2.3.2 PENETRANT APPLICATION
Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, penetrant material is ap
plied either by spraying, brushing or immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.
2.3.3 PENETRANT DWELL
The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time, to allow as much pen
etrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell ti
me is the total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwe
ll times are usually recommended by the penetrant producers or required by the s
pecification being followed. The times vary depending on the application, penetr
ant materials used, the material, the form of the material being inspected, and
the type of defect being inspected. Minimum dwell times typically range from 5 t
o 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time
as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often d
etermined by experimentation and is often very specific to a particular applicat
ion.
DWELL TIME FOR SOME OF THE MATERIALS
(As per ASTM E 165, Table 2) Material Form Type of discontinuity Minimum Dwell t
ime (minutes) Penetrant Aluminium, Magnesium, Steel, Steel, Brass and Bronze, Ti
tanium and High temp. alloys Carbide tipped tools Plastics Glass Ceramics All fo
rms All forms All forms Castcastings and welds WroughtExtrusions, forgings, Plat
e Lack of fusion, Porosity, Cracks Cracks Cracks Cracks Cold shuts, Porosity, La
ck of fusion, Laps, Cracks all forms) 5 Developer 7
10
7
5 5 5 5
7 7 7 7
2.3.4 EXCESS PENETRANT REMOVAL
This is a most delicate part of the inspection procedure because the excess pene
trant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little pe
netrant as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this s
tep may involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first tre
ated with an emulsifier and then rinsing with water.
2.3.5 DEVELOPER APPLICATION
A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to draw penetrant trappe
d in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a va
riety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or sprayi
ng (wet developers).
2.3.6 INDICATION DEVELOPMENT
The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a period of time suffi
cient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws
. This development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly lon
ger times may be necessary for tight cracks.
2.3.7 INSPECTION
Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indications fr
om any flaws which may be present.
2.3.8 CLEAN SURFACE
The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to remove
the developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.
2.4
QUALITY CONTROL OF PENETRANT
The quality of a penetrant inspection is highly dependent on the quality of the
penetrant materials used. The performance of a penetrant can be affected by cont
amination and aging. Contamination by another liquid will change the surface ten
sion and contact angle of the solution, and virtually all organic dyes deteriora
te over time resulting in a loss of color or fluorescent response. Therefore, re
gular checks must be performed to insure that the material performance has not d
egraded. When the penetrant is first received from the manufacturer, a sample of
the fresh solution should be collected and stored as a standard for future comp
arison. The standard specimen should be stored in an opaque glass or metal, seal
ed container. Penetrants that are in-use should be compared regularly against th
e standard specimen to detect changes in color, odor and consistency. When using
fluorescent penetrants, a brightness comparison per the requirements of ASTM E
1417 is also often required. This check involves placing a drop of the standard
and the in-use penetrants on a piece of Whatman #4 filter paper and making a sid
e by side comparison of the brightness of the two spots under UV light.
Additionally, the water content of water washable penetrants must be checked reg
ularly. When water contaminates oil-based penetrants, the surface tension and co
ntact angle of the mixture will increase since water has a higher surface tensio
n than most oil-based penetrants in self-emulsifiable penetrants, water contamin
ation can produce a gel break or emulsion inversion when the water concentration
becomes high enough. The formation of the gel is an important feature during th
e washing processes but must be avoided until the stage in the process. Data ind
icates that the water contamination must be significant (greater than 10%) for g
el formation to occur. Most specification limit water contamination to around 5%
to be conservative. Non-water-based, water washable penetrants are checked usin
g the procedure specified in ASTM D95 or ASTM E 1417. Water-based, water washabl
e penetrants are checked with a refractometer. The rejection criteria are differ
ent for different penetrants so the requirements of the qualifying specification
or the manufacturer s instructions must be consulted.
2.5
QUALITY CONTROL OF DEVELOPER
The function of the developer is very important in a penetrant inspection. It mu
st draw out of the discontinuity a sufficient amount of penetrant to form an ind
ication, and it must spread the penetrant out on the surface to produce a visibl
e indication. In a fluorescent penetrant inspection, the amount of penetrant bro
ught to the surface must exceed the dye s thin film threshold of fluorescence of
the indication will not fluoresce. Additionally, the developer makes fluorescen
t indications appear brighter than indications produced with the same amount of
dye but without the developer. In order to accomplish these functions, a develop
er must adhere to the part surface and result in a uniform, highly porous layer
with many paths for the penetrant to be moved due to capillary action. Some deve
lopers are applied wet and other dry, but the desired end result is always a uni
form, highly porous, surface layer. Since the quality control requirements for e
ach of the developer types is slightly different, they will be covered individua
lly.
2.5.1
DRY POWDER DEVELOPER
A dry powder developer should be checked daily to ensure that it is fluffy and n
ot caked. It should be similar to fresh powdered sugar and not granulated like p
owered soup. It should also be relatively free from specks of fluorescent penetr
ant material from previous inspection. This is checking is performed by spreadin
g out a sample of the developer and examining it under UV light. If there are te
n or more fluorescent specks in a 10 cm diameter area, the batch should be disca
rded. Apply a light coat of the developer by immersing the test component or dus
ting the surface. After the development time, excessive powder can be removed by
gently blowing on the surface with air not exceeding 35 kPa or 5 psi.
2.5.2 WET SOLUBLE / SUSPENDIBLE DEVELOPER
Wet soluble developer must be completely dissolved in the water and wet suspendi
ble developer must be thoroughly mixed prior to application. The concentration o
f powder in the carrier solution must be controlled in these developers. The con
centration should be checked at least weekly using a hydrometer to make sure it
meets the manufacturer s specification. To check for contamination, the solution
should be examined weekly using both white light and UV light. If a scum is pre
sent or the solution fluoresces, it should be replaced. Some specification requi
re that a clean aluminum panel be dipped in the developer, dried, and examined f
or indications of contamination by fluorescent penetrant materials. These develo
pers are applied immediately after the final wash. A uniform coating should be a
pplied by spraying, flowing or immersion of the component. They should never be
applied with a brush. Care should be taken to avoid a heavy accumulation of the
developer solution in crevices and recesses. Prolonged contact of the component
with the developer solution should be avoided in order to minimize dilution or r
emoval of the penetrant from discontinuities.
2.5.3 SOLVENT SUSPENDIBLE
Solvent suspendible developers are typically supplied in an sealed aerosol spray
can. Since the developer solution is in a sealed vessel, direct check of the so
lution
Prepared by: DN Rev: 01 Reviewed by: RPG Date: 09-11-2004 Approved By: AKS Pages
: 14 of 83
are not possible. However, the way that the developer is dispensed must be monit
ored. The spray developer should produce a fine, even coating on the surface of
the part. Make sure the can is well shaken and apply a thin coating to a test ar
ticle. If the spray produces spatters or other an uneven coating the can should
be discarded. When applying a solvent suspendible developer, it is up to the ins
pector to control the thickness of the coating. When a visible penetrant system,
the developer coating must be thick enough to provide a white contrasting backg
round but not heavy enough to mask indications. When using a fluorescent penetra
nt system, a very light coating should be used. The developer should be applied
under white light condition and should appear evenly transparent.
2.5.4 DEVELOPMENT TIME
Part should be allowed to develop for a minimum of 10 minutes and no more than 2
hours before inspecting.
2.6
SELECTION OF A PENETRANT TECHNIQUE
When sensitivity is the primary consideration for choosing a penetrant system, t
he first decision that must be made is whether to use fluorescent dye penetrant,
or visible dye penetrant. Fluorescent penetrants are generally more capable of
producing a detectable indication from a small defect because the human eye is m
ore sensitive to a light indication on a dark background and the eye is naturall
y drawn to a fluorescent indication. When a dark indication on a light backgroun
d is further reduced in size, it is no longer detectable even though contrast is
increased. Furthermore, with a light indication on a dark background, indicatio
ns down to 0.003 mm (0.0001 inch) were detectable when the contrast between the
flaw and the background was high enough. Since visible dye penetrants do not req
uire a darkened area for the use of an ultraviolet light, visible systems are mo
re easy to use in the field. Solvent removable penetrants, when properly applied
can have the highest sensitivity and are very convenient to use but are usually
not practical for large area inspection or in highvolume production settings.
: 15 of 83
Another consideration in the selection of a penetrant system is whether water wa
shable, post-emulsifiable or solvent removable penetrants will be used. Postemul
sifiable systems are designed to reduce the possibility of over-washing, which i
s one of the factors known to reduce sensitivity. However, these systems add ano
ther step, and thus cost, to the inspection process.
2.7
PROCESS CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE
The temperature of the penetrant materials and the part being inspected can have
an effect on the results. Temperatures from 27 to 49oC (80 to 120oF) are report
ed in the literature to produce optimal results. Many specifications allow testi
ng in the range of 4 to 52oC (40 to 125oF). A tip to remember is that surfaces t
hat can be touched for an extended period of time without burning the skin are g
enerally below 52oC (125oF). Since the surface tension of most materials decreas
e as the temperature increases, raising the temperature of the penetrant will in
crease the wetting of the surface and the capillary forces. Of course, the conve
rse is also true and lowing the temperature will have a negative effect on the f
low characteristics. Raising the temperature will also raise the speed of evapor
ation of penetrants, which can have a positive or negative effect on sensitivity
. The impact will be positive if the evaporation serves to increase the dye conc
entration of the penetrant trapped in a flaw up to the concentration quenching p
oint and not beyond. Higher temperatures and more rapid evaporation will have a
negative effect if the dye concentration is caused to exceed the concentration q
uenching point or the flow characteristics are changed to the point where the pe
netrant does not readily flow. The method of processing a hot part was once comm
only employed. Parts were either heated or processed hot off the production line
. In its day, this served to increase inspection sensitivity by increasing the v
iscosity of the penetrant. However, the penetrant materials used today have 1/2
to 1/3 the viscosity of the penetrants on the market in the 1960 s and 1970 s. H
eating the part prior to inspection is no longer necessary and no longer recomme
nded.
2.8
COMMON USES OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
Liquid penetrant Testing (LPT) is one of the most widely used nondestructive eva
luation (NDE) method. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, whic
h are its relative ease of use and its flexibility. LPT can be used to inspect a
lmost any material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. M
aterials that are commonly inspected using LPT include the following:

Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.) Glass Many ceramic materials Ru
bber Plastics
LPT offers flexibility in performing inspections because it can be applied in a
large variety of applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical ai
rcraft components. Penetrant material can be applied with a spray can or a cotto
n swab to inspect for flaws known to occur in a specific area or it can be appli
ed by dipping or spraying to quickly inspect large areas. Liquid penetrant inspe
ction is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the sample. Some of
these flaws are listed below:

Fatigue cracks Quench cracks Grinding cracks Overload and impact fractures Poros
ity Laps Seams Pin holes in welds Lack of fusion or braising along the edge of t
he bond line
As mentioned above, one of the major limitations of a penetrant inspection is th
at flaws must be open to the surface.
2.9
NATURE OF THE DEFECT
The nature of the defect can have a large affect on sensitivity of a liquid pene
trant inspection. Sensitivity is defined as the smallest defect that can be dete
cted with a high degree of reliability. Typically, the crack length at the sampl
e surface is used to define size of the defect. A survey of any probability-of-d
etection curve for penetrant inspection will quickly lead one to the conclusion
that crack length has a definite affect on sensitivity. However, the crack lengt
h alone does not determine whether a flaw will be seen or go undetected. The vol
ume of the defect is likely to be the more important feature. The flaw must be o
f sufficient volume so that enough penetrant will bleed back out to a size that
is detectable by the eye or that will satisfy the dimensional thresholds of fluo
rescence.
2.10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LPT
Like all nondestructive inspection methods, liquid penetrant inspection has both
advantages and disadvantages. The primary advantages and disadvantages when com
pared to other NDE methods are summarized below.
PRIMARY ADVANTAGES

The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities. The method has f
ew material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic
, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at
low cost.

Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected. Indications are pro
duced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation
of the flaw.

Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable. Penetrant materials a
nd associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
PRIMARY DISADVANTAGES
Only surface breaking defects can be detected.


Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected. Precleaning i
s critical as contaminants can mask defects. Metal smearing from machining, grin
ding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed prior to LPT.

The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected. Surface fi
nish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity. Multiple process operation
s must be performed and controlled. Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materia
ls is required. Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.
2.11 HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN LPT
When proper health and safety precautions are followed, liquid penetrant inspect
ion operations can be completed without harm to inspection personnel. However, t
here is a number of health and safety related issues that must be addressed. Sin
ce each inspection operation will have its own unique set of health and safety c
oncerns that must be addressed, only a few of the most common concerns will be d
iscussed here.
CHEMICAL SAFETY
Whenever chemicals must be handled, certain precautions must be taken as directe
d by the material safety data sheets (MSDS) for the chemicals. Before working wi
th a chemical of any kind, it is highly recommended that the MSDS be reviewed so
that proper chemical safety and hygiene practices can be followed. Some of the
penetrant materials are flammable and, therefore, should be used and stored in s
mall quantities. They should only be used in a well-ventilated area and ignition
sources avoided. Eye protection should always be worn to prevent contact of the
chemicals with the eyes. Many of the chemicals used contain detergents and solv
ents that can dermatitis. Gloves and other protective clothing should be warn to
limit contact with the chemicals.
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT SAFETY
Ultraviolet (UV) light or "black light" as it is sometimes called, has wavelengt
hs ranging from 180 to 400 nanometers. These wavelengths place UV light in the i
nvisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum between visible light and X-rays.
The most familiar source of UV radiation is the sun and is necessary in small do
ses for certain chemical processes to occur in the body. However, too much expos
ure can be harmful to the skin and eyes. Excessive UV light exposure can cause p
ainful sunburn, accelerate wrinkling and increase the risk of skin cancer. UV li
ght can cause eye inflammation, cataracts, and retinal damage. Because of their
close proximity, laboratory devices, like UV lamps, deliver UV light at a much h
igher intensity than the sun and, therefore, can cause injury much more quickly.
The greatest threat with UV light exposure is that the individual is generally
unaware that the damage is occurring. There is usually no pain associated with t
he injury until several hours after the exposure. Skin and eye damage occurs at
wavelengths around 320 nm and shorter which is well below the 365 nm wavelength,
where penetrants are designed to fluoresce. Therefore, UV lamps sold for use in
LPT application are almost always filtered to remove the harmful UV wavelengths
. The lamps produce radiation at the harmful wavelengths so it is essential that
they be used with the proper filter in place and in good condition.
CHAPTER 3 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
3.1 HISTORY OF RADIOGRAPHY
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923) who was a
Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Working with a cathode-ray tube in
his laboratory, Roentgen observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a table nea
r his tube. He concluded that a new type of ray was being emitted from the tube.
This ray was capable of passing through the heavy paper covering and exciting t
he phosphorescent materials in the room. He found the new ray could pass through
most substances casting shadows of solid objects. Roentgen also discovered that
the ray could pass through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal object
s. Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the realms of medicine, and de
ntistry, though some X-ray pictures of metals were produced. The reason that X-r
ays were not used in industrial application before this date was because the X-r
ay tubes (the source of the X-rays) broke down under the voltages required to pr
oduce rays of satisfactory penetrating power for industrial purpose. In 1922, in
dustrial radiography took another step forward with the advent of the 200,000-vo
lt X-ray tube that allowed radiographs of thick steel parts to be produced in a
reasonable amount of time. In 1931, General Electric Company developed 1,000,000
volt X-ray generators, providing an effective tool for industrial radiography.
That same year, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) permitted Xray approval of fusion welded pressure vessels that further opened the door to i
ndustrial acceptance and use.
3.2
NATURAL RADIO ACTIVITY
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was disc
overed. In 1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural radioactivi
ty.
It was Henri Becquerel who discovered this phenomenon while investigating the pr
operties of fluorescent minerals. Becquerel was researching the principles of
fluorescence, certain minerals glow (fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He uti
lized photographic plates to record this fluorescence. While working in France a
t the time of Becquerel s discovery, Polish scientist Marie Curie became very in
terested in his work. She suspected that a uranium ore known as pitchblende cont
ained other radioactive elements. Marie and her husband, a French scientist, Pie
rre Curie started looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies discover
ed another radioactive element in pitchblende, they named it polonium in honor
of Marie Curie s native homeland. Later that year, the Curie s discovered anoth
er radioactive element, which they named radium , or shining element. Both polo
nium and radium were more radioactive than uranium. Since these discoveries, man
y other radioactive elements have been discovered or produced. Radium became the
initial industrial gamma ray source. The material allowed radiographing casting
s up to 10 to 12 inches thick. During World War II, industrial radiography grew
tremendously as part of the Navy s shipbuilding program. In 1946, manmade gamma
ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available. These new sources were
far stronger than radium and were much less expensive. The manmade sources rapid
ly replaced radium, and use of gamma rays grew quickly in industrial radiography
. X-rays and Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same nature
as light, but of much shorter wavelength. Wavelength of visible light is of the
order of 6000 angstroms while the wavelength of x-rays is in the range of one a
ngstrom and that of gamma rays is 0.0001 angstrom. This very short wavelength is
what gives xrays and gamma rays their power to penetrate materials that light c
annot. These electromagnetic waves are of a high energy level and can break chem
ical bonds in materials they penetrate. Strength of source is measured in Curie
(Ci). 1 Curie is equivalent to 3.7x1010 disintegrations (nuclear decays) per sec
ond. Intensity of radiation is expressed in
roentgens meter hour (RHM). It is the amount of received by the material at dist
ance of 1 meter from 1curie source. Half-life is time required to reduce the sou
rce strength to half of its original value.
3.3
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions without a
limit to its range will obey the inverse square law. This comes from strictly g
eometrical considerations. The intensity of the influence at any given radius (d
) is the source strength divided by the area of the sphere.
Where, I1 & I2 are intensities of sources at distance d1 & d2 . All measures of
exposure will drop off by the inverse square law. Sources Used in Industrial Rad
iography and its properties are given below: Source Ir-192 Co-60 Cs-137 Tu-170 H
alf Life 74 Days 5.26 Years 30 Years 127 Days Energy(MeV) 0.4 1.17, 1.33 0.66 0.
08 RHM 0.5 1.3 0.32 0.009 Useful thickness range(mm) 12 - 65 50 - 200 20 - 90 2.
5 12.5
3.4
ABSORPTION
Absorption characteristics of materials are important in the development of cont
rast in a radiograph. Absorption characteristics will increase or decrease as th
e energy of the x-ray is increased or decreased. A radiograph with higher contra
st will provide greater probability of detection of a given discontinuity. An un
derstanding of the relationship between material thickness, absorption propertie
s, and photon energy is fundamental to producing a quality radiograph. An unders
tanding of absorption is also necessary when designing x- and gamma ray shieldin
g, cabinets, or exposure vaults.
Attenuation of x-rays in solids takes place by several different mechanisms, som
e due to absorption, others due to the scattering of the beam. Thompson scatteri
ng and Compton Scattering were introduced in the material titled "Interaction Be
tween Penetrating Radiation and Matter" and "Compton Scattering." This needs car
eful attention because a good radiograph can only be achieved if there is minimu
m x-ray scattering. 1. Thomson scattering (R) (also known as Rayleigh, coherent,
or classical scattering) occurs when the x-ray photon interacts with the whole
atom so that the photon is scattered with no change in internal energy to the sc
attering atom, nor to the x-ray photon. 2. Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-ra
ys occurs when the x-ray photon is absorbed resulting in the ejection of electro
ns from the outer shell of the atom, resulting in the ionization of the atom. Su
bsequently, the ionized atom returns to the neutral state with the emission of a
n x-ray characteristic of the atom. 3. Compton Scattering (C) (also known a inco
herent scattering) occurs when the incident x-ray photon ejects an electron from
an atom and a x-ray photon of lower energy is scattered from the atom. 4. Pair
Production (PP) can occur when the x-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 MeV,
when an electron and positron are created with the annihilation of the x-ray ph
oton (absorption). 5. Photodisintegration (PD) is the process by which the x-ray
photon is captured by the nucleus of the atom with the ejection of a particle f
rom the nucleus when all the energy of the x-ray is given to the nucleus (absorp
tion).
3.5
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE
Radiographs shall be made with a single source
practical with respect to the length and width
examined. The source to subject distance shall
of film being exposed in a single plane. This
amic exposures. The source to subject distance
s the thickness of weld plus reinforcement and
ion shall penetrate any of
Prepared by: DN Rev: 01 Reviewed by: RPG Date:
: 24 of 83
of radiation centered as near as

of the portion of the weld being
not be less than the total length
provision does not apply to panor
shall not be less than seven time
backing ,if any , then the radiat
09-11-2004 Approved By: AKS Pages
the weld represented in the radiograph at an angle greater than 26.5 deg from a
line normal to the weld surface. Welded joints shall be radiographed and the fil
m indexed by methods that will provide complete and continous inspection of the
joint within the limits specified to be examined. Joints limits shall show clear
ly in the radiographs. Short film, short screen, excessive undercut by scattered
radiation, or any other process that obscures portions of the total weld length
shall render the radiograph unacceptable. Film shall have sufficient length and
shall be placed to produce at least 0.5" film, exposed to direct radiation from
the source, beyond each free edge where the weld is terminated.
3.5.1 SINGLE WALL TECHNIQUE
In the single wall technique, the radiation passes through only one wall of the
weld which is viewed for acceptance on the radiograph .A single-wall technique s
hall be used for radiography whenever practical. When it is not practical to use
a single wall technique, a double wall technique shall be used. An adequate num
ber of exposures shall be made to demonstrate that the required coverage had bee
n obtained.
.
3.5.2 DOUBLE WALL TECHNIQUE
For materials and welds in pipe and tube 3.5" or less in
r, a technique may be used in which the radiation passes
alls and the weld in both walls is viewed for acceptance
elds, the radiation beams may be offset from the plan of
fficient to
nominal outside diamete

through two radiation w
on the same film. For w
the weld at an angle su
separate the images of the source side and film side portion of the weld so that
there is no overlap of the areas to be interpreted, in which case a minimum of
two exposures taken at 90deg to each other shall be made for each joint. As an a
lternate, the weld may be radiographed with the radiation beam positioned so tha
t the image of both walls are superimposed, in which case at least three exposur
e shall be made at60deg to each other. Double wall technique, single wall viewin
g for material and welds in pipe and tubes with a nominal outside diameter greate
r than 3.5" radiographic examination shall be performed for single wall viewing
only. An adequate number of exposures shall be taken to ensure complete coverage
. For welds in pipe and tubes with a nominal outside diameter 0.5 or less, singl
e wall viewing may be used provided the source is offset from the welds. As a mi
nimum, three exposures 120 degrees apart shall be required.
3.6
SHARPNESS OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE:
Geometric unsharpness limitation - geometric unsharpness of radiograph shall not
exceed the following. Geometric unsharphness of the radiograph shall be determi
ned in accordance with:
Ug = Fd /D
Where Ug = geometrical unsharpness F = source size in mm
D = distance in mm from the source of the radiation to the weld or object being
radiographed d = distance in inches from the source side of the weld or object b
eing radiographed to the film.
3.7
FILTERS IN RADIOGRAPHY
At radiation energies, filters consist of material placed in the useful beam to
absorb, preferentially, radiations based on energy level or to modify the spatia
l distribution of the beam. The use of filters produces a cleaner image by absor
bing the lower
energy x-ray photons that tend to scatter more. For industrial radiography, the
filters added to the x-ray beam are most often constructed of high atomic number
materials such as lead, copper, or brass. The thickness of filter materials is
dependent on atomic numbers, and the desired filtration factor. Gamma radiograph
y produces relatively high energy levels at essentially monochromatic radiation,
therefore filtration is not a useful technique and is seldom used.
3.8
CONTROLLING RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the use
of image quality indicators (IQI). IQIs provide a means of visually informing t
he film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition of the radiograph
. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of material thickness change will be
detectable in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a certain level of de
finition so that the density changes are not lost due to unsharpness. Without su
ch a reference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and defect
s could go undetected.
Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various codes or
standards that invoke their use. In the United States two IQI style are prevalen
t; the placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs come in a variety of materia
l types so that one with radiation absorption characteristics similar to the mat
erial being radiographed can be used.
3.8.1 HOLE-TYPE IQIS
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material grou
p classification of hole-type image quality indicators. E1025 designates eight g
roups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A notching s
ystem is incorporated into the requirements allowing the radiographer to easily
determine if the penetrameter is the correct material type for the product. The
thickness in thousands of an inch is noted on each pentameter by a lead number 0
.250 to 0.375 inch wide depending on the thickness of the shim. Military or Gove
rnment standards require a similar penetrameter but use lead letters to indicate
the material type rather than notching system as shown on the left in the image
above. Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expressio
n such as 22T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percent
age of the region of interest of the part being inspected. The second term in th
e expression refers to the diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is
expressed as a multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would m
ean that the shim thickness should be two percent of material thickness and that
a hole that is twice the IQI thickness must be detectable on the radiograph. Th
is presentation of a 2-2T IQI in
the radiograph verifies that the radiographic technique is capable of showing a
material loss of 2% in the area of interest.
It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a
defect of the same diameter and material loss might not be visible. The holes i
n the penetrameter represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change. Dis
continues within the part may contain gradual changes, and are often less visibl
e. The penetrameter is used to indicate quality of the radiographic technique an
d not to be used as a measure of size of cavity that can be located on the radio
graph.
3.8.2 WIRE PENETRAMETERS
ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire p
enetrameters (IQIs) to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set of six
wires arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated between two shee
ts of clear plastic. E747 specifies four wire IQIs sets, which control the wire
diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower right corner of t
he IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates the material group. The sa
me image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T) used for hole-type IQIs are
typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes that correspond to various hol
e-type quality levels can be found in a table in E747 or can be calculated using
the following formula.
3.8.3 PLACEMENT OF IQIS
IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a mater
ial thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, the
IQI may be placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the region of
interest. When a block is used, the IQI should the same distance from the film
as it would be if placed directly on the part in the region of interest. The IQI
should also be placed slightly away from the edge of the part so that atleast t
hree of its edges are visible in the radiograph.
3.9
FILM PROCESSING
Processing film is a science governed by rigid rules of chemical concentration,
temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether processing is done by hand or
automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require the highest possible deg
ree of consistency and quality control.
3.9.1 MANUAL PROCESSING & DARKROOMS
Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom should be located in a
central location, adjacent to the reading room and a reasonable distance from th
e exposure area. For portability darkrooms are often mounted on pickups or trail
ers. Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is most often a
metal bin that is used to store and protect the film. An area next to the film
bin that is dry and free of dust and dirt should be used to load and unload the
film. While another area, the wet side, will be used to process the film. Thus p
rotecting the film from any water or chemicals that may be located on the surfac
e of the wet side. Each of step in film processing must be excited properly to d
evelop the image, wash out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequat
e shelf life of the radiograph. The objective of processing is two fold. First t
o produce a radiograph adequate for viewing, and secondly to prepare the radiogr
aph for archival storage. A radiograph may be retrieved after 5 or even 20 years
in storage. One must bear in mind that radiographic contrast and definition are
not dependent upon the same set of factors. If detail in a radiograph is origin
ally lacking, then attempts to manipulate radiographic contrast will have no eff
ect on the amount of detail present in that radiograph
To understand how the image on a radiograph is formed, the characteristics of th
e film are very important. There are three important parts to a radiographic fil
m. These include the base, the emulsion, and the protective coating.
3.9.2 THE BASE
All radiographic film consists of a base for which the other materials are appli
ed. The film base is usually made from a clear, flexible plastic such as cellulo
se acetate. This plastic is similar to what you might find in a wallet for holdi
ng pictures. The principle function of the base is to provide support for the em
ulsion. It is not sensitive to radiation, nor can it record an image. The clarit
y or transparency of the film base is an important feature. Radiographic film mu
st be capable of transmitting light. Once a film has been processed chemically,
it is subject to interpretation. This is commonly done by using a film illuminat
ing device, which is usually a high intensity light source.
3.9.3 THE EMULSION
The film emulsion and protective coating comprise the other two components and a
re essentially made from the same material. They are applied to the film during
manufacturing and usually take on a pale yellow color with a glassy appearance.
Although they are made from the same material, they offer two distinct features
to the film. These features are separated into the image layer of the emulsion,
and the protective layer.
3.9.4 THE PROTECTIVE LAYER
The protective layer has the important function of protecting the softer emulsio
n layers below. It is simply a very thin skin of gelatin protecting the film fro
m scratches during handling. It offers very important properties to film manufac
turers, which include shrinkage (during drying that forms glassy protective laye
rs) and dissolving in warm water. It will absorb the water and swell if it is di
ssolved in cold water. The softer layers of the gelatin coating are technically
known as the emulsion. An emulsion holds something in suspension. It is this mat
erial in suspension that is
: 33 of 83
sensitive to radiation and forms the latent image on the film. During manufactur
ing of the film, silver bromide is added to the solution of dissolved gelatin. W
hen the gelatin hardens the silver bromide crystals are held in suspension throu
ghout the emulsion. Upon exposure of the film to radiation, the silver bromide c
rystals become ionized in varying degrees forming the latent image. Each grain o
r crystal of silver bromide that has become ionized can be reduced or developed
to form a grain of black metallic silver. This is what forms the visible image o
n the radiograph. This visible image is made up of an extremely large number of
silver crystals each is individually exposed to radiation but working together a
s a unit to form the image.
Once a film has been exposed to radiation and possesses the latent image, it req
uires chemical development. The purpose of developing the film is to bring the l
atent image out so that it can be seen visibly. There are three processing solut
ions that must be used to convert an exposed film to a useful radiograph. These
are the developer, stop bath, and the fixer. Each of these solutions is importan
t in processing the image so that it may be viewed and stored over a period of t
ime.
3.9.5 THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING FILM
1. To begin the process of converting the latent image on the radiograph to a us
eful image we first expose the film to the developer solution. The developers pur
pose is to develop, and to make the latent image visible. A special chemical wit
hin the developer solution acts on the film by reducing the exposed silver bromi
de crystals to black metallic silver. This process of developing is actually a m
ulti-step process. Recall the characteristics of the film manufacturing mentione
d earlier, they become important in the development process. Before the develope
r can change the silver crystals it must penetrate the protective coating of the
film. Keep in mind that the protective coating of the film is made of gelatin a
nd is sensitive to temperature and water. The developer solution is comprised of
a combination of chemicals, consisting of alkali and metol or hydroquinone mixe
d with water. The purpose of the alkali is to penetrate the protective coating a
llowing the metol to reduce the exposed silver bromide to black metallic oxide.
: 34 of 83
2. The second step in the development process is the stop bath. This bath is com
prised of a glacial acetic acid and water. It is important to recognize that alk
alis and acids neutralize each other. The function of the stop bath is to quickly
neutralize any excessive development of the silver crystals. Over development of
the silver crystals results in a radiographic image that is virtually impossibl
e to interpret.
3. The third step in development is the fixer. Its function is to permanently fi
x the image on the film. This is also a multi-step process. The fixer must first
remove any unexposed silver crystals and then harden the remaining crystals in
the emulsion. It is this process that is used to preserve the radiographic image
over time. Once the film has been properly developed, it is then rinsed in wate
r and dried so that it may be visually examined.
3.10 VIEWING RADIOGRAPHS
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are generally v
iewed on a light-box. However, it is becoming increasingly common to digitize ra
diographs and view them on a high resolution monitor. Proper viewing conditions
are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The viewing conditions can en
hance or degrade the subtle details of radiographs. Before beginning the evaluat
ion of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and area should be considered. The ar
ea should be clean and free of distracting materials. Magnifying aids, masking a
ids, and film markers should be close at hand. Thin cotton gloves should be avai
lable and worn to prevent fingerprints on the radiograph. Ambient light levels s
hould be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2 fc are often recommended, but
subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is preferable in the viewing room.
The brightness of the surroundings should be about the same as the area of inte
rest in the radiograph. Room illumination must be arranged so that there are no
reflections from the surface of the film under examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four group
s of film viewers. These include: strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers, and
a combination of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should provide a source of
defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from viewers can cause d
istortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density of 2.0 will allow
only 1.0 percent of the incident light to pass. A film containing a density of 4
.0 will allow only 0.01 percent of the incident light to pass. With such low lev
els of light passing through the radiograph the delivery of a good light source
is important. The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a
written procedure or code, or as required by contractual documents. The required
documents should be available in the viewing area and referenced as necessary w
hen evaluating components. Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as
required by the procedure, should first be determined. It should be verified tha
t the radiograph was produced to the correct density on the required film type,
and that it contains the correct identification information. It should also be v
erified that the proper image quality indicator was used and that the required s
ensitivity level was met. Next, the radiograph should be checked to ensure that
it does not contain processing and handling artifacts that could mask discontinu
ities or other details of interest. The technician should develop a standard pro
cess for evaluating the radiographs so that details are not overlooked. Once a r
adiograph passes these initial checks it is ready for interpretation. Radiograph
ic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining, visual acuity with knowle
dge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated discontinues. If
the component is inspected while in service, an understanding of applied loads
and history of the component is helpful. A process for viewing radiographs, left
to right top to bottom etc., is helpful and will prevent overlooking an area on
the radiograph. This process is often developed over time and individualized. O
ne part of the interpretation process, sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind a
s well as the eyes need to occasionally rest when interpreting radiographs. When
viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small light
source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing the
: 36 of 83
intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant indic
ations. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help identify a
nd evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being inspected is very of
ten helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time.
By using the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, th
e interpreter will increase his or her probability of detecting defects.
3.11 IMAGE CONSIDERATIONS
The most common detector used in industrial radiography is film. The high sensit
ivity to ionizing radiation provides excellent detail and sensitivity to density
changes when producing images of industrial materials. Image quality is determi
ned by a combination of variables: radiographic contrast and definition. Many va
riables affecting radiographic contrast and definition are summarized below and
addressed in following sections.
3.11.1
RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
Radiographic contrast describes the differences in photographic density in a rad
iograph. The contrast between different parts of the image is what forms the ima
ge and the greater the contrast, the more visible features become. Radiographic
contrast has two main contributors: subject contrast and detector or film contra
st. Subject contrast is determined by the following variables: - Absorption diff
erences in the specimen - Wavelength of the primary radiation - Scatter or secon
dary radiation Film contrast is determined by the following: - Grain size or typ
e of film - Chemistry of film processing chemicals - Concentrations of film proc
essing chemicals - Time of development
: 37 of 83
- Temperature of development - Degree of mechanical agitation (physical motion)
Exposing the film to produce higher film densities will generally increase contr
ast. In other words, darker areas will increase in density faster than lighter a
reas because in any given period of time more x-rays are reaching the darker are
as. Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch typically reduce
scatter radiation at energy levels below 150, 000 volts. Above this point they w
ill emit electrons to provide more exposure of the film to ionizing radiation th
us increasing the density of the radiograph. Fluorescent screens produce visible
light when exposed to radiation and this light further exposes the film.
3.11.2
DEFINITION
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one density to
another. There are a number of geometric factors of the X-ray equipment and the
radiographic setup that have an effect on definition. These geometric factors i
nclude: Focal spot size, which is the area of origin of the radiation. The focal
spot size should be as close to a point source as possible to produce the most
definition. Source to film distance, which is the distance from the source to th
e part. Definition increases as the source to film distance increase. Specimen t
o detector (film) distance, which is the distance between the specimen and the d
etector. For optimal definition, the specimen and detector should be as close to
gether as possible. Abrupt changes in specimen thickness may cause distortion on
the radiograph. Movement of the specimen during the exposure will produce disto
rtion on the radiograph. Film graininess, and screen mottling will decrease defi
nition. The grain size of the film will affect the definition of the radiograph.
Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the waveleng
th shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film
will increase. Also, increased development of the film will increase the apparen
t graininess of the radiograph.
3.11.3
RADIOGRAPHIC DENSITY
Film speed, gradient, and graininess are all responsible for the performance of
the film during exposure and processing. As these combine with processing variab
les a final product or the radiograph is produced. In viewing the radiograph, re
quirements have been established for acceptable radiographs in industry. The den
sity of a radiograph in industry will determine if further viewing is possible.
Density considerations date back to early day radiography. Hurder and Drifield h
ave been credited with developing much of the early information on the character
istic curve and density of a radiograph. Codes and standards will typically requ
ire densities of a radiograph to be maintained between 1.8 to 4.0 H&D (Hurder an
d Drifield) for acceptable viewing. As density increases, contrast will also inc
rease. This is true above 4.0 H&D, however as density reaches 4.0 H&D an extreme
ly bright viewing light is necessary for evaluation. Density, technically should
be stated "Transmitted Density" when associated with transparent-base film. Thi
s density is the log of the intensity of light incident on the film to the inten
sity of light transmitted through the film. A density reading of 2.0 H&D is the
result of only 1 percent of the transmitted light reaching the sensor. At 4.0 H&
D only 0.01% of transmitted light reaches the far side of the film.
3.12 RADIOGRAPH INTERPRETATION - WELDS
Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps, which are (1) de
tection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of
the radiographer s visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spat
ial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities
in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the place of viewin
g, and the experience level for recognizing various features in the image. The f
ollowing material was developed to
help students develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldment
s and how they appear in a radiograph.
3.13 DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These
interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zone
s. Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specifica
tion used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
3.13.1
GENERAL WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with
l or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc
the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle
base material without bonding.
Cold lap is a
the base meta
does not melt
to flow into
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can
take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular sp
ots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is e
longated and may have the appearance of having a tail. This is the result of gas
attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called w
ormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material it will have a radiogra
phic density more than the surrounding area.
. Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with m
oisture. The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes trapped in the we
ld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosit
y in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or betwee
n weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within
the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld me
tal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld
discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a
crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-def
ined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the w
eldment.
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly f
use with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark lin
e or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation
or joining area.
Internal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has contracted
as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it
looks similar to lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is
often quite wide in the center of the weld image.
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of th
e weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset fro
m the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP b
ecause it does not follow a ground edge.
External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of
the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outsi
de edge of the weld area.
Offset or mismatch is terms associated with a condition where two pieces being w
elded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image is a noticeable
: 43 of 83
difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is cause
d by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by
failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld m
etal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy
to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the
image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be more (darker) than th
e image density of the surrounding base material.
Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in exce
ss of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radi
ograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engin
eering requirements.
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direc
tion that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cra
cks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can somet
imes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
3.13.2
DISCONTINUITIES IN TIG WELDS
The following discontinuities are peculiar to the TIG welding process. These dis
continuities occur in most metals welded by the process including aluminum and s
tainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld whi
ch when radiographed is easily interpreted. Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a b
rittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten inert gas
welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in
the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel; there
fore, it shows as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.
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Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (es
pecially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding materia
ls and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radi
ograph.
3.13.3
DISCONTINUITIES IN GAS METAL ARC WELDS (GMAW)
The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds. Whiskers ar
e short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of
the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wi
re like" indications. Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive w
eld metal to penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld
creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of meta
l are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn through appears as dark spot
s, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).
CHAPTER 4 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Magnetic particle testing (MPT) is a nondestructive testing method used for defe
ct detection. MPT is a fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface prepar
ation is not as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characterist
ics make MPT one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods. MPT
uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to dete
ct flaws in components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint i
s that the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material su
ch iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are ma
terials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be e
ffective. The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as casti
ngs, forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle in
spection for
determining a component s fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use
magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical
, power generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another a
rea where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test items such as offshor
e structures and underwater pipelines.
4.2
PRINCIPLE
Magnetic particle testing (MPT) is a relatively simple concept. It can be consid
ered as a combination of two nondestructive testing methods: magnetic flux leaka
ge testing and visual testing. Consider a bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in
and around the magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters
the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a magnetic line of force exits the mag
net is
called a north pole and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called
a south pole.
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When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnet
s with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is ju
st cracked but not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at
each edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters th
e at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encounter the small
air gap created by the crack because the air cannot support as much magnetic fie
ld per unit volume as the magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to
leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flux leakage field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attra
cted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet but also at
the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to
see than the actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle testing.
The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component t
hat is to be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the d
efects will create a leakage field. After the component has been magnetized, iro
n particles,
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either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magneti
zed part. The particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields
, thus forming a visible indication that the inspector can detect
4.3
MAGNETIZING CURRENT
Electric current is often used to establish the magnetic field in components dur
ing magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current and direct current are the
two basic types of current commonly used. Current from single phase 110 volts,
to three phase 440 volts are used when generating an electric field in a compone
nt. Current flow is often modified to provide the appropriate field within the p
art. The type of current used can have an effect on the inspection results so th
e types of currents commonly are explained.
4.3.1 DIRECT CURRENT
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A
battery is the most common source of direct current. As previously mentioned, c
urrent is said to flow from the positive to the negative terminal when in actual
ity the electrons flow in the opposite direction. DC is very desirable when perf
orming magnetic particle inspection in search of subsurface defects because DC g
enerates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagn
etic materials, the magnetic field produced by DC generally penetrates the entir
e cross-section of the component; whereas, the field produced using alternating
current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
4.3.2 ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per
second. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to ma
ke use of it for magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is used to induc
e a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will be limited
to narrow region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as "
skin effect" and it occurs because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and t
he rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains down in the material tim
e to align. Therefore, it is
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recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface defec
ts.
4.3.3 RECTIFIED ALTERNATING CURRENT
The skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call for
the detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access to AC, driv
e its use beyond surface flaw inspections. AC can be converted to current that i
s very
much like DC through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, t
he reversing AC can be converted to a one-directional current. The three commonl
y used types of rectified current are described below.
4.3.4 HALF WAVE RECTIFIED ALTERNATING CURRENT (HWAC)
When single-phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is
allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked
out so that a one directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises
from zero to a maximum and then returns to zero. No current flows during the ti
me when the reverse cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats at same rate as the u
nrectified current (50 or 60 hertz typical). Since half of the current is blocke
d out, the amperage is half of the unaltered AC.
This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The p
ulsation of the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the p
articles and giving them added mobility. This added mobility is especially impor
tant when using dry particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly improv
e inspection sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to power electromagnetic yokes
.
4.3.5 FULL WAVE RECTIFIED ALTERNATING CURRENT (FWAC)
Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather
than blocking it out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the
pulses. Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in
the rectified current. While particle mobility is not as good as half-wave AC d
ue to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is
improved.
4.3.6 THREE PHASE FULL WAVE RECTIFIED ALTERNATING CURRENT
Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has m
ore favorable power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of
electrical current is also highly desirable for magnetic particle testing becaus
e when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very closely resemble
s direct current. Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with three phase
AC will usually have the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wa
ve rectified), providing the inspector with the advantages of each current form.
4.4
LIGHTING
Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect
any indications that are formed. Therefore, lighting is a very important elemen
t of the inspection process. Obviously, the lighting requirements are different
for an inspection conducted using visible particles than they are for an inspect
ion conducted using fluorescent particles. The lighting requirements for each of
these techniques, as well as how light measurements are made, is discussed belo
w.
4.4.1 LIGHT REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING VISIBLE PARTICLES
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Magnetic particle inspections conducted using visible particles can be conducted
using natural lighting or artificial lighting. When using natural lighting, it
is important to keep in mind that daylight varies from hour to hour. Inspector m
ust stay constantly aware of the lighting conditions and make adjustments when n
eeded. To improve uniformity in lighting from one inspection to the next, the us
e of artificial lighting is recommended. Artificial lighting should be white whe
never possible and white flood or halogen lamps are most commonly used. The ligh
t intensity is required to be 100 foot-candles at the surface being inspected. I
t is advisable to choose a white light wattage that will provide sufficient ligh
t, but avoid excessive reflected light that could distract from the inspection.
4.4.2 LIGHT
REQUIREMENTS
WHEN
USING
FLUORESCENT
PARTICLES 4.4.2.1 ULTRAVIOLET LIGHTING
When performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the
condition of the ultraviolet light and the ambient white light must be monitored
. Standards and procedures require verification of lens condition and light inte
nsity. Black lights should never be used with a cracked filter as output of whit
e light and harmfulness black light will be increased. The cleanliness of the fi
lter should also be checked as a coating of solvent carrier, oils, or other fore
ign materials can reduce the intensity by up to as much as 50%. The filter shoul
d be checked visually and cleaned as necessary before warm-up of the light. For
UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is 1000
microwatts per square centimeter when measured at 15 inches from the filter fac
e (requirements can vary from 800 to 1200). The required check should be perform
ed when a new bulb is installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change
in intensity is noticed, or every eight hours if in continuous use. Regularly c
hecking the intensity of UV lights is very important because bulbs loose intensi
ty over time. In fact, a bulb that is near the end of its operating life will of
ten have an intensity of only 25 percent of its original output. Black light int
ensity will also be affected by voltage variations, so it is important to provid
e constant voltage to the light. A bulb that produces acceptable intensity at 12
0 volts will produce significantly less at 110 volts.
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4.4.2.2 AMBIENT WHITE LIGHTING
When performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is important to k
eep white light to a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors abil
ity to detect fluorescent indications. Light levels of less than 2 fc are requir
ed by most procedures with some procedures requiring less than 0.5 fc at the ins
pection surface. When checking black light intensity at 15 inches a reading of t
he white light produced by the black light may be required to verify white light
is being removed by the filter.
4.4.2.3 WHITE LIGHT FOR INDICATION CONFIRMATION
While white light is held to a minimum in fluorescent inspections, procedures ma
y require that indications be evaluated under white light. The white light requi
rements here are the same as when performing an inspection with visible particle
s. The minimum light intensity at the surface being inspected must be 100 foot-c
andles.
4.4.3 LIGHT MEASUREMENT
Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer. A radiometer is an ins
trument that translates light energy into an electrical current. Light striking
a silicon photodiode detector causes a charge to build up between internal layer
s. When an external circuit is connected to the cell, an electrical current is p
roduced. This current is linear with respect to incident light. Some radiometers
have the ability to measure both black and white light, while others require a
separate sensor for each measurement. Whichever type used, the sensing area shou
ld be clean and free of any materials that could reduce or obstruct light reachi
ng the sensor. Radiometers are relatively unstable instruments and readings ofte
n change considerably over time. Therefore, they must be calibrated regularly. T
hey should be calibrated at least every six months. A unit should be checked to
make sure its calibration is current before taking any light readings. Ultraviol
et light measurements should be taken using a fixture to maintain a minimum dist
ance of 15 inches from the filter face to the sensor. The sensor should be cente
red in the light field to obtain and record the highest reading. UV spot lights
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are often focused so intensity readings will vary considerable over a small area
. White lights are seldom focused and depending on the wattage, will often produ
ce in excess of the 100 fc at 15 inches. Many specifications do not require the
white light intensity check to be conducted at a specific distance.
4.5
PARTICLE CONCENTRATION AND CONDITION
4.5.1 PARTICLE CONCENTRATION
The concentration of particles in the suspension is a very important parameter i
n the inspection process and must be closely controlled. The particle concentrat
ion is checked after the suspension is prepared and continued regularly as part
of the quality system checks. ASTM E-1444-01 requires concentration checks to be
performed every eight hours or ever shift change. The standard process used to
perform the check requires agitating the carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes
to ensure even particle distribution. A sample is then taken in a pear-shaped 1
00 ml centrifuge tube having a stem graduated to 1.0 ml in 0.05 ml increments fo
r fluorescent particles, and graduated to 1.5 ml. in 0.1 ml increments for visib
le particles. The sample is then demagnetized so that the particles do not clump
together while settling. The sample must then remain undisturbed for a minimum
of 60 minutes for a petroleum-based carrier or 30 minutes for a waterbased carri
er, unless shorter times have been documented to produce results similar to the
longer settling times. The volume of settled particles is then read. Acceptable
ranges are 0.1 to 0.4 ml for fluorescent particles and 1.2 to 2.4 ml for visible
particles. If the particle concentration is out of the acceptable range, particl
es or the carrier must be added to bring the solution back in compliance with th
e requirement. Particle loss is often attributed to "dragout". Dragout occurs be
cause the solvent easily runs off components and is recaptured in the holding ta
nk. Particles, on the other hand, tend to adhere to components, or be trapped in
geometric features of the component. These particles will be "drug out" or lost
to the system, and will eventually need to be replaced.
4.5.2 PARTICLE CONDITION
After the particles have settled, they should be examined for brightness and agg
lomeration. Fluorescent particles should be evaluated under ultraviolet light an
d visible particles under white light. The brightness of the particles should be
evaluated weekly by comparing the particles in the test solution to those in an
unused reference solution that was saved when the solution was first prepared.
The brightness of the two solutions should be relatively the same. Additionally,
the particles should appear loose and not lumped together. If the brightness or
the agglomeration of the particles is noticeably different from the reference s
olution, the bath should be replaced
4.6
MAGNETIC FIELD INDICATORS
Determining whether a magnetic field is of adequate strength and in the proper d
irection is critical when performing magnetic particle testing. As discussed pre
viously, knowing the direction of the field is important because the field shoul
d be
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as close to perpendicular to the defect as possible and no more than 45 degrees
from normal. Being able to evaluate the field direction and strength is especial
ly important when inspecting with a multidirectional machine, because when the f
ields are not balanced properly a vector field will be produced that may not det
ect some defects. There is actually no easy to apply method that permits an exac
t measurement of field intensity at a given point within a material. In order to
measure the field strength it is necessary to intercept the flux lines. This is
impossible without cutting into the material and cutting the material would imm
ediately change the field within the part. However, cutting a small slot or hole
into the material and measuring the leakage field that crosses the air gap with
a Gauss meter is probably the best way to get an estimate of the actual field s
trength within a part. Nevertheless, there are a number of tools and methods ava
ilable that are used to determine the presence and direction of a field surround
ing the component.
4.6.1 GAUSS METER OR HALL EFFECT GAGE
A Gauss meter with a Hall Effect probe, is commonly used to measure the tangenti
al field strength on the surface of the part. As discussed in some detail on the
"Measuring Magnetic Fields" page, the Hall effect is the transverse electric fi
eld created in a conductor when placed in a magnetic field. Gauss meters, also c
alled Tesla meters, are used to measure the strength of a field tangential to th
e surface of the magnetized test object. The meters measure the intensity of the
field in the air adjacent to the component when a magnetic field is applied. Th
e advantages of Hall effect devices are; they provide a quantitative measure of
the strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, the
y can be used for measurement of residual magnetic fields, and they can be used
repetitively. Their main disadvantages are that they must be periodically calibr
ated, and they cannot be used to establish the balance of fields in multidirecti
onal applications.
4.7
QUANTITATIVE QUALITY INDICATOR (QQI)
The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard is often th
e preferred method of assuring proper field direction and adequate field strengt
h. The use of QQIs is also the only practical way of ensuring balanced field int
ensity and direction in multiple-direction magnetization equipment. QQIs are oft
en used in conjunction with a Gauss meter to establish the inspection procedure
for a particular component. They are used with the wet method only and, as other
flux sharing devices, they can only be used when continuous magnetization is us
ed. The QQI is a thin strip of either 0.002 or 0.004 inch thick AISI 1005 steel.
A photoetch process is used to inscribe a specific pattern, such as concentric
circles or a plus sign. QQIs are nominally 3/4 inch square, but miniature shims
are also available. QQIs must be in intimate contact with the part being evaluat
ed. This is accomplished by placing the shim on a part etched side down, and tap
ing or gluing it to the surface. The component is then magnetized and particles
applied. When the field strength is adequate, the particles will adhere over the
engraved pattern and provide information about the field direction. When a mult
idirectional technique is used, a balance of the fields is noted when all areas
of the QQI produce indications. Some of the advantages of QQIs are: they can be
quantified and related to other parameters; they can accommodate virtually any c
onfiguration with suitable selection; and they can be reused with careful applic
ation and removal practices. Some of the disadvantages are: the application proc
ess is somewhat slow, the parts must be clean and dry; shims cannot be used as a
residual magnetism indicator as they are a flux sharing device; they can be eas
ily damaged with improper handling and will corrode if not cleaned and properly
stored.
Above left is a photo of a typical QQI shim. The photo on the right, shows the i
ndication produced by the QQI when it is applied to the surface a part and a mag
netic field is established that runs across the shim from right to left.
4.8
PIE GAGE
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or e
ight sections by nonferromagnetic material. The division serves as artificial de
fects that radiate out in different directions from the center. Diameter of the
gage is to 1 inch. The divisions between the low carbon steel pie sections are t
o be no greater than 1/32 inch. The sections are furnace brazed and copper plate
d. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side up, and the test piece is ma
gnetized. After particles are applied, and excess removed, the indications provi
de the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field.
The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel casting
s where dry powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended
for precision parts with complex shapes, for wet-method applications, or for pr
oving field magnitude. The gage should be demagnetized between readings.
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Several of the main advantages of the pie gage are: it is easy to use and it can
be used indefinitely without deterioration. The pie gage has several disadvanta
ges, which include: it retains some residual magnetism so indications will preva
il after removal of the source of magnetization, it can only be used in relative
ly flat areas, and it cannot be reliably used for determination of balanced fiel
ds in multidirectional magnetization.
4.9
SLOTTED STRIPS
Slotted strips, also known as Burmah-Castrol Strips, are pieces of highly permea
ble ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths. They are placed on th
e test object as it is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give th
e inspector a general idea of the field strength in a particular area. Advantage
s of these strips are: they are relatively easily applied to the component; they
can be used successfully with either the wet or dry method when using the conti
nuous magnetization; they are repeatable as long as orientation to the magnetic
field is maintained and they can be used repetitively. Disadvantages include: th
ey cannot be bent to complex configuration; and they are not suitable for multid
irectional field applications since they indicate defects in only one direction.
CHAPTER 5 ULTRASONIC TESTING
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sound in the range of 20 Hz to 18000 Hz is in audible ranges of human ear. Sound
beyond this range cannot be heard by human and called as ultrasonic sound. Howe
ver, some mammals can hear well above this. For example, bats and whales use ech
o location that can reach frequencies in excess of 100,000Hz.
5.2
WAVE PROPAGATION
Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in materi
als, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances are co
mprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equili
brium positions. Many different patterns of vibrational motion exist at the atom
ic level, however, most are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acou
stics is focused on particles that contain many atoms that move in unison to pro
duce a mechanical wave. When a material is not stressed in tension or compressio
n beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform elastic oscillation
s. When the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium positions
, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these elastic restori
ng forces between particles, combined with inertia of the particles, that leads
to oscillatory motions of the medium. In solids, sound waves can propagate in fo
ur principle modes that are based on the way the particles oscillate. Sound can
propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves, and in thin materia
ls as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation
most widely used in ultrasonic testing. The particle movement responsible for t
he propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is illustrated below.
In longitudinal waves the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or th
e direction of wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces are a
ctive in these waves, they are also called pressure or compressional waves. They
are also sometimes called density waves because their particle density fluctuat
es as they move. Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as well as solid
s because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of compari
son and expansion (rarefaction) movements. In the transverse or shear wave the p
articles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the direction of propagatio
n. Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective propagation
and, therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or g
asses. Shear waves are relatively weak when compared to
longitudinal waves In fact, shear waves are usually generated in materials using
some of the energy from longitudinal waves.
5.3
WAVELENGTH, FREQUENCY AND VELOCITY
Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic solid materials are wavel
ength, frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional to the v
elocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. Thi
s relationship is shown by the following equation.
5.4
SOUND PROPAGATION IN ELASTIC MATERIALS
Sound waves propagate due to the vibrations or oscillatory motions of particles
within a material. An ultrasonic wave may be visualized as an infinite number of
oscillating masses or particles connected by means of elastic springs. Each ind
ividual particle is influenced by the motion of its nearest neighbor and both in
ertial and elastic restoring forces act upon each particle.
5.5
MATERIAL AFFECT ON SPEED OF SOUND
Sound travels at different speeds in different materials. This is because the ma
ss of the atomic particles and the spring constants are different for different
materials. The mass of the particles is related to the density of the material,
and the spring constant is related to the elastic constants of a material. The g
eneral relationship between the speed of sound in a solid and its density and el
astic constants is given by the following equation:
Where V is the speed of sound, C is the elastic constant, and p is the material
density. This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the typ
e of wave (longitudinal or shear) and which of the elastic constants that are us
ed. The typical elastic constants of materials include:
Young s Modulus, E: proportionality constant between uniaxial stress and strain.


Poisson s Ratio, n: the ratio of radial strain to axial strain Bulk modulus, K:
a measure of the incompressibility of a body subjected to hydrostatic pressure.
Shear Modulus, G: also called rigidity, a measure of substance s resistance to s

hear.
Lame s Constants, l and m: material constants that are derived from Young s Modu
lus and Poisson s Ratio.
When calculating the velocity of a longitudinal wave, Young s Modulus and Poisso
n s Ratio are commonly used. When calculating the velocity of a shear wave, the
shear modulus is used. It is often most convenient to make the calculations usin
g Lame s Constants, which are derived from Young s Modulus and Poisson s Ratio.
It must also be mentioned that the subscript ij attached to C in the above equat
ion is used to indicate the directionality of the elastic constants with respect
to the wave type and direction of wave travel. In isotropic materials, the elas
tic constants are the same for all directions within the material. However, most
materials are anisotropic and the elastic constants differ with each direction.
For example, in a piece of rolled aluminum plate, the grains are elongated in o
ne direction and compressed in the others and the elastic constants for the long
itudinal direction are different than those for the transverse or short transver
se directions. Examples of approximate compressional sound velocities in materia
ls are:

Aluminum - 0.632 cm/microsecond 1020 steel - 0.589 cm/microsecond Cast iron - 0.
480 cm/microsecond.
Examples of approximate shear sound velocities in materials are:

Aluminum - 0.313 cm/microsecond 1020 steel - 0.324 cm/microsecond Cast iron - 0.
240 cm/microsecond.
When comparing compressional and shear velocities it can be noted that shear vel
ocity is approximately one half that of compressional. The sound velocities for
a variety of materials can be found in the ultrasonic properties tables in the g
eneral resources section of this site.
5.6
ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because m
olecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess pr
essure results in a wave propagating through the solid. The acoustic impedance (
Z) of a material is defined as the product of density () and acoustic velocity (V
) of that mateial. Z = V Acoustic impedance is impotant in 1. The detemination
of acoustic tansmission and eflection at the bounday of two mateials having
diffeent acoustic impedance 2. The design of ultasonic tansduces. 3. Assess
ing absoption of sound in a medium. The following figue will help you calculat
e the acoustic impedance fo any mateial, so long as you know its density () and
acoustic velocity (V). We can also compae two mateials and "see" how they ef
lect and tansmit sound enegy. The ed aow epesents enegy of the eflected
sound, while the blue aow epesents enegy of the tansmitted sound. The ef
lected enegy is the squae of the diffeence divided by the sum of the acoustic
impedances of the two mateials.
Note that Tansmitted Sound Enegy + Reflected Sound Enegy = 1
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Categoy: MECHANICAL
IPCL NC: Taining Module
5.7 ULTRASONIC WAVE GENERATION 5.7.1 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
The convesion of electical pulses to mechanical vibations and the convesion
of etuned mechanical vibations back into electical enegy is the basis fo u
ltasonic testing. The active element is the heat of the tansduce as it conve
ts the electical enegy to acoustic enegy, and vice vesa. The active element
is basically a piece polaized mateial (i.e. some pats of the molecule ae po
sitively chaged, while othe pats of the molecule ae negatively chaged) with
electodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electic field is app
lied acoss the mateial, the polaized molecules will align themselves with the
electic field, esulting in induced dipoles within the molecula o cystal st
uctue of the mateial. This alignment of molecules will cause the mateial to
change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electostiction. In addition, a
pemanently-polaized mateial such as quatz (SiO2) o baium titanate (BaTiO3)
will poduce an electic field when the mateial changes dimensions as a esult
of an imposed mechanical foce. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectic e
ffect.
The active element of most acoustic tansduces used today is a piezoelectic ce
amics, which can be cut in vaious ways to poduce diffeent wave modes. A
Pepaed by: DN Rev: 01 Reviewed by: RPG Date: 09-11-2004 Appoved By: AKS Pages
: 66 of 83
Categoy: MECHANICAL
lage piezoelectic ceamic element can be seen in the image of a sectioned low
fequency tansduce. In the ealy 1950's, piezoelectic cystals made fom qua
tz cystals and magnetostictive mateials wee pimaily used. When piezoelect
ic ceamics wee intoduced they soon became the dominant mateial fo tansduce
s due to thei good piezoelectic popeties and thei ease of manufactue into
a vaiety of shapes and sizes. They also opeate at low voltage and ae usable
up to about 300oC. The fist piezoceamic in geneal use was baium titanate, an
d that was followed duing the 1960's by lead ziconate titanate compositions, w
hich ae now the most commonly employed ceamic fo making tansduces. New mate
ials such as piezo polymes and composites ae also being used in some applicat
ions. The thickness of the active element is detemined by the desied fequency
of the tansduce. A thin wafe element vibates with a wavelength that is twic
e its
thickness. Theefoe, piezoelectic cystals ae cut to a thickness that is 1/2
the desied adiated wavelength. The highe the fequency of the tansduce, the
thinne will be active element. The pimay eason that high fequency contact t
ansduces ae not poduced in because the element is vey thin and too fagile.
5.8
REFRACTION AND SNELL'S LAW
When an ultasonic wave passes though an inteface between two mateials at an
oblique angle, and the mateials have diffeent indices of efaction, it poduc
es both eflected and efacted waves. This also occus with light and this make
s objects you see acoss an inteface appea to be shifted elative to whee the
y eally ae. Refaction takes place at an inteface due to the diffeent veloci
ties of the acoustic waves within the two mateials. The velocity of sound in ea
ch mateial is detemined by the mateial popeties (elastic modules and densit
y) fo that mateial. In the animation below, a seies of plane waves ae shown
taveling in one mateial and enteing a second mateial that has a highe acous
tic velocity. Theefoe, when the wave encountes the inteface between these tw
o mateials, the potion of the wave in the second mateial is moving faste tha
n the potion of the wave in the fist mateial. It can be seen that this causes
the wave to bend.
Categoy: MECHANICAL
Snell's Law descibes the elationship between the angles and the velocities of
the waves. Snell's law equates the atio of mateial velocities v1 and v2 to the
atio of the sine's of incident ( ) and refraction (2) angles, as shown in the foll
owing euation.
Where: VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1. VL2 is the longitudi
nal wave velocity in material 2.
Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave (VL1) shown. Th
is wave is reflected at the same angle as the incident wave because the two wave
s are traveling in the same material and, therefore, have the same velocities. T
his
reflected wave is unimportant in our explanation of Snell's Law, but it should b
e remembered that some of the wave energy is reflected at the interface. When a
longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is an incident
angle that makes the angle of refraction for the wave 90. This is known as the f
irst critical angle. The first critical angle can be found from Snell's law by p
utting in an angle of 90 for the angle of the refracted ray. At the critical angl
e of incidence, much of the acoustic energy is in the form of an inhomogeneous c
ompression wave, which travels along the interface and decays exponentially with
depth from the interface. This wave is sometimes referred to as a "creep wave."
Because of their inhomogeneous nature and the fact that they decay rapidly, cre
ep waves are not used as extensively as Rayleigh surface waves in NDT. However,
creep waves are sometimes useful because they suffer less from surface irregular
ities and coarse material microstructure, due to their longer wavelengths, than
Rayleigh waves.
5.9
CALIBRATION METHODS
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accu
racy of measurement euipment. Different type of standard calibration blocks use
d for
various applications described below. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of ca
libration must be done. First, the electronics of the euipment must be calibrat
ed to assure that they are performing as designed. This operation is usually per
formed by the euipment manufacturer and will not be discussed further in this m
aterial. It is also usually necessary for the operator to perform a "user calibr
ation" of the euipment. This user calibration is necessary because most ultraso
nic euipment can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications. Th
e user must
"calibrate" the system, which includes the euipment settings, the transducer, a
nd the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and accuracy
are achieved. The term calibration standard is usually only used when an absolut
e value is measured and in many cases, the standards are traceable back to stand
ards at the National Institute for Standards and Technology. In ultrasonic testi
ng, there is also a need for reference standards. Reference
standards are used to establish a general level of consistency in measurements a
nd to help interpret and uantify the information contained in the received sign
al. Reference standards are used to validate that the euipment and the setup pr
ovide similar results from one day to the next and that similar results are prod
uced by different systems. Reference standards also help the inspector to estima
te the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type setup, signal strength depends on bot
h the size of the flaw and the distance between the flaw and the transducer. The
inspector can use a reference standard with an artificially induced flaw of kno
wn size and at approximately the same distance away for the transducer to produc
e a signal. By
: 69 of 83
comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from the actua
l flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size. This section will discuss some
of the more common calibration and reference specimen that are used in ultrason
ic inspection. Some of these specimens are shown in the figure above. Be aware t
hat are other standards available and that specially designed standards may be r
euired for many applications. The information provided here is intended to serv
e a general introduction to the standards and not to be instruction on the prope
r use of the standards.
5.10 INTRODUCTION TO THE COMMON STANDARDS
Calibration and reference standards for ultrasonic testing come in many shapes a
nd sizes. The type of standard used is dependent on the NDE application and the
form and shape of the object being evaluated. The material of the reference stan
dard should be the same as the material being inspected and the artificially ind
uced flaw should closely resemble that of the actual flaw. This second reuireme
nt is a major limitation of most standard reference samples. Most use drilled ho
les and notches that do not closely represent real flaws. In most cases the arti
ficially induced defects in reference standards are better reflectors of sound e
nergy (due to their flatter and smoother surfaces) and produce indications that
are larger than those that a similar sized flaw would produce. Producing more "r
ealistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most cases and, therefore, the inspecto
r can only make an estimate of the flaw size. Computer programs that allow the i
nspector to create computer simulated models of the part and flaw may one day le
ssen this limitation.
5.11 THE IIW TYPE CALIBRATION BLOCK
The standard shown in the above figure is commonly known in the US as an IIW typ
e reference block. IIW is an acronym for the International Institute of Welding.
It is referred to as an IIW "type" reference block because it was patterned aft
er the "true" IIW block but does not conform to IIW reuirements in IIS/IIW-23-5
9. "True" IIW blocks are only made out of steel (to be precise, killed, open hea
rth or electric furnace, low-carbon steel in the normalized condition with a gra
in size of McQuaidEhn #8) where IIW "type" blocks can be commercially obtained i
n a selection of materials. The dimensions of "true" IIW blocks are in metric un
its while IIW "type" blocks usually have English units. IIW "type" blocks may al
so include additional calibration and references features such as notches, circu
lar groves, and scales that are not specified by IIW. There are two full-sized a
nd a mini version of the IIW type blocks. The Mini version is about one-half the
size of the full-sized block and weighs only about one-fourth as much. The IIW
type US-1 block was derived the basic "true" IIW block and is shown below in the
figure on the left.
5.11.1
IIW TYPE US-1
5.11.2
IIW TYPE US-2
5.11.3
IIW TYPE MINI
IIW type blocks are used to calibrate instruments for both angle beam and normal
incident inspections. Some of their uses include setting metal-distance and sen
sitivity settings, determining the sound exit point and refracted angle of angle
beam transducers, and evaluating depth resolution of normal beam inspection set
ups. Instructions on using the IIW type blocks can be found in the annex of Amer
ican Society for Testing and Materials Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultr
asonic Contact Examination of Weldments.
5.11.4
THE MINIATURE ANGLE-BEAM CALIBRATION BLOCK
The miniature angle-beam is a calibration block that was designed for use in the
field for instrument calibration. The block is much smaller and lighter than th
e IIW block but performs many of the same functions. The miniature angle-beam bl
ock can be used to check the beam angle and exit point of the transducer. The bl
ock can also be used to make metal-distance and sensitivity calibrations for bot
h angle and normal-beam inspection setups.
5.11.5
AWS SHEAR WAVE DISTANCE/SENSITIVITY CALIBRATION
(DSC) BLOCK
A block that closely resembles the miniature angle-beam block and is used in a s
imilar way is the DSC AWS Block. This block is used to determine the beam exit p
oint and refracted angle of angle-beam transducers and to calibrate distance and
set the sensitivity for both normal and angle beam inspection setups. Instructi
ons on using the DSC block can be found in the annex of American Society for Tes
ting and Materials Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Exami
nation of Weldments.
5.11.6
AWS SHEAR WAVE DISTANCE CALIBRATION (DC) BLOCK
The DC AWS Block is a metal path distance and beam exit point calibration standa
rd that conforms to the reuirements of the American Welding Society (AWS) and t
he American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
Instructions on using the DC block can be found in the annex of American Society
for Testing and Materials Standard E164, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Conta
ct Examination of Weldments.
5.11.7
AWS RESOLUTION CALIBRATION (RC) BLOCK
The RC Block is used to determine the resolution of angle beam transducers per t
he reuirements of AWS and AASHTO. Engraved Index markers are provided for 45, 6
0, and 70 degree refracted angle beams.
5.11.8
30 FBH RESOLUTION REFERENCE BLOCK
The 30 FBH resolution reference block is used to evaluate the near-surface resol
ution and flaw size/depth sensitivity of a normal-beam setup. The block contains
number 3 (3/64"), 5 (5/64"), and 8 (8/64") ASTM flat bottom holes at ten metald
istances ranging from 0.050 inch (1.27 mm) to 1.250 inch (31.75 mm).
5.11.9
MINIATURE RESOLUTION BLOCK
The miniature resolution block is used to evaluate the near-surface resolution a
nd sensitivity of a normal-beam setup It can be used to calibrate high-resolutio
n
: 74 of 83
thickness gages over the range of 0.015 inches (0.381 mm) to 0.125 inches (3.175
mm).
5.11.10 STEP AND TAPERED CALIBRATION WEDGES
Step and tapered calibration wedges come in a large variety of sizes and configu
rations. Step wedges are typically manufactured with four or five steps but cust
om wedge can be obtained with any number of steps. Tapered wedges have a constan
t taper over the desired thickness range.
5.11.11 DISTANCE/SENSITIVITY (DS) BLOCK
The DS test block is a calibration standard used to check the horizontal lineari
ty and the dB accuracy per reuirements of AWS.
5.12 COUPLANT
A couplant is a material (usually liuid) that facilitates the transmission of u
ltrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is general
ly necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and solids, suc
h as the test specimen, is large and, therefore, nearly all of the energy is ref
lected and very little is transmitted into the test material. The couplant displ
aces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy into the test specim
en so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In contact ultrasonic tes
ting a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used between the transdu
cer and the test surface.
When scanning over the part or making precise measurements, an immersion techni
ue is often used. In immersion ultrasonic testing both the transducer and the pa
rt are immersed in the couplant, which is typically water. This method of coupli
ng makes it easier to maintain consistent coupling while moving and manipulating
the transducer and/or the part
5.13 NORMAL BEAM INSPECTION
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity
in a part or structure by accurately measuring the time reuired for a short ul
trasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel through a thickness of materi
al, reflect from the back or the surface of a discontinuity, and be returned to
the transducer. In most applications, this time interval is a few microseconds o
r less. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for the d
own-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test mat
erial. The result is expressed in the well-known relationship d = vt/2 or v = 2d
/t where d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test pie
ce, v is the velocity of sound waves in the material, and t is the measured roun
d-trip transit time. The diagram below allows you to move a transducer over the
surface of a stainless steel test block and see return echoes, as they would app
ear on an oscilloscope. The transducer employed is a 5 MHz broadband transducer
0.25 inches in diameter. Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at
freuencies between 500 kHz and 100 MHz, by means of piezoelectric transducers
that generate bursts of sound waves when excited by electrical pulses. A wide va
riety of transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed t
o meet the needs of industrial applications. Typically, lower freuencies are us
ed to optimize penetration when measuring thick, highly attenuating or highly sc
attering materials, while higher freuencies will be recommended to optimize res
olution in thinner, non-attenuating, non-scattering materials. In thickness gaug
ing, ultrasonic techniues permit uick and reliable measurement of thickness wi
thout reuiring access to both sides of a part. Accuracy's as high as 1 micron or
0.0001 inch can be achieved in some applications. It is possible to measure most
engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics, comp
osites, epoxies, and glass as well as liuid levels and the thickness of certain
biological specimens. On-line or in-process measurement of extruded
: 77 of 83
plastics or rolled metal often is possible, as is measurements of single layers
or coatings in multilayer materials. Modern handheld gages are simple to use and
very reliable.
5.14 ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION
Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted sh
ear wave into the test material. An angled sound path allows the sound beam to c
ome in from the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws in and around wel
ded areas.
5.15 WELDMENTS (WELDED JOINTS)
The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag inclusio
ns, lack of side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root penetration
, undercutting and longitudinal or transverse cracks. With the exception of sing
le gas pores all the defects listed are usually well detectable by ultrasonic. M
ost applications are on low-alloy construction uality steels, however, welds in
aluminum can also be tested. Ultrasonic flaw detection has long been the prefer
red method for nondestructive testing in welding applications. This safe, accura
te, and simple techniue has pushed ultrasonics to the forefront of inspection t
echnology.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam transd
ucer in conjunction with an angle beam transducer and wedge. A straight beam tra
nsducer, producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece,
is first used to locate any laminations in or near the heat-affected zone. This
is important because an angle beam transducer may not be able to provide a retur
n signal from a laminar flaw.
The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to ins
pect the actual weld. Angle beam transducers use the principles of refraction an
d mode conversion to produce refracted shear or longitudinal waves in the test m
aterial. This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and heat-affecte
d zones of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the material aro
und the weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will bounce off
a reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam. With proper angle bea
m techniues, echoes returned from the weld zone may allow the operator to deter
mine the location and type of discontinuity.
To determine the proper scanning area for the weld, the inspector must first cal
culate the location of the sound beam in the test material. Using the refracted
angle, beam index point and material thickness, the V-path and skip distance of
the sound beam is found. Once they have been calculated, the inspector can ident
ify the transducer locations on the surface of the material corresponding to the
crown, sidewall, and root of the weld.
5.16 DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION (DAC)
Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface will have different amplitudes
at different distance in the same material. A distance amplitude correction cur
ve (DACC) can be constructed from the peak amplitude responses from reflectors o
f eual area at different distances in the same material. Such curves are plotte
d specifically for a flat-bottom hole target and engraved on a transparent plast
ic sheet for attachment to the CRT screen. Disk-shaped reflectors, side drilled
holes and hemispherical bottom holes are used as euivalent reflectors when usin
g contact probes. A small steel ball helps to measure a distance-amplitude curve
for immersion probes. These techniues are important because the amplitude of u
ltrasonic pulses varies with the distance from the probe, which causes the echo
from a constant reflector to vary with distance. Therefore, to evaluate echoes o
f reflectors for all kind of probes, distance-amplitude curves are needed. The f
ollowing figure shows a test block with a side drilled hole. The transducer was
chosen so that the signal in the shortest pulse-echo path is in the far-field
(Sec.3.1.2). The transducer may be moved finding signals at depth ratios of 1, 3
, 5, and 7. Red points are "drawn" at the peaks of the signals and are used to f
orm the distance amplitude correction curve drawn in blue. Start by pressing the
green "Test now!" button. After determining the amplitudes for various path len
gths (4), press "Draw DACC" and then press the green "Test now!" button.
5.17 WAVELENGTH AND DEFECT DETECTION
In ultrasonic testing the inspector must make a decision about the freuency of
the transducer that will be used. As mentioned in the earlier page, changing the
freuency when the sound velocity is fixed will result in a change in the wavele
ngth of the sound. The wavelength of the ultrasound used has significant affect
on the probability of detecting a discontinuity. A rule of thumb in industrial i
nspections is that discontinuities that are larger than one-half the size of wav
elength can be usually be detected. Sensitivity and resolution are two terms tha
t are often used in ultrasonic inspection to describe a techniue's ability to l
ocate flaws. Sensitivity is the ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensiti
vity generally increases with higher freuency (shorter wavelengths). Resolution
is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are close together
within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also generally
increases as the freuency increases. The wave freuency can also affect the cap
ability of an inspection in adverse ways. Therefore, selecting the optimal inspe
ction freuency often involves maintaining a balance between favorable and unfav
orable results of the selection. Before selecting an inspection freuency, the g
rain structure, material thickness, size, type, and probable location of the dis
continuity should be considered. As freuency increases, sound tends to scatter
from large or course grain structure and from small imperfections within a mater
ial. Cast materials often have coarse grains and other sound scatters that reui
re lower freuencies to be used for evaluations of these products. Wrought and f
orged products with directional and refined grain structure, can usually be insp
ected with higher freuency transducers.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound ene
rgy at higher freuencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth in a mate
rial that flaws can be located) is also reduced. Freuency also has an effect on
the shape of the ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam fr
om the center axis of the transducer, and how it is affected by freuency will b
e discussed later. It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a nu
mber of other variables would also affect the ability of ultrasound to locate de
fects. These include pulse length, type and voltage applied to the crystal, prop
erties of the crystal, backing material, transducer diameter, and the receiver c
ircuitry of the instrument. These are discussed in more detail in the material o
n signal-to-noise ratio. Advantages of ultrasonic testing is very fast and surfa
ce defects as well as internal defects also detected. Only disadvantage is needs
expert personnel and linear defects such as cracks which are not perpendicular
to beam will not be detected.
CHAPTER - 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. American Society for Metals Hand Book for Non Destructive Testing, Volume 14.
2. ASME Hand Book for Non Destructive Testing.
3. ASME Section V Non Destuctive Testing. 4. Intenet sites

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Category: MECHANICAL

IPCL NC: Training Module

the surface. Wit

3. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MPT)

Only surface breaking defects can be detected.

of radiation centered as near as

nominal outside diamete

Young s Modulus, E: proportionality constant between uniaxial stress and strain.

Shear Modulus, G: also called rigidity, a measure of substance s resistance to s

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