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Essay - ^FROM BOWLBY TO BUDDHA' - an
initial exploration of the meaning of
attachment and non-attachment and their
implication for Dramatherapy
by Di Gammage
Essay - ^FROM BOWLBY TO BUDDHA' - an
initial exploration of the meaning of
attachment and non-attachment and their
implication for Dramatherapy
by Di Gammage
Essay - ^FROM BOWLBY TO BUDDHA' - an
initial exploration of the meaning of
attachment and non-attachment and their
implication for Dramatherapy
by Di Gammage
Dramatherapy Vol 28 No 2 Autumn 2006 'From Bowlby to Buddha'
^FROM BOWLBY TO BUDDHA' - an
initial exploration of the meaning of attachment and non-attachment and their implication for Dramatherapy by Di Gammage This Being Human This being human is a guesthouse. Every morning a new arrival. A joy, a depression, a meanness, Some momentary awareness comes As an unexpected visitor. Welcome and entertain them all! Even if they're a crowd of sorrows, Who violently sweep your house Empty of its furniture Still, treat each guest honourably. He may be clearing you out For some new delight. The dark thought, the shame, the malice. Meet them at the door laughing. And invite them in. Be grateful for whoever comes. Because each has been sent As a guide from beyond. Rumi Introduction It is many years since my first encounter with Buddhism. I vividly recall listening to a speaker, on a wet, windy night, telling me that we are nothing, that an egoless state is to be aspired to and that until we achieve this we will continue to suffer. I was appalled and affronted! Here was I working diligently to develop and shore up my own ego (as well as the egos of my clients) only to be told that letting go was the only way to alleviate suffering. I experienced the speaker's words as threatening and alien, and with anything experienced thus, I developed an immediate aversion to it. As I reflect upon this encounter, I wonder how other listeners heard him? My friend, for instance, had not had such a violent reaction to his words and frankly my rage baffled her. This event probably contributed to the demise of our friendship. Over the last three years I have found myself
responding more openly to the practice of Buddhism.
A curiosity has grown. I would like to believe that, nowadays, there is generally more light and less heat in my soul. I would like to think that my ability to respond rather than react is deepening. Perhaps a seed was planted that fateful evening all those years ago that has slowly begun to germinate - 'The fruit of awareness is already ripe, and the door can never be closed again' (Nhat Hanh, 1993: 59). As a dramatherapist and play therapist and previously a residential social worker, I have been exposed to and witnessed much suffering. I consider the work I undertake to be a privilege, and yet until fairly recently, my core as a therapist has harboured an unease. Questions arose such as: What is happening here? What is meant to happen? How can I facilitate this happening? How will I know when it does? To a more fundamental question: What do I believe is the core of human existence - are we innately 'good' or innately 'bad'? As I discover more about the practice of Buddhism, the dharmic path, I am finding responses to my unease. In particular, I have been intrigued by the subject of Attachment. I have encountered both a resonance and a discord with my existing knowledge of Western psychology and Eastern philosophy around this concept. Attachment theory proposed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth and the Buddha's teaching of non-attachment seem to reflect and challenge one another and serve to illuminate core understanding of what it means to be human. What follows is, in effect, an enquiry into the development of, and beyond, the ego - from the incarnation of the child to an adult discovering some way of moving beyond being a product of their conditioning. I offer here my cautious exploration on the meaning of attachment and non-attachment and its implications for dramatherapy. Who is the Buddha? I have found that when Buddhists speak of Buddha, there is often a reference to both the Buddha and to the Buddha-nature within each of us. The Buddha, that is the first Buddha, is Siddhartha Gautama, who was bom a prince in India over 500 BC. Buddha was not a god.
Dramatherapy Vol 28 No 2 Autumn 2006 'From Bowlby to Buddha'
He was a human being and he suffered like any other
human being. Siddhartha abandoned his palatial lifestyle at the age of 29 so that he might seek understanding of the suffering he witnessed around him and search for a way to end this suffering. Siddhartha wandered the land for a period of six years, experimenting with many practices which included over-indulgence, self-torture, trance, yoga, deep discussion and ultimately, fasting. So weakened and sick by the fasting, he famously sat down under the bodhi tree declaring, 'I will not leave this place until my understanding is complete...or I die' (de Bary, 1969; Nhat Hanh, 1998; Napthali, 2003). He remained sitting there all night and when the morning star ascended in the sky, he had an intense breakthrough. He became a Buddha, filled with understanding and love. He became enlightened. Henceforth, he vowed to do what he could to relieve suffering in the world and for over forty years this is what he did. The word Buddha means quite simply 'awake' or 'awakened one'; in contact with an inner wisdom that is inherent in everyone, which has been described as 'growing up - being completely at home in our world no matter how difficult the situation' (Chodron, 1994: 139). This principle resonates with the work of Carl Rogers, and forms the basis of his person-centred approach to psychotherapy. He believed that every human being has an innate tendency towards trustworthiness. This view is also shared by a great many psychotherapists and psychoanalysts from differing backgrounds. The Buddha's teaching is based upon the Four Noble Truths. These Truths offer the individual a means of embracing their suffering in order to look deeply into it. The First Noble Truth is that suffering (dukkha) exists. Buddha taught of the need to recognise and acknowledge the presence of suffering, not to deny nor to minimise it. The Second Noble Truth is the origin or arising of suffering. A deep exploration into how this suffering came to be. What is it we do, what is it we take in, that is causing this suffering? The Third Noble Truth is the ending of creating suffering by refraining from doing what it is that causes the suffering. Suffering can be transformed. Buddhism is fundamentally a practice and it is the practice in ending suffering. The Second and Third Noble Truths have great significance for the therapist, for they unequivocally convey the potential for healing by understanding suffering. The Fourth Noble Truth is the dharmic path that leads to refraining from doing all that causes suffering and the cultivation of what leads to happiness and liberation. The path of transformation or core change. Zen Buddhist and psychodramatist psychotherapist David Brazier defines the Four Noble Truths as: 1) To accept the afflictions in this world as real. 2) To accept that associated with these afflictions are energy and a motivating power that can be turned to good or ill.
I 3) To harness that energy.
4) The noble life that results from so doing: a life led by vision. Brazier (2001:24) The Four Noble truths are a kind of lens through which we can look at our lives and which enable us to move towards liberation. Although the Buddha believed personal liberation to be the responsibility of the individual, there is great onus upon community (sangha) and the individual's dependency on others. The Four Noble Truths are also a way of understanding the process of therapeutic change; The personal growth of the client is the client's own responsibility, however, it is the therapeutic relationship that helps to facilitate this growth. The challenge to the dramatherapist is in how to harness the client's energy and facilitate its use for the benefit of the client. The Attachment Theory of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth In the late 1930s, British psychoanalyst John Bowlby alerted the psychological world to the significance of the relationship between a child's mental health and developing character and the child's experience of their mother's physical presence and her emotional attitude towards her child. Prior to Bowlby's work (with the notable exception of the Dorothy Burlingham and Anna Freud's contributions (1944), 'any connection between these, in the childcare professions, had been vague and inconsistent, refiecting the prejudices of the era and the professionals involved. Attachment theory is concerned with understanding the nature of bonding established between humans arising fundamentally from the need for protection, safety and comfort. The human baby, in contrast to other mammals, is bom woefully helpless and is utterly dependent upon his caregivers for the early part of life (I refer to the baby as male so as to distinguish between him and his mother. I am, of course, also referring to female babies). Mary Ainsworth, colleague to Bowlby and a prominent psychologist in her own right, furthered Bowlby's theory by her meticulous documentation of her observations of the mother-child relationship, (initially in Uganda, then in the USA). It was Ainsworth who created the Strange Situation Experiment. The Strange Situation Experiment, one of the most widely-used and reliable psychological diagnostic tools, enables professionals to ascertain the pattern of bonding in the relationship established between a mother and her child (Bowlby, 1988; Karen, 1994). The significance of this first attachment is profound for it provides the child with a blueprint that underscores that individual's capacity to love and be loved and, thus, all future relationships they will make, including the relationship they will create with their own child (Ainsworth & Wittig, 1969; Ainsworth, 1985; Ainsworth etal, 1978; Main etal, 1985).
Dramatherapy Vol 28 No 2 Autumn 2006 'From Bowlby to Buddha'
The Strange Situation
In the experiment, the parent (usually mother though fathers, also, take part in the experiment) and one year old child are introduced to an unknown playroom and a stranger in the role of experimenter. A one-way mirror allows the situation to be observed. The baby's reactions, responses and behaviour are noted when mother leaves the room, during her absence and on her return. Of particular importance to the observers are the ways in which the baby separates from his mother, engages with the experimenter during the mother's absence, his willingness to be comforted by the experimenter, his capacity to be alone and how he reunites with his mother. When mother leaves the room a second time, the experimenter departs also, leaving the baby alone. The experimenter re-enters shortly afterwards, followed by the mother. The experiment is concluded, Ainsworth and her colleagues carefully observed and recorded great numbers of mother-infant pairs and their results were remarkably consistent despite wide variations in background and experience. From these results the researchers were able to categorise the behaviour patterns of the children (Ainsworth et al, 1978). Ainsworth identified three categories of attachment (a fourth was created later). These categories are: Secure Attachment Secure attachment is characterised by the baby showing some degree of distress at the mother's departure yet a willingness to engage with the experimenter, to allow himself to be comforted by the experimenter and to show an interest in the toys. On his mother's return, the securely-attached baby greets her with smiles, chatter, crying or any combination of these. There is a desire for physical comfort from the mother, and the mother, securely-attached to her child, happily responds to him. On mother's second exit accompanied by the experimenter, the child's level of distress is intensified. Reunion with mother involves the same responses shown earlier only with greater magnitude. This baby is confident that his mother is sensitively responsive to him. He is trusting of his parent to be readily available should he need her comfort and protection. Insecure Attachment Insecure attachment is sub-divided into three further categories: Anxious Resistant or Ambivalent Attachment This baby is uncertain of his mother's availability or sensitivity towards him. He cannot trust that she will protect and/or comfort him when he is fearful or in pain. This baby is always prone to separation anxiety, he is clingy and untrusting of his environment and his own self within it. Often, threats of abandonment are used by the mother as a means of control. This mother is inconsistent in her care of her baby, sometimes she is available and at
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other times she is not.
In the Strange Situation, the ambivalently-attached baby will show higher levels of distress than the securelyattached baby. He will be less willing to engage with the experimenter, and less able to accept comfort from the experimenter. On his mother's return, he will greet her just as the securely-attached baby, however, the ambivialently-resistant baby demonstrates an uncertainty towards, his mother (reflecting his experience of her) and this will manifest as simultaneously pushing his mother away from him and a desire to be close to her. Contradictory impulses may manifest as hitting, kicking, or smacking at the same time as seeking comfort from her. Anxious Avoidant Attachment Whereas the ambivalently-attached baby is uncertain whether to trust his mother, the avoidantly-attached child knows without doubt that he cannot trust his mother to be available to him. He has learnt very early on that he is unable to rely on her and therefore on his environment. Ultimately, he has only himself and yet this self, borne out of isolation and despair, is fragile and fragmented. In the Strange Situation, the anxiously-attached baby demonstrates a low level of distress on his mother's departure. He is very familiar with this scenario and has learnt to survive it as best he can. He seems detached from his environment and, largely, from himself. His capacity to play with the toys or engage with the experimenter is severely hampered. This is a child who does not show his distress because no one notices it anyway. Disorganised Attachment This third category of insecure attachment patterning was included by Ainsworth and her colleagues as they noticed a small, yet significant, number of children who did not fit with either of the other categories as their behaviour seemed disorientated and unpredictable. A child with a disorganised attachment pattern is likely to demonstrate similar characteristics as the ambivalently- or avoidantlyattached children, however, this child also engages in stereotypic behaviour such as freezing and repetitive movements like rocking or head banging. In the Strange Situation the child with a disorganised attachment pattern is likely to show extreme levels of distress at his mother's departure counteracted by the selfcomforting behaviours identified above. His capacity to play with toys or engage with the experimenter is grossly impaired. The Wider Context In my view, it is absolutely crucial to include the other parent (usually the father) in the child's attachment patterning if this parent is present in the child's life. This is not only for the reason that the father develops a separate relationship with the child, which has the potential to be as significant as that with the mother. It is important to
Dramatherapy Vol 28 No 2 Autumn 2006 'From Bowlby to Buddha'
include the other parent because the mother's availability
and her ability to respond sensitively to her child has a direct inter-relationship with the father's capacity to be available and sensitive to her. If the mother experiences a secure attachment with her partner, she is more likely to be able to offer this to her child. The mother herself was once a baby and experienced her first attachment with her own mother. As mentioned above, all future relationships, including those made with her own children, will have this first attachment as their foundation. It is not a foregone conclusion, however, that an insecurely-attached individual will automatically go on to create similar relationships in the future. Mary Main, colleague of Mary Ainsworth, was forefront in researching the longitudinal effects of infant attachment patterns and their significance across the life cycle (Main, 1991). She determined that the insecurely-attached child is still open to the possibility of secure attachments with other people. In other words, transformation is possible. One person who may become extremely significant in the life of an insecurely-attached child or adult is the therapist. Within the therapeutic relationship, that part of the self, however small, that has remained inherently wise and awaiting the opportunity to relate in a wholesome way may be awakened and nurtured. Enlightenment Underneath the tree, the Buddha became enlightened. Buddhism uses the concept of enlightenment to mean ultimate realisation and liberation. Enlightenment is the complete understanding of how we create suffering and then living a life that is free from that suffering. Living a life in love, freedom, openness and fearlessness. Van Morrison urges me to 'Wake up' and tells me that enlightenment is non-attachment (Van Morrison, 1990). I asked my therapist what enlightenment means and straightaway she said, 'It's living without fear'. Fear is to mistrust or distrust. Therefore enlightenment must mean to live with trust. To trust myself and the world I live in. To realise my own trustworthiness. In real terms this means - not to worry about money, my relationships, how other people see me, what they think of me, my health, the health and well-being of my children, my partner, my family, my friends, my clients, the country, the world, the lack of water, the amount of pollution, destruction of the ozone-layer, exhaustion of the world's natural resources, melting ice-caps, extinction of the polar bear, prostitution of children, genocide, floods, insatiable human greed and corruption, the lack of meaning in people's lives, loneliness, violence, alcoholism and drug abuse, HIV, poverty, children diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, cancer, ageing, disease...death. I understand there to be a difference between worry and concern. It isn't that I lack concern for all the above, what I am seeking rather, is a freedom from an unhelpful self-obsession that refers only to me and to my ego. This
liberation allows a much more open, authentic concern for
all that is precious in life. To live such an enlightened life? Who would refuse this? So, in Buddhism, if enlightenment means to live without fear, without suffering, and enlightenment is nonattachment, what does non-attachment mean? Non-attachment The whole of Buddhism has, at its core, the practice of non-attachment, of letting go. Here, however, the concept of attachment has meaning beyond relationships with others. We can become attached to almost anything; for example, our body (our beauty, our youth, our vigour, our unsightliness, our limitations); our feelings ('I'm just an angry person', 'I'm always anxious'); our beliefs ('I'm right, you're wrong', 'There is only one way and that's my way!'); the roles that we play in our lives (victim, aggressor, martyr, rescuer, hero/heroine, carer, the wise one); our material possessions, wealth and the illusion of security that frequently accompanies these. Often implicit in these attachments is a lack of choice, freedom and an inability to change ('This is me...jealous/a perfectionist/ scared of commitment/unable to see the dirty dishes piled up in the sink/withdrawn). When we cling so tightly to something, we are closed to the possibility of anything else. There is a common belief that non-attachment implies disconnection, aloofness or aversion to something. This is an inaccurate belief. Avoidance of (moving away from), ambivalence for (pushing towards and away from) and clinging to (pushing towards) are all forms of attachment (in the Buddhist sense of the concept) and all involve suffering. There are resonances here with the insecure-attachment patterns identified by Bowlby and Ainsworth. Unlike the states of avoidance, ambivalence and clinging, each of which has a foundation of fear and a quality of closedness, non-attachment has a virtue of heart and a quality of openness. It is possible to feel your heart literally opening and closing when you are moved or when you are feeling threatened or humiliated. This experience is real and felt in the body. Letting go is not the same as getting rid of, rather it is about relaxing around, finding a spaciousness with, the object or subject we are in relationship with. Ego Who or what is getting attached? Who am I? In the Bowlby model, it is ego. Body-centred psychotherapist, Ron Kurtz, originator of the Hakomi Method, maintains that effort, an ego function, fundamentally obstructs the healing process as it creates an 'I' and a something that the 'I' wrestles with. In this struggle, a separate self is created: an ego. When there is no struggle, effort fades and ego loosens. It is this loosening of the ego that Kurtz believes is essential for transformation. This relaxation of the ego is not a passive giving up, but a giving in to the process, a faith in something deeper in oneself. It is
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Dramatherapy Voi 28 No 2 Autumn 2006 'From Bowlby to Buddha'
beyond the ego (Kurtz, 1990).
t h e suffering arises through the ego's attachment to an object or subject, not so much the events in our lives as the relationship we create to these events. Co-arising What if ego is so fragile and fragmented, how then can it be let go of? A great many of the children I worked with as a residential social worker, and some of my dramatherapy and play therapy clients, I believe, have extremely fragmented object relations. Surely, before one can relinquish ego, one has to have had a good enough sense of it? Everyone has an ego. Sometimes, however, ego is contracted and wounded and self crystallises into something rigid and negative . Before an individual is in any position to relinquish ego, ego needs to.be strong enough and this can only be achieved through the experience of secure attachment. The therapist can become a crucial figure in the creation of this secure attachment. In Buddhism, there is a concept called co-arising, which means 'coming about together'. Attachment is paradoxical in that one is simultaneously connected to others and separate from them. This paradox was familiar to psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott as illustrated in his observation that we leam to tolerate our aloneness through relationship with others (1971). Secure attachment and non-attachment have the capacity to be co-arising. As the client becomes more secure in themselves, they simultaneously develop the capacity to let go of themselves. Crystallised self loosens into something much more fluid and responsive. Once enough buoyancy of being has been reached, when a secure-enough attachment has been created, then client and therapist gradually begin exploring the client's patterns of attachment; With compassion and nonjudgment they make the enquiry - who is getting attached to what? The therapist encourages and supports the client in their discovery, in developing a capacity for awareness, in noticing what's happening in any given situation and for living in the moment. The therapist helps the client to notice whether the heart is tightening, or opening; whether the breathing is shallow or deep and unobstructed. The body is a delicate barometer for our emotional states and the therapist can help the client become more attuned to their physical self. 'The greater the degree of awareness, the less the degree of grasping. It's psychological physics' Levine (1994: 110) As the Sufi poet Rumi advocates, the therapist reassures the client in their welcoming of every emotional state. Much can be leamt by inviting a sadness or a despair to 'sit at the table' with one. Welcoming, being a compassionate host and bidding farewell to any emotional state is a powerful and liberating experience. 'I am feeling angei"' has a much more spacious quality
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about it that 'I am angry'. 'There is anger' has even more
spaciousness as it is totally lacking in any reference to self. The dramatherapist is naturally equipped with the skills to facilitate the client in visualising, personifying and conversing with emotions. Frequently in sessions, my clients invite Frustration, Anger, Lust or another emotion to a 'dinner party' so as to converse with their guests. As dramatherapists we have an invaluable means of supporting our clients in creatively connecting with their suffering without threat of overwhelm. Healthy attachments Healthy attachments are simply those attachments that do not cause or create suffering for the individual, others or the environment. In Buddhism, terms such as 'wholesome' or 'unwholesome', 'helpful' or 'hindrance' and more commonly used as opposed to dualist terms like 'good'or 'bad'. 'When the cause of suffering has been seen, healing is possible'. NhatHanh(1998:39) With deepening awareness, the client learns to distinguish the attachments that are healthy or harmful to their wellbeing. When I think this, say that, act in this way, my suffering increases. Very often our perceptions are clouded by emotional states such as craving, anger, ignorance and prejudice which cause great suffering. Such emotional states are described as afflictions (the seeds of which are the three kleshas - greed, hatred and deep misunderstanding) in Buddhism. It is important to facilitate the client in looking deeply at their perceptions and to do this with kindness and compassion. It is when the client knows the source of these unhealthy perceptions that they will have a choice in whether to continue using them or to explore alternatives. Authentic responsibility (response-ability) arises from choice. Choice and Empowerment When the client is becoming more authentically responsible, they are able to make more informed choices in their life. What do you want/need and how can you take responsibility for your part in creating this life? This is a period of awakening joy and knowing when you are experiencing it. Thich Nhat Hanh describes it as watering the seeds of joy (1998). This is the cessation of suffering and the presence of wellbeing. Pema Chodron identifies the source of wisdom as whatever is going to happen to you today and your response to this creating the future (1994). Current Western teaching in Buddhism Within current Western teaching in Buddhism there seems to be a wide range of ideas regarding non-attachment. Some aspire to complete non-attachment to anything and an egoless state. I realise now that the speaker cited in the introduction was of this ilk. Whether he was right or not
Dramatherapy Vol 28 No 2 Autumn 2006 'From Bowlby to Buddha'
in his understanding of the dharmic path, I can't judge.
What I do know, however, was my aversive reaction to his words which I experienced as violent and threatening. I am fortunate to have encountered a more compassionate interpretation of Buddhist concepts. One that holds the position that to be noti-attached does not automatically mean to throw something out. It means having a healthy attachment to something that does not cause or create suffering. Non-attachment in dharmic practice is the building up of a reservoir of love, compassion, clarity, wisdom and patience and to be healthily attached to these. The Buddha had a healthy attachment to meditation. He had a healthy attachmetit to teaching. He even had a healthy attachment to being the Buddha (Nhat Hanh, 1988). For myself, my journey is to look at where and to what I am attached, and to enquire with kindness and compassion whether these are healthy attachments. This, I believe, is also the task of the therapist. Conclusion As a naive and enthusiastic dramatherapist, I once believed it was my place to affect change within my clients. I was heavily influenced by many of the environments in which I practised (mainly health and education) where I was fully expected to direct my clients in their healing process. Their 'healing' entailed implementing a programme or action plan specifying what the client needed to do and when they needed to do it by. My credibility and my professional status as a dramatherapist depended upon my success with clients, and should my clients fail to co-operate with the 'master plan' then they were seen as resistant and challenging. Many inexperienced dramatherapists are subjected to this covert (and sometimes overt) pressure within their workplaces. They may also experience this from the clients themselves, who are so used to handing the responsibility for their wellbeing over to someone else and, of course, when it does not work out, someone else can always be blamed. Buddhist psychotherapy is non-violent in its approach. It offers the client an opportunity to change according to their own innate wisdom and trustworthiness. It is not about the therapist effecting change in the client, nor is it about the therapist taking the credit for any change the client does make. Any healing that happens is co-arising between client and therapist. I understand the therapist's task as one of helping the client let go of those obstacles that are preventing them grow and become all that they can become. Carl Jung said patients do not get cured, they simply move on (Kurtz, 1990). Irvin Yalom comments that the single most valuable concept he learned as an inexperienced psychotherapist was that all humans have an innate propensity towards self-realisation (Homey, 1950). He understood that the role of the therapist was therefore to help the client identify and to let go of those obstacles that
have thus far served to restrict the client's psychological
growth (Yalom, 2001). Ron Kurtz stresses, 'This is very special work. In this process, violence is not only useless, it is inevitably harmful' (Kurtz, 1990: 6). Over the years of practice I have become increasingly aware of a disquiet within myself. At times this disquiet has manifested as an out-and-out rebellion. Yet when I tried to give voice to my uneasiness, it was generally met with blank expressions and something along the lines of, 'Well, that's just how it is'. Rare, precious, encounters with some more enlightened beings persuaded mie that it did not have to be this way. It seems it is never too late to accommodate alternative ways of meeting the world. Their trust in me and my capabilities encourages me to believe in myself, and this quality of the therapist is crucial if she is to authentically convey to her clients that she believes in them and their own capacity for healing and growth. Buddhism teaches that life is constantly changing in a dynamic way dependent on both internal and external processes and conditions. It has much to offer dramatherapy, and dramatherapy lends itself very generously to the exploration and transformation of the client's attachment patterns; obstacles which may have served some function at some time but now prevent the client from growth and self-realisation. As a Buddhist dramatherapist my intention is to create and maintain an unconditional acceptance of my client based on Buddhist confemplative practice. The deep respect I have for my client, for their innate wisdom and their ability to work with the organisation of their own experience is encapsulated in the Rumi poem, 'This Being Human'. Together, we create the conditions that allow the client to harness their energy and to effect core change in their life. References Ainsworth, M. & Wittig, B. (1969) 'Attachment and exploratory behaviour of one-year-olds in a strange situation' in B.M. Foss (ed) Determinants of infant behaviour, vol. 4, London: Methuen. Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., and Wall, s. (1978) Patterns of attachment: assessed in the strange situation and at home, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ainsworth, M. (1982) 'II Attachments across the lifespan'. Bulletin of New York Academy of Medicine, 61: 791-812. Bowlby, J. (1988) A Secure Base - Clinical applications of attachment theory London: Routledge. Brazier, D. (2001) The New Buddhism -A Rough Guide to a New Way of Life London: Robinson.
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Dramatherapy Vol 28 No 2 Autumn 2006 'From Bowlby to Buddha'
Burlingham,D. and Freud, A. (1944) Infants without
families London: Allen and Unwin. Chodron, P. (1994) Start Where You Are At-How to accept yourself and others London: Harper Collins Homey, K. ( 1950) Neurosis and Human Growth New York: W.W.Norton Karen, R. (1994) Becoming Attached - First Relationships and how they Shape our Capacity to Love Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kurtz, R. (1990) Body-Centred Psychotherapy - The Hakomi Method CA: LifeRhythm. Levine, S. (1979) A Gradual Awakening- A Guide to Greater Awakening Dublin: Gateway. Morrison, V. (1990) Enlightenment from the Album 'Enlightenment' Caledonia productions Ltd. Napthali, S. (2003) Buddhism for Mothers NSW, Australia: Allen & Unwin. Nhat Hanh, T. (1988) The Heart of Understanding Berkeley: Parallax Press Nhat Hanh, T. (1993) Call Me By My True Names: The Collected Poems ofThich Nhat Hanh Berkeley: Parallax Press. Nhat Hanh, T. (1998) The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching - Transforming suffering into peace, joy and liberation London: Rider. Rumi (1995) Selected Poems - translated by Coleman Banks London: Penguin. Winnicott, D. (1971) Playing and Reality London: Tavistock. Yalom,I. (2001) The Gift of Therapy London: Piatkus