Sl METRIC EDITION

byJ. F. W. GALYER
C.El1g., For.Prod.E.
Principal L<!cturer in Production Engineering at Luton College of 'Technology

C.Eng., M.I.Mt~ch.E., M.I.Prod.E., A.M.I.E.!., A.M.A.S.Q.C.

Senior Lecturer in Production 'lgineerillg at Luton College of Technology

~
.
.

l .\,'

L~,~:~71/'

CASSELL LONDON

li1'
1
t"
Iy:!eltO~ogy)

r
.
OJ' .0i1gmeers

CASSELL & COMPAr-fY LTD

35 Red Lion Square London weIR 43J
and at
SYDNEY AUCKLAND
TORONTO . JOHi\NNESBURG

lQ 1964, 1969 Cassell & Co . Ltd

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retdeval system, or transmitted, in any fann or by uny
means, electronic, mechanicai, photocopying, recording or .:JthCl"i'Jise,
without the prior pennission of Casseli a:nd Company Ltd.
First edition April
Second edition (with revisions) January
Third (revised) edition August
Third edition, second impression February
Third edition, third impression September

1964
1968
1969
1971
1972

LS.B.N. 0 30493434 8

Prlnhl oiTset in G,,:at Brjt<1in by

The Camelot Press LId, London and Smrdunnpto.n

772

The development of engineering production in the past [\as bel~1l

inseparable from that of metrology; nnd it is certain th,,( im;ustry's
increasing demands for stringent design requirements will result in
even doser attention being paid to the science of measlirement in
the future.
Accordingly, /y1elro!ogy JorEngifieers has been \~Tittcn (0 meet the
needs of students preparing [or examinations in metrology or in the
subjects of which metrology forms a part. It is specifically designed
to prepare students fc-r the folli)wing examinations: the Higher
National Diploma and Certificate examinations in Engineering, the
Membership examinations of the Council of Engineering InsUit!tio(1s, and the Inc;titute of Engineering Inspcction. It will also prove
usefu1 to those students prcporing for the flnal years of the Nlcchanical Engineering Techni,:ians' Courses of (he City and Guilds of
London Institute.
The work has been set out (0 ensure (0." greatest possible accessibilily of the material, afid it is comprehensively illustrated.

Preface to

ALSO BY C. ..R. SHOTBOLT:

Workshop Technology for Mechanical Engineering !echnici~ns, Book 1

-~

",'

THE purpose of this book is that it should meet the needs of students pr:~p"ring
for examinations in the subject of metrology, or in that group of subjects which
metrology forms part. It is designed to be appropriate reading in prepaf:ltion for
the foHowing examinations in particular: the Higher "National Diploma and
Certificate examinations in Mechanical and Production Engineering, and the
Associate Membership examinations of lhe Institution of MeGllllnical Engineers,
the Institution of Production Engineers, and the Institute of Engineering Inspection. It will also prove useful to those students preparing for the fInal years of the
Mechanical Engineering Technicians' Courses of the City and Guilds of London
Institute.
A know1cdge of metrology, and practice in its application, is of increasing
importance in industry. This is true also of those techniques which are allied to
metrology and do 110t strictly form part of it. It is for this reason that a chapter
dealing with statistical quality control has been included. It is hoped that not only
will this be of bEnefit to college students, but also to those in industry who require
a knowledge of the fundamenmls of this technique.
The development of engineering production in the past has been inseparable
from that of metrology. It is certain that the increasingly exacting demands of
industry for mechanisms and assemblies generally, the functioning of which must
meet stringent design requirements, will result in even closer attention bcing paid
to the science of measurement.
The writers would commcnd to the student the words of Lord Kelvin, which
were used by Dr. H. Barrell in the opening remarks of his Sir Alfred Herbert
Paper, 'The Bases of Measurement', presented to the Institution of Production
Engineers in 1957: 'I often say th,lt when you can measure what you are speaking
about and express it in numbers you know something about it; but when YOll
cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a
meagre and unsatisfactory kind.'
This statement presents a powerful case for the subject of metrology to be
part of the studies required of an engineer. It also points the way to the fact that
if we are to further improve the control of the processes of manufacture, we must
continuously develop our means of measurement. This book will have achieved
its purpose if it OIlers to students the basic knowledge upon which the necessary
further development may be built.
We wish to express our gratitude to the several firms who have been kind
enough to as~isi. in the preparation of the book by granting permission to publish
various iIiustrations, all of which arc acknowledged in the text.

Luton. December 1963

I. F.W.G.
C. R. S.
v

to

COi'<SlDER,\J3LE reVlSlon has been necessary for the third printing of III!::trology
for Engineers. This is due to two facters. ~yilith the adoption of the ,>vavelcngLl1 of
light as a standard of length, the original Chapter 1 has become of historical
interest only, and it !JUS been replaced by a new chapter 011 errors in measurement.
The other Inajor I.:hangc has been occasioned by the adoptioll of the rr:e~ric syst<:m
in Orea"t Britain, and particularly the use of the Systcmc Internation;}! d'l!nites
CST units). A(;cordingly, the whole; work has been amended to embrace the system
bused on th,~ metre, kilogramme, newton and second, as the units of length, mass,
force and time respectively.
Ch;l:lgc3 in the structure of technicai ducation have also taken place; in the
last few years, with the formation of the Council of Engineering Institutions, the
revisions in the Higher N<:ltional Certific:1te courses, und tile continued growth of
the City aed GaUds of London Institute's course 1'io. 293. It is hoped that the
revised text will be found useful to student" following courses leading to the
examinations of these bodies, as well as the Higher National Diploma students
for whom the work was originally intended.
Since this book was first published a number of people have spoken kindly
of it. Sl)rne hi'v,; pointed out errors and others made constructive criticisms. To
all of the;11 our thanks. Vie hope that the revj~ed text meets with th0ir approval as
did the
If it helps to
the young
of today into the metric
world of tomorrow, then its purpOSf.: wiil have been served.

Luton. j'lday 1969

vi

J.F. W.G.
C.R.S.

Chapter

Errors in IJ,feasurement

Page

2 Light Waves as Standard;] of Length

12

3 Linear Measurement

31

67

1vleasurement and Circular Division

5 Limits and Limit Gauges

93

6 Machine Tool Metrology

115

Gear I'deasurement

127

8 111easurement of Screw Threads

156

9 lv.leasurement of Surface Finish

176

Statistical Quality Control

19i

Appendix to Chapter 6

220

Bibliography

229

Index .

231

10

Vll

CHAPTER 1

1.1 SCOPE
ALL engineers, regardless of the branch of the profession to which they belong,
are con~tantly faced with the problem of measurement. f.t may be of time, rnass,
force, temperature, the flow of an electric current, length, angle, and so on: or it
may be of the effects of some of these in combination. Almost inv!.!riably, the
results of such measurements will determine the course of action the engineer
takes thereafter. Thus the results obtained by measurements provide information
upon which decisions are made.
All such measurements form part of the science of metrology. The m<;ehanical
and production engineer are, however, especially concerned with the measurement
of length and angle. Of these, length is of fundamental importance since ang'.11ar
measurement may be carried out by the appropriate use oflinear measurements in
combination.
Thus the purpose of any meClsurement is to provide a service to enable a
decision"to be made. The service will not be complete unless the measurement is
made to an acceptable degree of accuracy, but it must be realized that no mellsuremcn1 is exact. It is therefore necessary to state not only the measured dirnension,
but also the accuracy a/determination to \vhich the measurement has been made.
As far as possible the errors inherent in the method of mcaSln;ment used should
be kept to a minimum, and having ;Tlinimized 1:.'le error, its probable magnitude,
or accuracy of determination, should be stated.
," It follows that if is not enough to state that tbe nominal size of a gauge block
is, for example, 30 mm. It is also necessary to state:

(a) The measured en'or in the block, e.g. - 00002 mm.

(b) The accuracy of determination, e.g. O'Q004 mm.

The user, having this information, may now. avail himse1f of it if necessary.
If the gauge blode is used to set the datum for a vernier height gauge '.vhich can
only be read to 002 mm, then the gauge block errors are negligible and can be
ignored,,If on the other hand, it is used to set up a comparator whose scale
divisions represent v'OO1 mm, then the measured error is significant and must be
considered, and the accuracy of determil'lation of the gauge block must be incorporatedjn the accuracy of determination of the comparison being lx:ade.

jylefrolcgy for Engineers

Errors in
It must be pointed out here that in this chapter reference will be made to
subsequent work throughout the book.

1.2 TYPES fJf lr:H.RDR

the ~rrorsincurred in any measurement can be considered to be of two
distinct types, these which should not occur and can bt:: eliminated by careful
work and attention to detail, and those which are inherent in the measuring
process.

l'yfeasurement

such errors are known as trigonometrical or eosine errors. A sinlple example is

shown in
Li, where a dial gauge is inclined at
(J to the required line
of measurement. It can be seen b.'1at D=i)] cos e.
Another form of til is error is paranax, 'wherethe line of sight is not normal to
the instrumem scale. This problem is dIscussed further on page 50.

is obvious \vhen an error has

1.213 Errors Due to Ambient Condition,

Most meaSDrements are affectec to a gre,liet or lesser extent by the environ
are carried out. The r:1ost important condition is the temperament 1n which
ture, both uf the workpiece <lnd of its surroundings. The international standard
temperatuu': cf measuren1ent 1s 20'-'C (68 Pi and the an:bicnt temDerature should
be main[nined Dt this level. However ~al"er~lly t;~Js is
it is to no avail
if the
of the
is allowed to vary.
<l gauge changes
its temperature, so it should be bandIed as Ijttl'~
possible, and having been
handled, allow:::d to stabilize. Where measurements are being made to a high
ordt:r of :1CGnracy a time of 20 minutes
25 mm
of g3.l1ge is recommended.
a mcasu;-ement it is best alI of the cOlllponents used are left
standing on a cast iron surface plate rat11cr thuil a piastic or 1yvoodcn bench
The cast
being 3.
conductor, acts as a heat sink aEd dissipates tempera
ture differentials [nore rapidly.
There Qrc two SitlHltioHS to be considered W(H:[J the effects of temperature
are to be discussed:

avoided by care and attention to detail.

(a) Direct measurement. Consider a gauge block being measured directly

by interferometry
Chapter 2). Here the effect of using :t lloa-standard

1.21 E,rol's Whldl Cao Be :Largely Rliminated

1.211 Calamitous or Catastrophic Errors
These are errors of large magnitude having two fundamental cames:

(a)

tIll

instrument. A micrometer is misread as 628 mm or S'78 mm

instead of the corrcct

of 528 mill.

Ari!/Ulletic errors. These are usually errors oLaddition. A IiUnpJe check

is to male.:: the calculation twice using different methods, c.g. add a column of
twice,iirc,t
tilen downwards, to ;;nsure that the two results coincide.
In most cases such errors give a result so different from that expected that it
occurr{;d~ and the 1l1eaSnrenlcnt is reoeated and the
error detecti;;d. This may not alwLiYs t~ so, however, and such errO'rs can only be

ture produces a

1.2[2 Aligl1lriC;lf Errors

This t1pe of ;;rror occurs when the measuring instrument is misaligned
It usually results in the measured dimcnsiouil,[ being
rc:ative to the
dimension D by cne of the trigonomel.rical mtios. I-renee'
related to the

where

error:

Error = let.(t '3)

length
Q; "",coefficient of expansion
(t - t E) = de/iulion from standard tempen.tnre

(b) Comparatil;e meaSlIl'en?ent. If we consider ;:wo

coefficients ere
C( 1 and (X2, then the error
tejnpcrat1.rft "viE be
.- to)
Error~~

whose expansion
to a nOH-standard

As the expansion cocff1cients are small Gumbel'S, the error will be very small as
long as b~th parts are at the same temperature. Thus in comp8.nttivemeasnre-
ments it is
that all co.mponents in the measuring sy,;tem arc at the same
temperature rather than necessarily at standard temperature.
Other ambient conditivl1s may affect the result of a meamrerncnt. If a gauge

block is
Fig. 1. t.

Cosine error due to misalignment of measuring instrument.

mco.sured bYfntcrfcrometry, thenrdative

pressure and carbon dioxide content of the air afJ"ect the refractive irrdex of the'
atmospher12:. These condi tions should all be recorded during the lest and the
necessary corrections made.

Ildetrofogy for Engineers

1.214 Errors Due to Elastic Deformation

Any elastic body subject to a load will undergo elastic deformation. The
magnitude of the deformation will depend upon the magnitude of the load, the"
area of contact and the mechanical properties of the materials in contact. It is
therefore necessary to ensure that the measuring loads are t11e same in comparative
measurement.
In most instruments used in fine measurement, comparators, bench micro~
meters, etc., the measuring pressure is reasonab1y constant, and it follows that the
greatest difficulty is due to. different types of contacr when .first setting an instru~
ment co a gauge and then taking a reading on the v;ork under test. A striking
example of this is in the measurement of the simple effective diameter of a screw
thrend where the setting master requires two-point contacts and the thread has
four-point contacts'in the vee form. Tables of correctlons are published* und
may be used if the required accuracy wan-ants such correction.
If a l.7omparisoll is to be made [0 a high order of accuracy between components of different radius and from material:> whose elastic properties differ,
notabiy the elasric modUlUS E and Poisson's ratio v, then correction call be made
for Lh~ dilIerence in eJuotic deformation which v/ill oecm when the measuring
stylus 1S brought into contact with the setting gauge and the workpiece.
The: expression below, derived from the work of S. Timoshcnko:i' describes
the deformation, i.e. the change in centre distance between a spherical stylus and
a spherical surface when they are brought together under a pressure W.

in which Rl radius of gauge

1-

R 2 =radius of measuring stylus

1

If the comparative measurement consists of setting the comparator to a

gauge A and taking a reading on
B, then the error incurred will be
Rl and R2 being inserted in the expression
(i'A Ol,), appropriate ,'I'Jues for k1'
for S for both situations, A and B.
Another form of elastic deformation is that which occurs when a body sags
under its o\'/n weight. Tilis problem was considered by Sir G. B. Airy, who showed
thai: the positions of the supporrs can be arranged to
a ;ninimum error. Two
conditions are considered, both shown in Fig. lone where the slope at the
eild~ of, til,; ~ar is 2c,ro and the GIller where th,~ delkction at the er~Js- is equal
to me cc:tkctW;1 at the centre. fn the case of line standnrd~ tne bar is made of
'H' seeliol1 with [he scalc engraved on a surface in the
of the neutral axis.
Thus tbe '~;astic deformatio;1 due to sag has the minimum errect on dIe length of

the scill.c djvlslons.

:yot'!s Otl Aoplied Scicmce "ro. I; Gallgfllg (mel Measuring Screw Threads, (N.P.L.) H.M.S.O.
T .), 1 Jn1oshcnko, Theory of Elasticity. l'vlcGraw-HiII.

L
(a) W:E STANDAilO AND EI~D BARS.
SLOPE AT ENDS ZERO

(b) STRAIGHT EDGES,

DEFLECTION AT nws EQUALS DEFLECTION AT CENTRE

Fig. 1.2. Support positions for different conditions of measurement.

1.22 Em)F.':;' V!hich Oum.ot Be Eliminated

No measurement can be m,tde to
an exact dimension. fundamentally this is
because eveGtually the numerical vaiue recorded depends upon the human eye
the accuracy cfwhich
reading a seide. The reading therefore becomes an
depends on the accuracy of the scale, the ability of the operator to read the scale,
and in some cases the sensitivity of touch or feel on the part of the operator.

1.221 Scale Errors

If the scale against which a measurement is made is in error, then obviously
that meaSHr(~ment will be in error. This can only be overcome by
the
instrument :;cale
known st<U1dards of length over its whole length.
In comparative mcasuJ'!;Jllents the effects of scale errors are reduced
using
as short R leaglh of scale as possible, by choosing a setting master 'whose size is
as close to 11mt of the gauge being checked as is conveniently possible.

1.222

Errors

How accurately can a sc:~.le be read? This depends upon the thickness of the
rulings, th,~ spacing of the scale divisions and the thickness of the. datum or
pointer used to
t11e
.
As a
a reading of a pointer or datum hac against a scale division can
be taken as bowing an accuracy of 10 %of the scale division. On the other hand
the estimate of the position of a pointer between the
will be less accurate
and should be taken as ::20 % of the scale divisii)n. Thus a reading of -- 3 units
taken otT a scale whose di visions represent 0001 mm '''{QuId represent a comparative meaSUI\;mcnt of - 0003 mm to an accuracy determination of 0,0001 mm.

for Engineers

in

however, the rC:.Jding had been - 3-4 scale unitl>, then it would represent
0-C034 IThJJ_ .-::::O-0002 mm_
It must be rC:llized that when a measurement is made with a comparator
this tVDe of error occt!rs twice, first when
the instrument to a master
gauge' ;nd again when the reading is taken on the
1_223

would obviously be a laborious process, and the

differentiation, whence it can be shown that
alvJ
a},{ "b
d"l-i=-aa . oa+-ob . 0

where

kleasliring Errors

The diJfen::nt types of error discussed above are cllI11ulati.ve, and in c~ome
cases further amount THust be added to allow for semilivity of touch or feel.
This will depec1Cl upon the type of instrument
used, and in genet;]1 the effect
is eliminated with cOllJ.parators.
"
Consider now the problem of
the error in a plain plug gauge of
nominal diameter 25 mIll. The measurement is to be carried out l1:,il:g a coma magnification of 5000 x which is set to it gauge block of r:iominal
25 n1i,l
a known error of 00001 mm to au accuracy of detennination
mm. The comparator
011 the gauge block is 0 scale divisions
and on the plu,~ gaw!c - 1- 2 scale divisions.
1n this cas~ tlle ~iE~ct or' ebstic deformation can be
as the two parts
arl~ of :.;imiiar material under similar pres:>llJ:c,
conditicns of contact
are slightly dilferent. The problem can be set out in a tabular mann,;r as follows.

Amount or
Reading

Accuracy of
Deterlnination

G8.Dge block
Cml1i)Hrator setting
{~\)Inpi.lrQtO[ reading

0-0001 mm
0
-0-0012 mm

OOOf)2 nml
:*:0'0001

Totals

{lOOl3 m...."'1l

-J:::O-0005 mm

Element

(Jilt!

the differential coefficient of M with

being considered as constants in this term

()A1.IS t.oe
1
I 11 '" f
parLia
Cdflercuna.!. 01 l~
T

.'

V/!t 1

Consid..:r the problem on pagc 110, where it is

/v.{easuremen t

is better solved

etc.
to a, al1 other variables

to b, etc.
ShO'Nil

that for a particular

D=L
Let L=400 rnm and 8L= O-025 mm

W=50 mm and oW.l-OO mm

;;11
1
2n
"L'T"~'I1
".'~- ~ oW'
dD = [ ~,...,..,. . C
CL
d IT
J
I'

ISO? ) _
[_\ 1 - e
R .:1002 0 025
X.!
1

mm
mm

_00002

Thus the g'lUge siz~;s fmEld to b:: 249987 null but the ar:CUfHCY of det';;~111ina
tion shows that it can be anywhere between the values of 24-9992 mm and 2,1,9982
mm,

dD

[V-024+0'V31] mm

This solution hac' bel;n dc!iberatcJy left in t'NG

so that the significance
of each
of the expre~sion can be shown_ Note that the error of O-025 nun
ill L has a direct d[,,~ci. Oil the value of J), but tile error of 100 rnlU in FV cnly
affects 11:[
an a!il.Ollnt of 0031 nun, th~ point
that L must be dekrmiued
to a i~lr
order of aCCl:racy tlnn HoT as dD contains 96 /~ of oL bet only 3~;;;
of oW.

1.3 COMPOUND ERRORS

cU:Jes occur in ;,:vhich the iueaSUrCITlent
:.7, [7, C,

i': a functioll of a

nunlber ()( ir:t;i.viduaJ Ine:JSllrCluents

accDr:lcies of cic:tcnnination
etc.; then the
of detcrtl.unatlvi1 of
kI, which we can denote rL\'f, could be found
the expression for
AI the maxim.um and mirltmnm values of a, b, c, ~tc., and :hus .flnding the maximum a;lt2 ~ninimum values for AI.

The accaracy of d, .erminatio!l is the amount

which it is estimated that it
mcasurement could deviate from its true value, but it is not
true lhat
it does 50.
chance the measurement could
be
rig])!
',iillcl
accuracy of d,;termin~nkH1. "1:1'.'1\'
frem the true size by any fraction of

:11

.~

i
I

..YJetro!ogy for Engineers

is no way of knowing other than using a method of measurement with a better
accuracy of determination.
If we repeat the complete measurement a great many times, we should get a
number of different values for the measured size.x and we could obtain a frequency
distribution by plotting a tally chart (see page [92) of these values. From this
information we could calculate the standard deviation a of the values (page 194).
It is known tlIot 99-28;~ of the observations willEc within :[:3(7 of the mean of the
observations, so that we can say that for practical purposes the estimated accuracy
of determimt10n is equaJ to 3u.
If now we take the observations and divide them into random sub-groups of
n and for each sub-gro1.!lJ calculate irs mean size X, we can produce a frequency
distribution for the values of X. A little thought will show that this distribution
wiiI be more closely grouped about the true mean size than that for the individual
sizes. It can be shown that

where

am = standard deviation of the means

a=standard deviation of the individual observations

n=sub-group or sample size

It foilows that the accuracy of determination' of the mean size of a sample of

11

obser'fations is

timating the accuracy of determinatIon ,vc:

c:lI1.;lOi

~e apprOXlInate degree of confidence we C,).U aSSIgn

Oldy 1';v(' if:; I,du.

to [lIa! ":"IIe.

1,111

,d,!)

I .~-GRAPHICAL METHODS
Tf . n experiment is carried out to find the law relating two [nc:I:,lln:d \;lr;,thh"
1 a d
it is usual to plot a graph of the readings a.nd dctCfllllll:: In,; Lt"I. ,)1 I !lI;
1mc ;.~ we are averaging o.'ut t.hc errors til 11lt: 11:-1 IV. 11111:.11
xorap
anh 'oYy' piot
amea'1
.'.t l'""
""J.e
l
"l~""'"
I
r
'
~bservations- Usually the observations arc m.ulllpulated to glvc ,:1 ::i 1':11"; II .we
mph of the generallr,.mn y = ax.+ b, whe~~ a .IS the slope or, g::~dl;.:Ht ','[
11l1~:
g d 01 is the intercept 011 rhe y aXJs. If the lWtflS drawn on thl~ lj.I.!P,: ,Il .1 pu:,liIO 1
an ' 't d bv ~"e tlhen ttis will still be lIa
, bl c to error. J."'f a't ;;;';Ie.'n 17(,"Iflt ,t r I~~".
"'1"11,,1 0
eS t Ima e
''-J'
'
.,
.
.' j
1 .
A

.1

'-

Ill:',

",

's drawn r;prcsenting the accuracy of determination of the l!Jdr/J( 11:1 ()I):.crv,:~ions then two lines can be drawn through the extr~n1es and two .1aws.caJcu:n~c(l,
these' o:iving lhe limits aftile accuracy of determin:~tlOn of the def1ved';~lw, i lw; i.e,
obvio~sIy a tcdious process, and a better method lG kno\vn z.s the memod

squares.
1.51

M(~HlDd

of .Least S(tU~1n~s

C;.msider the slope a of the graph. This may be expressed as the average increase
in y for a given increment of x, and it can be expressed as

3cr
Statistical tables ,; no,v that a pproximatc!y 95 ~~ of all observations lie within
2u Df the mean of the observations, ;lnd appro:dmardy 65 %lie within the limits
of I u of the mean, Hence we can now state the confidence with which we give
the accura.;y of determination. Let the e~[imared accumcy of determination of a
single observation be :i:: S. As tbis represents 30' we call say that we are confident
this accuracy of determination \viII hold good for more than 99 % of aU sllch
observations. More simply. we say tl;.at :;: 8 represents the 99% confid,:mce limits,
Similarly,
giving 95 ~~ coniidcnee limits and 1U= 18 giving 65 %
confidence limits.
If we ~.pply this {O the mean' size of 11 obser'l<ltions, we see that

99~.~ confidence Jimits= ~

yn

95 %conl1dcnce limits

In practice this exprcsslou for a neccssitates a,laborious ,c~Iculatjoll. A g:,:~r:'1!

expressbn wllich simpliiles calculations by enablmg the ongmal data to bt ~"t:Q
without first calculating the mean~ is

L'x(Zy)
... (1)

n
Having found the b~st value fO,r a, the best v~!ue for b can be found by substituting a~'erage values for x and y In the expreSSiOn
y=a.x +b
.,. (2)
~_

where
65 ~~ confidence limits
To do this with accuracy "ve should have to tal<c a j;;'.rge number of obswlations and from them calculate the true vulue of the standard deviation, but by

and

~x

X=--

The problem is best set out in tabular form,.and from the above e:pr~~~~~n~
we see that we shall need coiumns for the observed values x .~nd y ,Lid H'".::,:~I
f or x 2 and x)'. _rih"v 'otal
values
?',;
~y2
and .Exy
WIJ also be requhC<l.
columns
t
~;,
:
Consider the experimental values for x ann y below:

9
B

lvletrology for Engineers

(d) Statistical methods of expressing the accuracy of determination, and the

confidence with wbich it is stated, are available and should be understood and
used.

(e) .St:ltistical methods may also be applied to the analysis of experimental

data which are normally expressed graphically, and in general these methods rrive
a better fit of the experimental data to the laws derived therefrom.

From (1) above,

3966 _ 431

91

819 -

37
Substituting for

a=329
91
x=-=7
13

x and ji in expression (2),

37 =(3,29:< 7) +b
b 13-97

The law of this particular straight line is then

+13-97
If now we substituTe the v2.lues of x in the above expression, We obtain the
theoretical villv.cs c1' y which we may denote Y. The errors in the observed values
are then (y - Y). This calculation requires two extra columns in the tabular
calculation; y = ax.;.. band (y Y).
It has been
that this method should be used in the evaluation of
straightness and flatness tests.
1.6 SUMIVIARY
The main points

from this

may be stlmmEtrized as follows:

(a) All measurements are subject to error.

(b) T:le possible devi.ation from the stated ml;aSUfem~ni should be estimated
and given as an 1l.Gcuracy of determination.
(c) The accuracy of aeterll11narion can
improved by
ment a number of times and stu.ting the mea.::, value.

the measure-

,. A. J. Scurr, Pr!Jc. I. Meek E. VoL 32, part 1., no. 23. 1967-3.

/,

Errors in Measurement

10

11

CHAPTER 2
It is this definition which has been universally adoplcd hy ill,,"\' ,(lI,lIil" Ii .11' '
or intending to use in the future, Sl units.
Clearly, a universal st",ndard must be one which i;; Ii'pr, "Il/I"d I., '.\.,/' I .. I. '
degree of accuracy tbat foi all industrial and sci,;ntilic 11IU'Pl>:,'::: 'I 111.\: I,,' '\'1'
side red as absolute. By means of interferometry, r.h~~ GlTlJr 01 n'I'C".! III" 11<111 I'! 1'1'
metre is of the order of I part in 100 million. ~")imilady. ~'J'V ,;Iillth-c.",,! I'i ,I,I'
metre may be;produced, and reference):o B.S. 888: Sill! (')1: !ilPI''') : "/1":": .II!,/
their Aceessorif:!! shows thatthe"practic'al workin!:. SWlldilnl" PI' 1"11:'[:11 ',' '\ III
industry-u):e-6t sur;h accuracy that tlle'caiibratiolJ and 1"'fcrcIHT !'II'd.'i. ",I i!l"",;
must be verified by iI:terferometI'Y, that is, in terms \.1f Ull; \VavL:!ell:'il! "r li:,!it_

2.1 1'1:.1 EVOLUTION 01,' A LEl"IGTH STANDARD

)

- ,\I '

,',

It_ is fupdam;eqtaJ to the science of measurement, and hence the degn~c of control
which it exdts on the development of technologies, thut it should be based
an
, ,,' '::agreed, aiXan- possible internationally agreed, system of stancJards:-~Foi many
yeaffthe major industrial countrie:; of the world used two syst;;ms, imperial and

on

2.2

InterteromlOtry is th<:t branch of scienee which xc; concerned will! lhe Illi\%Cr in
which ray;,: of lightl product~d from a common som:cc, ure n:l.:on1 I;incd
~! kn~
system, usu:xlly the eye. The dH-rerg!lf_~jl1 ~patb length" ah:)i1g whieh the ray:; I.f:t'ld
before being !'ecombined a.ercrnlines thclr-rdationsilip, and 11CIK~ We
sensa-tior:
of lic:htthceve.
-an unck,srandlng ~f th.'! pllen6;n:-ieIrtl associated with interferometry, it
is necessary to :,::ol1sider the nature
'
Two theories have been advanced to expiain the nature oflight: the Emission
Theory, and the Wave TJlcory. The former was adv~nced by Newton, and considered ligl1t as Gonsisti!lg of particles emitted by fuminous bodies, the in; pact of
the particles' on the' eye causing tEb-sensation of ligbt.
.
The wave theory, however, was advanced by Huygens, 0.nd consider\ld light
as a \Vt\v:; rtlml0ll ;}foDar.:ated in the erhel', : l'
It is this tbcOfY" ,,"nlits subsequcilt ;:ievelopmem, wilicb
explains
the phenomena associated with light, including that of interf;;-rence.
If, then. light is cou'sidered as <1.;} electromagnetic "lave of sinusoidal fcrm, it
may be represented as in Fig. 2. L

'
'_""r
Thf~ disadv:11:tagefJ of SUC!:I an arrange.ment are evident wben on~ (;o!i~ide~s
tho.t a very iarge -part of the world's populatio:1 :used metrIc'unlts, biifthal impdrtant industrial. coumr!Cs, notably the UniTed K.ingdom and th,~ U,S.A., used both
imperial and metric units, the'former being domiriant in the industrial fidd. Vir~
tunny the only concession made by these countries was that scientific work was
carried out in- metric unlts.
." I
' , .
'The basis for a solution to this confusion was establIshed
1960/when the
General Conkrenc,; of 'Weights and Measures, an internatiOnal body, recom"mended that 31 units should be brought into use to replL~Ge
metric units.
Sl is an abbreviatlq!l of Systcme lr;.ternntional d'Unitcs (bter:-w.tional SYstem of
'Units) whicn has gro'vn out of the l\IKS
kilogramIac. second) sy~tera and
the MKSA
kilogrammc, second, ampere) system, The major industrial
countdes, induding Th0se at present using u metric system, ha'i'e adopted the
, recommendation. Thus the United Kingdom is at present in the process
con~
ve~~~..::'1 from imperial to SI units, The proc;;:ss will take some years for its
completion.
'
1'11<; standnrd of length, therefore, will be the metre, and for the purposes of
this book win be the most important of the SI units considered,
metric.

--'-Por

in

'of

2.n

NATUHE OF LIGHT

The Metre Defined

As part of the cvolutioll of a universal standard of iength. the International Committcc'()fW'cights ,md Measures recommended in 1958 that th.; metr;:: be defined as

165076373 x.\
where J\ =1he wavelength, in a vacuum, of the orange-red radiation of the isotope

krypton 36
Fig, 2.1.

Light repre...:.ented us a sine wave.

12
t

.I

13

Light Wal'es as Standards ()f Length

Jvl etrology for Engineers
The direction of propagation is along the O-X,axis, and the dist::mce travelled
by the wave during tile time (t) oGcllpie:~ in on(~"Vih12.tion, is the wavelength ,t.
That is, at points of equal disturbailce such as P P l;thc distance between the~f;:
, points constitutes the wavelen2,th. The maximum disturbance of the wave is the
amplitude, a, ancllts intensity~a2. The velocity, v, of transmissi.Oil = ii/T a;d fre-

"umber
of Viaves of eC1iual wavelength, the value of which determines thr~ coiour
.>
-

ofth~yght.

.,

_,'

it we new conSlQer the effects of combuung

".

LWO

such

~, ,

layS,

we may

' "

GO ,0

h,

uy

considering only two waves, one from each ray,

_
.
Thev Play combine in such a way that th(~ resull:ant effect tS tbat the maXImum
amount ~f'lllumination is obtained. Tbis condition is shown in Fig. 2.2 in which

quency = l / T . ; ,
For any given monochromatic Jight source, these characteristics arc virtually
independent of '-lrnbicnt conditions sllch as temperat1.m~ and pressure.
if we now consider, for Gxo.mplc, the w;c of t11;; green mcliation from the
'spec.trurG of TI1Crcury 198 -1.S a lTI.OIlOchrornatic light source fer The i::lbs.DI:.lt~~

iF'

measurement of iength, we h8Ne a,ya\ic[cngth of (}54Gl{1lU of SUC~I repwd m:ibiEIY

. ,;, and sharpness ,)f definiti()U, that i'eng til measurement of ,111 a(cunv~y of 1 part in
100 1Tli1iion may b" made.
Fer 'T,any cngirw,:ril1g purposes. white li:;ht, formed of ,he (:oIours and thcrc~
fore \v(ive}cn~ths of the visible spectruln, constituteS a valuabll-; and cOlr/cnient

IJ'lill~1..
.,'::l..L

SO'l['('
.
t!. l .....

'

~ --~-r,"

\1 \J

.-

lJf the colOlJTS

fcrmlng thi'; visib.Ie sp\~ctn.F11, and explain~) \vhy sueD. S,)lJrGes ealltlOi: be C1JH ...
sidcred ::lS bcieg su.itn.b!~~ as ~J:e os.sis
[tosola!:e l~:G.gth rr:easurelnel1L /"Ihe irHii
vidual colouc) ,:annot be slJ.(lrrty CL~11ht~d g.s be;.~lg of deihli'~e \va\I~:l~l1gth) but for
ma:r..y practical Ine:J.s~lring problell1s it is appropriate to consider the average
wavelength, approximately 05 ,urn, of white light fow~Gd. by tIle blcDding or tte

The i()l1m;ving c!;aa shows the: approximate w:;wc!cngths

or

visib1e SpeCI!TLTrl co.lours, as being suHiciently

lengfh.

!-

to consti.tu le

;J.

I,! _ _ _ _

,,; -~'.
idJow
i Orange
I P,ed

19,3-,22-6
226-236
23 '0-25 -4

2:5 <!--,275

I
1

~~-;-

f,"J

O423-0,'~90

O"~SO-Oj75
0,575-0'(00
O'oOO-O-ein

Fig, 2.2.

Resultant amplituJc ar, of two waves A nnd B of dilfcn:nt amplitudes ale and (In, but in ph'elSe.

3ta.r~dal'd of

i R"'ge ef "md,nt!h, I Rmg' ef W,:,"d",glhs-j

CO~~~:_J ____~JLifl) _ _ _ _
o_.;~'~<I!O')"iAI-1----11

IViolct15'7-l67
~lru,.'"f.""~"'l
16.7-19- 3

I
II

aC8Uf(.!te

"

two rays, A and B, are in phase at their origin 0, and clearly will remain so for any
distance of propagation.
If A and l-3

amplitude

!18,VC

the amplitudes shown, then the resuitant wa'/(; R wltl have an

Cl2u=U.:\ +-0:8.

..,

In ofb.<:;r "\'ards, whea A and B are of the same wavelengtl1 and :n prllsc, tney
i ' anl~.-l t he[eJOl'~ tl'lJC>'111lrv
"'J"l-ty
0+.1. '1",
cOIJ1bine to jnc[ca~c' .
tne 2.mpltuue,
.l~) ""
l.u. . . . .l"f'r'lit"rt
,-"H... Llu. i
C

0-643-0698

R to

2, l1l2ximum.
"
, n
If now 1ve cOilsictcr the effect of changing the phase rdaLlOl1sIllP of A an~;~
byt !)e .''Yr,r'['!l''lt;S qc.' l'r: !=';r; 23 it carl be sho\vn that 'when a_\..;c.-;;::{[lJ, ..71~=2a cos, {~/.I~.
That ic;, tbe combination of A zend B no l.onrcf proJucco maximum illumina..
L

...

,_~Lll.,-,'

..

"',

{._~

. , ... -

.
-.
(' d
Further. if we consider the effect of changing thl~ phase rdatlOilShlP 01 Pc an'
D
t1l'ey
"[C"
clicl"J"'lc"d
l' (o'oa
O.
,\/2
then a condition 2,S in Fig.
2/+ occnrs,
J...J, SO t'll""
1 ~ ... l
l
I..~
_0 .'.!.......
-,
~

"
....
1
in which R has an tiil1pIitude \vhich is the algebraic sum of tzA and {lB ~,n~ IS
. reduced to i minimUll1: It is important to note that if aA ar-d an were equal 111
value. then al\, would be zero, as cos (180/2) ~;O. That is, complete interlcrcnCt;
betw~cn two waves of the same wavelength and amplitude produces darkIless;
and no sensation of light is regisw,ed on the rctit",- of the eye.
It is the abiJitv t~ split light from a single S(;1J[CC into two compol1ent TJ.YS,
to rec~moine them: and ;bser~e the way in .,;hich they recombinc, that allo\vs the
tion.

l'nnt the prinEtl'Y colours 11rrv(; sneh lH,defined ".vavt:~L~r:gtb.') 13 the principal
reason for tbe int('l!sive (:Jr'vrts 111J.ci::: by pl.i.ysicists- Qver l"nany yc~~rs to prodl1,ce
pure DO:l()c\Jromatic li;;:ht :;ac:h as that fr()iil merC1.li:y J9d en: krypion 136, havin8 a
l')rcci::;~~J Ieprcducibl~ vi/ftvclcngt~l.

L"J

j\lONDCHJRGMATIC l<AYS

(t

..

A ray cf =-lOnoc:hromatic Ught may be considered as beiJ.g composed of anillunite

1'"
,.J

14

flleftologY}(H Atlgineers

I ~J

Fig. 2.3.

Resllltant amplitude aft of two \vuves A and B out of phase by an amount il.

Fig. 2.4.

Resultant amplitude aR of two 'NaVes A and B

half a wavelength (180).

otil

of phase bv
-

wavelengt.h of light to be used for linear mi:aSllr;;:ment. It should be noted that it

is the; linear displae:;l11ent, 0, between two waves whiet!, is being measured, and

that the maximum interference between them occurs wben (j ~~ N2.

Interference of tNO ray;; of
may be u"cmonstmted \'1 the foUowing way.
Rderring io
2.5, A and Bare elfestively two point SO'Jrees of monochromatic
light
a COm"ilO!1 Origtll. S is a .')Green tile
of which is parallel to the line
joining A and B. 0-0 1 is perpendicular to til..:: screen, and intersects the line AB
at .Its m1d.. point.
The rays from A and B, since they bave ,l cornman origin, and are therci'ore
of tile same wavelength, \vil! be in ph<lse.
If we now consider the effect at t11C poInt
')11 the scrce:B, of the converging
of the tyyo rays from the poim sources A and B, it is clerrr that since A0 1

Fig. 2.5. Formation of <:11ternate light and dark .areas

on a screen, duc (0 waves from sources A and B
travclling different path lengths.

the two rays will arrive at 0 1 in phase, and will cornbine in a manner simihu lu
that shown in
2.2 to give the maximum illumination at 01'
If ,'ie now consider a point such as O 2 on the screen, the distnnce ;\0,\ is
clearly less than the distance B0 2, and if B0 2 - AO:) is equal to an odd number
of half w<"'idcngths, thitt is (217 -I- 1) (A/2), where n is an integer, then the waws
will be 18(Y out of phase, complete interference will occur and there will be dark
ness at this point.
if we consider a point such as 0a, then ifB0 3 -AOs is equal to an e'ven
number of haIf wavelengths, that is 2n (>./2), then the rays are again in phase, and
no iutcrferr::nce occurs at 0 3 , this point receiving maximum illumination.
This process could be repeated lH points both above and below 0, and would
result in alternate dilrk and light areas being formed. The dark areas would occur
wherever the path difference of A and 13 amoun:'ed to an odd number of half
wavelengths, and the bright where their path difference amounted to nIl even
number Ot half wavelengths.
It must be emphasized that the phenomena descdbed would occur only jf
the sources A and B were images of a single source. This can be achieved with a
Fresnel biprism by which light passing through a slit is divided into two identical
and equally spaced images, the rays from which,
from the same sotlrcc\
will be in phase at the images. It 15 the dil'l:crence in path lengths of the subsequent
rays which causes interference.
Summ.arizing, it is clear that the following two conditions are necessary fer
light interference to occur.
(a) Light from a single source must be diyided into two component rays.

(b) Before being combined at the eye, the componems must travel ;;aths
whose lengths diff.::r by an odd number of half wavelengths.

16
17

lVietl'ology for Engineers

Light Waves as

2.4 IN~.ERJTEROMETR Y API~LIED TO FLATNESS TESTING

in precision' ~ngin~ering is the
normally
l;'lOd.lCyG by g!lndmg.lOlIowcd oy successlV\, lappmg opcratl.ons until a hj~!h
dr~~ree ~f~ilatness comoinc?with a high sud'ace finish is ,.. hieved. Virtually rb,~
::)DiY satlsiactcry, and cCltallliy the only cotlvenient mcth<)(l of tec'(inIJ if; J.iu
~I,:tne"s
.....
or such surraccs is by th(~ use d light interference, using an optical E~lt as a reference plane.
A

man~facturing

~~Od~~~,l?n
,.,.

.'

.-

problem

frcquent~y encouu"tered

~urn:~es of :tej~ti:~e!x sm~ll ~rea.. Such surf:lces are

"

..I.

>.J

,.

~...

AJ'..I

An optical flat is a disc of stress-free glass, or quartz. One ;)1' both faces ofrhe
are ?round, Japped rmd polished to a degree of flatness llGl normallv en.
cou.nt~reC1 on an engineering sl:rface. For engineering pnrpose'), thercfor~, the
PHC::H flat may be consklen~d as a reference of l1atness, and l,lsed as such for
t:~lmparing engineering surfaces. Optical fiats v:lry in size: from 25 mm di,tmeter to
a:JOllL 300 mm diame::!er, t11i~ thickness being abolit 50 mm fvr the
In all
C,lses,
are relatively rigid and stress-frcr~ disc:; which, used antI stored corJectly
V/l'l1 r~."':p t l -,,!'- flat . .
.[;
e

' .
,
,
" ,,,Lu.L., -d~ , "~ 11C,55 an:- ttlererore
:llfllOst mdefin;cely.
.
,~f an 0pueal nat lS laid (ilot 'wnmg') on to a nominaIly fbt
surfac(~,
It wulllot term an intirn"tc contact but will Lie at SOme an"j" [)
I'll
'lor"
in which f) is greatly
j~ wedge-shaped 'lir cllshf~:1 n~;'1 hi; rorr~~d
between the surfaces.

dISC

of Length

If abc = AI: where ,\ = wavelength of source, then the conditions for complete
interference have been satisfied, i.e. the rrxy [rom S has been split into two components, and recombined; also, the path lengths of the components differ by an
odd number (one) of half wavelengths,
If the surface Hat, then at
to the plane of the paper it will be
parallel to the optical fiat, and these conditio.Gs wiE be salistled in a straight line
across the surface. Thus a straight dark line, or interference
be seen.
Further along the surface, and due to
0, the ray
S will similarly
split into two components whose path lengthS differ by an amount def.
If def"~ 3A1l, the next odd number of hdf wavelengths, interference will
again ot;cur and a similar fringe will De seen.
, At unlntermediate point, the path difference will be au even, number of half
wavelengths, the: two (;omponents will b,:; in phase, and a light band will be

wm

seen at this point,

'>,'

r';ig. 2.7. Jntcrfcn:nc0 fringes on a

.flat surfLl.cc viewed under an optical
flat in a parallel bec\tn of monochromatic light.

Thus, a surface will be crossed by a p-3.ttern of alternate light and dark bands, which
will be straight, t'o:' Lhe case- of a flat surface,
as in Fig. 2.7, A dcYi2tion from vel,""",,,.,,
would b,~ a m~::isnrc of
error h-::. flatness of
the surface in a
p~irallcl to the apex of
the angb 0,
Referring again to Fig.
it is seen
that if 0 is small (which it must be),
a.b=bc

and

de

The

in

sl~paration

ef

between the

3'\

nat ;md the surface is the

difference between ab and de (or bcand ef) .

'. de --ab
fig. ~"6, r:ornution of ii1tcrferenc~ fdnges on a fl:'it sl~rf~Kf; 'dc\ved
11110cr fin optlC;-,j nut in a parallel bearn or ulonceh:ro111<Ltic Hg;ht.

Thus the ch:wgc in

bCl:ween the surbce
the
equal to one half
on similar :llljuc:ent
Note that if fJ is incrcnscd the fringes arc brought closer tog(~ther, and if 0 is

If this ,'1lTangement is l:vW placed in the path of .:! paratld bC(lm of monowe en,l C;)!1S1(ter S :lS the source of on(; W9,ve of the incidc:u beam.
any reffc1Clivc eilixts due to the light
tJlfCllh:h
glass. and
it j'; seen that th,~ wave i'w.m S is '.
r:~f1.:;cted at
transmitted c,cross the air gap, to be ren(~c(ed at 'b', a !)oint on the
The two reflected compol1l:nts ate collected and recombined bv the
traveHed ptlls whose lengths ditfer
an amount abc.
J

18

l'educcd, i.e. the surface::: become more

the
increases.
The possible pracUcal vari::;.tion iil fj is very
since if the surfaces arc too
closeiy together Cwn,iii is'
and if is too
tbe
arc: :;0
and un observable paLLGrn .is not maintair..cd.
In pmcticc, it is uulikely that contact bet.,veen the
flat G,];d the work
surface will occur at. one point oniy as in Fig. 2.6, It

19

ivfetroiogy for Engineers

would be made at a number of points, or along
one or a number of lines. Fig. 2.8 shows the
pattern which would be vbserved if the work
surface were spherically convex. Contact is
made at the central
point, resulting in a
fringe pattern of concentric circles. If, now,
eftch adjacent
represents a change in
elevation of the work surface relative to the
o!)tical nat of At?., then

under test, the spacing of the fringes reprcsellting Il!'il'ilt 1'1\<'1 v.Ii'. 1"I,t" .. I,' II:,
optical flat of N2. In
2. TO, point C is the same d i.',LlIll" 1'1, ,j II Iii .. "llI'I ,I II II I,
point B, but /,,/2 farther (or
than point D. Thel,:I,;ll' II:.' ,','''. :11 ( , , ..\
higher (or lower) than D. If the fringes curve toward:; 111\: lint: ," ""nl.l1 1.11 \, II..
surface is convex, the opposite case also applying.
Practice in the use of optical fiats is essential to a lrm; lIIHic-!':,LII.d!'I" ,.I Ill,'
patterns Jw")duccd, and at 'this point it may be appropriate 1.<) indi,,;\k 111:' p"II I I.
to be observed in their use.
(a) Handle optical fiats carefully, and the mini-

'1
1 'III1
. , 'lIOln pomt
.
'7A x n = 1
otal
c.mnge
e evatlOn

mumamoum.
(b) Ensure that the work surface and the optico.l
flat arc perfectly dean, by careful ,;iping
with a cloth of the 'Se!vyt' type or with
chamois leather.
(c) 1'.fever 'wring' ,m optical fiat to a work surface, It should be kid on, so that the flat is
not distorted by lending to 8.dapt itself to
the contour of the work
thus producing a false fringe lxUlc;r.
(d) Never 'wring' two optical fh.,ts together. Separation may be difficult and cause damage:.

of contact to the outermost fringe

where (\=wavelcngth of light used
and n =llumber of adjacent fringes observed
It is clear tha.t the pattern observed when the
surface is spherkally convex w.iil also be ob-

served

'Nh~n

Fig. 2.8. Fringe pattern produced

on 11 conV'JX surface. Note that as

the angle oetw';en the ,uri'ace and the

[1il t increas~s the fringes be-

the surfhce is sphGrlc2.11y concave,

opticai

To distinguish between th,ese two conditions come i1arrow~r (md mOf() closeiy
spw;ed.
if, when the surface is spherically convex, one
cJge of the optical fla.t is lightly pressed, it will
rocle on a new high spot and the centre of the fringe pattern will move as shown
in
2.9, and the outer fringes move closer together.
Also, when the surface is spher1cally concave, the fiat rests on a l.ine passing
around the surface, and if the edge of the optical flat is lightly pressed, the edge
line does not move as the pressure is 'laded. Alternatively, light pressure at the
centre of the optica.! fbi wJJl callse it to deflect
<me. bccorn,e more
lXlfallcl with
the concave
thus reciueil1g the number
of fcinges observed.
Commoniy, opticalllats are used in normal
daylight, the spectrum of which has a waveler:gth of approximately 0,5 p.m. 1hus, each
fringe interval correspoads to u ehange in ele",<,~
tion of the sllIface 01'0,25 p.m,
SUjnose an
tb.t to be, (,tid on to a
G
t......
is that
"11f
''''" ; no' t11" 1"~~',1 'li"ll
0,
b
shown in Fig. 2.10.
H;lving first determined rhe point or line of
cont:ld of the optical
whkh i:-; assumed to
be at A,A, it mmt bc remembered thfJ.t the con"
tour of I~ac;,
lks on points of ,'nual height
(in a negative direction) relative to the s" . ~'qcc
of the optiC;}! fiat. Thus, the
pattern, in
Fig. 2.9~ ivicrhoJ of testing to show fact, represents a contour map of the surface
~d,J;.

that a surface is

20

t,..

._

.....

Fig.l.l0.
palten',
fonned on a
wh(~:~~
C.L. is half a \Vil\'elength
higher than its edg<;s.

2.5 INTERFEROMETERS
AlthQ.u.g1L oPtical fiats can be used in either
or, better, in a diffused
source of JlCar-mOl1llchromati~ light, e,g. a light box consisting of a sodium disch'arge lamp behi!id' a yello\v nlt,ii;""ihey sutTer the following disadvantages for
very precise work:
'
(a) It is diJTk:llit to control the 'lay' of the optical fiat and thus orientate the
fring~ to the best advarllage.
(b) The fringe pattern is not viewed from directly above and the resulting
obliquity can cau~~
itUd,crrors in viewing.

These prob1cm5 arc overcome

using optical instI'2ments known as interferometers, Lvo or' ,which wiLl be discussed, one for measuring flatness and tht;
other for dcterrainll;\l the
ot slip and block gauges by difcct reference to
the wJ.vc!ength onrgllt.

v'"'!"*_~

This instrument, shown in diagrammatic form in Fig. 2.11, wcs designed by the
Nationd Physical Laboratory and is manufacturcd commercially by Cov~nt;:y
Gauge and Tool Co. Ltd., and Hilger and "Vatts Ltd.

convex~

"

'f

21

Light Waves as Standards oj Length

LIGHT

VAi'OlJR
SOURce

LENS

It consists essentially of a mercury"vapour

whose radiations :ere
through a green filter; dills removing all other colours, lind
chromatic
whose wavelength is vcry close to 0-5 ,:L111. This
on
:.1. pinhole,
intens~ point SOl;xce of monocbromatic
is
in the roc~l!
a cCIUimating lens: and is thus
b!S<dll 0 f
This
directed on to the
to be tested
an cptic21 fktS'o'~hat
are formed across
face of the gailge, the
being
above by means of a thick
semireflector set at 4SO
to the optical axis.
It should be noted that the optical flat is mounted on an adlustablc
'1~ fV1U"C
all'rlC
"(];U"';;"r!"
1nd"r)'''ncl,~'t )1" I,_de
[5" b""c pl,!'C
L.',...so dl?j'
l..i. Co,..
.:::,'. , r~r. l'~ t!
,:.t-V __ "
1:; Gcsigr;,:;d to be rotated so
the::
can be orientated

an

VA. ..... ,L l/,vJ,j. ...

PiN

D'~

'

HOLE

parallelisrD

bf~t\ver)n

d )

",,~j.i

tC

/'':'"

~J

of this instrument is t!J?t it can abo be Ilsed for testing the

gauge surf~lc.~S$ l\vo nlethods arc

(a) For gaugt.:s b.:hnv 25 rrnn ~n

(b) For gauges great.;;r th:.;.n 25 mm in J:".Ilgth.
\'lhell

~h\)rter

gauges an::: USed interf(;fc:G.ce

~md

the

parallel
fringes
the fringes on t11e
If the
the base
is
is
to.ble is turnd
Fig. 2.12 (b), ;) ncJ

0(1

b:t~;e

PL."TE
REf-LECTOR

LENS

FLAT

(~onsidGr

TO BE TESTED

the base plat::; sl10uld

Rurf:'!cc.

on
gauge
in
2.12 (a). If lhc
with the optiGal

J)umb(,I sf

a gange \vhjeh c;<hib;[,$ 10

along ils
111 Gnc
and 18
in the SCC'cl1d
In
2.12 (a) the dis1.~Lnce b\t['.~!Cell the gnt1ge and the opticalllat has 111creased by ~i dLt:,nce
over li:c
of the gauge, and in the second position
[Fig. 2.12

It has
changes by

;).. disla.ncc

shoyvn ihJt C}e dis-~ance bet\vcen the

hct\Vee.rl adjacent in!.~rfcrcnce

Therefore! 61.
G\AIJq~

(ll,d

fkit

C-<ll!g<;;:

pctQll<l.i

c,)nv~x

'Or cor.cavl!

lint tA:t no", pOlcthd

t.Q ~h7. Qthftr.

'.(T;r4

The
Fig. 2.11.

Op~:,.::al arrailgC111cnt

(Co:lrlesy

of Inte[r(~;oIr:::;tcr fIJI' testing fi ..~~ness of sllrfo.ces.

0/ the N.P.L. CI'O)1'/1 Copyright)

be

8.3:.:';' fon~ncd both on the

is wrung on Lo rhe base
Its
that if, the gauge
are
and parallel with

in the

)~_auge

aDd the optical fiat

rOI

_J-

A~-18
GAUGE

- -

I
~ROTARY eASE Pl'~~
(a) 1ST POSiTION

Fig. 2.i 2. Tcstlng parallelism on gauge;wlvet 25 rom in

iei1gth using flatness interferometci".

I! I

But due to the rotation through 180 c there is a doubling elTcot. Therefore the

_II ,

! Ii

!I

error in parallelism

.1

8 3 <\ 8 A
"'~=2x2

,\

42

If the wavelength used is 0'5 ,urn, then

T;ms the gauge has an error in parallelism of 10 micro-metres over its Iengtll.

2.52 'l"'l'!e

Pitter-N.P"IJ~

Gauge Interferometer

The mech::::nical subdivision of end stawJards of length tendsto,be !aboJiollS,

especially when the smaller sizes are considered, and it is therl~for;;IlaTile error.
In view 0::'
and the requiren1,~nts of B.S. 4311, it is no longer used for
gauges less than-' 18 in or 50 em in length, and has been superseded by interfero-

to

metric methods of calibrati.on.

A well-known interferometer is the Pittcr-N.P,L Direct Measurement
Intcrrz:romcrer, which is based on ~t NatiomJ Phy,;ical Laboratory design. Fig. 2.13
shQWS a diagrammatk arrangcme.l1t the instrument. and the Belel of vi,,,:w in the
eyepiece.

or

'In operation, light from the c;lclmium lani? is

pin-[lOle plate

thus pro\'idii1g all

paim source, 1n

by lens .J

OIl

tv

th~

focal phlne of the

coUimr..tlng lens':F. The res:;1tin8 paraUe1 beam pctsses to the; (.oI1stant-d'.;vhtiG!'

priml
where its colours, and t.herefore
are split up and allY one
seiec:ed <1.5 required, by varying the angle of th~
faces of the prisrn relative to the reference plane B of the platen. The bC:lm is turned through 90 and

24
c

Light Waves as Standards ofLengl'7t

]lrjetrology for Engineers

directed to the proof-plane C, the lower surface of which is coated wIth a semifilm of ubimiirimn, which transmits and re1lects equd proportions of
the incident light. Part of the light is reflected upwards, and pan is transulitted
through the proof-plane te the upper surface of [he slip ~
and to the reference
plane of platen l3. Light reilccted from each of thes."!
back through
incErmtion of the
the optical system, but its axis is deviated slightly, due to
proof-p.lanc, so thlt it is interrupted by prism R ,0 be tUflled through 9l)Oimo the
eyepiece and the observer's eye.
'~rhe fringe
obE;Ct~ved may' be as Sh.017vfl .. One 'se~ of fringes is du.e, to. _ ~h~
surface 1)1' the pJatw, ar,d superimposed on
are the: friii2~~d'b~1!' ti1J';
of the sUp gauge wrung to the plater:.
i;f:[: sets ~of fringes
'is shown, the amount of displacement
for "ac~l colour,
of
resolv~d by the
prism. The
(/, is
as fractiol1 of the
spacing, b, i.e.
.i
It is sufIkient to estimate this fraction, bet
in this the cross-wire
Inay he rnovcd across the opdeal path, it; image
in tfF:
AXl
estimation of .iis rnade for each of the four r,,_cia"tiolls from ~he G1dminm [amp,
green,
rcsoh',~d by suitably rotating tIle constant-deviation prism.

Fig, 2,14.

Fringe dif;pI~}}.::erncnt bcH\'ccn gauge aad base p!atc in

l'-J.J).. L.~lype

gaLlf~e

intcrferon1.;r.er..

,.\ a t,
i.e. G=H -h=7Z,-2.521

]1'!etJwd ~f jJ,feasuremellt

It is important to bear in mind that the physical conditions slZfrounding

measurements of a nature such as this must bc standardized and controlled. The
standard conditions are as follows:
20C t~;mpt":r:.tt7Jr;.~; 760 tnrn
baro!TIctric pressure; iN1th V{~i..ter vapour at 11
pn~ssure of 7 Glm
and
0-03 ~/~ by \:olurne of c<lrbGn dio~dde. If the
conditions of nlef!5f1ren1ent '\":.\fV fID:n
corre~ti~)n fr{ctors nlll-st be appli~d~
(~Gnsirh;r '(he nlC2tSUrGn1ent ~Jf.2 O-J (nUl
gauge,
thn~c w'avelengths of
th,:; cadmium rndiatioll. 'Illc wavelengths used will bG as follows:

Red

0-643 850 37 I'm

Green 0508584 S] IJ,rn

Violet

(}":~67

81743 fern

2, 14
shov/s the
phCefi, slip gauge) and
ship,
lUent. F or each of i~be
vt"ill be cbse.r(!ed..
n. plus the fraction
(~re

26

obscr'/cd.

Of.

We thus have observed fractiom adb 1, Cl z/02' o:;/b 3, for each of the radi;:niol1s,
which may be expressed as
respectively,
of; series or expressions may now be obtained for the height of the gauge
above the platen.
,
1

,"

U'

But the vi.dctc;:. .I:A"' ~l'!,

,~tc.! arc the obscr~v'ed frL:ct:ons a/b a.ud not
the v:tlUf'.$ whit}'} y/oukt be 0bt(jilcd by calculadon
the norninal height of the
gauge arJ.d t1v,; vaItlcs of 1\ fer! be Ihree radialions~
Vile therefore;
foe the nominal size:

in J nun, there are 3101:>3 11 80 haif wavelengths

"

'-'

" "

"

arJ:~tngclllcnt,

3932 d30 64
4275,[7205

"
"

"
"

di:lgrulnrnatically) of the reference plan'~ or

2.14
Sh<:,v/3 the
relation
of the instrufr;lctio 11 alb

wb.ik

'Nllerc

~;nonlinal gauge .height

-,V:=Dlunber of \vb.ole 11aLf \vavel~ngths in GN
F =froctiollal d:spbcw1 cnt of fringes for any
beight Gs in \vhich iV and F arc found

radia1k)TI [!,nd

the hdf

d{.h,~

'0
fl

>../2 into the nominal height of the gauge

27

kfetrology for Engineers

The values shown in columns 6 and 7 are obtained by llie!ll. III' "I", .,' .d """ .,'
ence. This offers the simplest method of oblainipg Ill(: lVII' :II' 11l1,lli" I , ", ! .. ill
wavelengths and fractions of half wavelengths wbich ;11:: \ ",I'IIII',J 111 11, . . I,,,,
in the gauge. A slide rule may therefore be used (Fig. _"I')) III \\;111,11 li,,' \,,,1-,

By combining the two sets of equations, we 0btain the general expression:

G

GN=~((n-N)+(f-F)l

Assume that the observed fractions, f, are /-; =0-23; j~ ~~O-33, and j;=0'71,
and that the calculated values of Fare FI =0-94;
=0'44; F3~=O-52 for the three
radiations red, green, 3.nd violet respectively.
[nserting this information in the above eq:mti;;ns we ha ve:

NJ+(O29)].nm Note: (I -0'71)=0-29

Fig. 2.15.

0-467

=--~-. [(n3

Layout of scales of halfwaveJcngi.h on slide nIle for use with !'I.P,L,

g'lUge interferometer.

- N~) +(0'19)J in

L.

The values (nl

(n z N 2) and (113 N 3) arc unknown but it is known that
they are (a) >Nhol:.; numbers and (b) relacivcly smnll numbers.
They can be found by trial and error, and it is found that if
(n1 NJ=2
(n,,=2

{n3 _.

~~3

a closely similar resdx ror all three equations is found. However, tUg is laborious
and [t better method is to set the information out in tabular form as follows:

,.,

;)

7
J\1eall

Wavelength (A)
f-Lm
R,~0643

error ill
Obserred tVl). of ,\12 in Calculated
I r:"actirJiis (f)
]Omm
Fracr/o71S . li eo,. 2._('01.
023

9318-9354

094

Gauge

Coincide
L

Length

029

I,

Z'29

_i

Scales

coincidence nt the values shown in column 6. The lower scale of the slide. rule has
through the valttes
graduations corresponding to micro-met'.'es and a tine
2'29,289 and 3-19 OG the wavelength sCales cuts the
"calc at 0/14 ,am, the
error in the
or ell\:: gauge.
It is foune. in prac:tice that the values off c8.nnol be r~ad to an accuncy
greater than about 005 of a
spacing. TI~is accounts for
des in the fractional parts of the values shown in column 6, ('()m1;""",ri
fntctions sbown i.n column 5. Since the linCe'lf error re~;ultil1g
tiona! error of this order will always be much
it can
.,!t ShOlild be noted trHit the Jurf
scales are llct ll, i.c. the \vholc nUlnbcrs arc
positive. Thm; considering the cursor line shown to the kft of zero, the
mcnts arc respectively:

Red

248 =( - 2 +0,48) = -152 half wavelengths

Green
Violet3'92

0-=0508

033

III 796441 92

044

0,89

2-84

V=O467

07}

'28255165

0-j2

0-19

3-[3

.28

lengths of red, green, and violet are set out to scale, [TOm a common zero. The
values obtained in column 5 of the table are found to have a close
of

0-74 fHll

-2+0-09)= -1-91"
(-3+0'92)=-2-08"

"
"

Thus the gctugc error is equal \0 those values multiplied by the respective l:aU
wavelengi.bs.

29

J;fetro!ogy for Engineers

'/
I

'/

r-l.52x---Flm=
.
01143
-0488

l
. '. Error =

Mean error =

')

JI - 191

l
-

am

L..

><

0'5e8
m
-----z--fL

CHAPTER 3

f
=

0467
- 208 x ---,t,m= 2
0486 }-Lill

0 -48 5 ,um

l~'~c-r

"::"1 ~"} l...:

()'486/-LlU

Note that the scale cannot be read to three decimal places. In the authors'
opinion it should be used for establishing the position of coincidence and all
'approximate solntion. The 8.ctual errors should be calculated, as :;hown above,
for each ,;v8.vclength, ,1l1d then. the mean value found.
The important [,v:t about this method of mca3ure!11.(~nt is that the Q3.uf!e
length is established without reference to any physical standard, and only in tcr~ls
oC the wa'idcn:;ths of tile variolls mvnochromatic radiations employed.

3.1 GENERAL
WE have been concerned in previous chapters with the met.hods by '.vhieh engineering sta.ndaros of length are cstabli~hed, and \7v"hy such standards are necessary.
This field is outside the normal scope of engineering metrology, and is more
properly Ylithin tnt; pro\'inee of the physicist.
Such \york, however, is tl:e neccss~ry b8.sis of Lhe lincat rneU8urenlent carried
out by the t;nginccf, siDc,:; etlmost invari!lbl:; tIus takes the [o;'m or comparing tIle
size of a "0/orkpiecc or other part with the :<:il0wn size of an end gauge, i.e. cornparative lr,casurement.
To CilFY out sach rneasU! ements suCC~SSfilll;', that is, to the order of accuracy
required, often calls for ingenuity in the use of relatively simple equipment. It
always requires the application of certain simple principles, tn:;ethcr with patience,
a systernatic approach '(o a measurement probk;-i1, :md. the uc;) of techniques only
acquired by practice. These points ~-l!"e perh:lps best illllstm~d by the apparcntly
simple task of establishing the size of a plain gap gauge. There caG be no substitut:::
for experience in c2tIl"ying out such a measurement.

These are the engineer's practical, workin;S, standuds of lcn;sth, and are rell1ark:able for si;vf;fal rerlscns.
The following t:J_bl:~ is extracted hom B.S. 4311, and specifies GlC aCCUi"2,ey of
dimensions, llatness <tnd parallelism of slip r;3.ugcs.
Th01;J,ble does nal, ho\vever, reveal the c:oTIlpletc charn.c[cristics of slip g~.luges.
In addition, they have a very high degree of cii;]1cnsional sllbiJity, and possess the
ability to he \\lrunc;" together. :Cin"lenslo.i1al slabjlity is brought about by tbe
careful selcclion or the steel from wbich they ;3.re made" and the st;ibilizing heattreatment process the gauges undergo after h.:rdening. The prop;;TY of \vringing'
is due to the fl,,:"lness and finish of the defining sUi'fhces bciJig such thai "",vhen t\VO
gauges <:m: brough .. into intirrmtc contact, not oDly is the air film be,VIew them
virtually removeci, bui moiecu.lar attr<lctio!1 occurS between the surfaces. The latter
may be shown by the f~cc thill ""hen t\VO 'wnmg' g311gCS areleftfcr D. period of time ,
the difficulty of separc.tion may be conGidcmble. :n fact it is advisable not to leave

30

31

.'vietrology for Lngineers

{k

gauges in the wmng condition for longer than necessary, otherwise

to the
surfaces may result.
It win be noted that slip gauges are available in five
for all workshop
and for a wide range of inspection
sufficient accuracy.
I is appropriate to the checkIng and
and the standardizing of
Grade 0 is suitable for the
q1L.'l1.ity
of work involving the verific~Ltion of size of workshop a.nd inspection limit gauges,
while grade 00 should
be referred to on lhose occasions when the accuracy
of the other gauges is in
or requires verification. They exist in the background, as it 'were, of an inspection system as the ultimate practical standard.
This extract from B.S. 4311: 1968 Aietric Gauge Blocks is reproduced
permission of the British Standards institution, 2 Park St., London \V lA
from
whom copies of the complete standard may be obtained.
T'lMc L Tolerar:ccs Oil F1nl1less, Paral1ellsm and Lengt!l of Gnage Block,

As altered Feb., 1969

Tolerances. Unit =001 micrameler (0'000 OJ mm)

Size of
gauge vloek

Calibration Grades and

Grade 00

L
Up to

and
inc!llOver ding

Grade I

Grade 0

Grade II

CalibraCion
Grade

Gl"ade

25

CO

10

10

:l:10

13

20

'20

25

.15

,----.

mm

r0;11

20

-. !5

20

GO

60

80

80

lOa

5
5

8
10

10

25

12

:1:50

50

iO

15

10

10

10
15

15

:d5
:::20

25

1"
,J

15
15

50

25

20

'JO

25

JS

+80
50

25

-20
+50

25

35

!-120

25

-25
+60

25

35

-75
+140
100

-30

L=gauge length, F=fiatness, P=para!leli3m

The practic31 value of all

of slip gauges is much :;nhanc<;;d
a table
of errors d.erived
the
of each individual g:mge. USllalJy, the' calibration is carried cut by the gfmgc mQ~~ers, or by an authoriry such LIe; the National
Physical Labc;:::rLory,
imerfe:::ometdc methods 'lS deait 'vjth !n
2.
!t is clear frOIn :iucb calibration
c~ithough the smallest rl0tDlnal difr~~rp.r.('"p.
between the sizCG of two
is I)OOlS rum, it nmy in fact ~;; vossible to
arrange diffe~'{~~}ces
snuli.lcr than this, by noting ~he :xmount and direc-tion of error of individual gauges.

32

Where the quality of work demands it, the calibr:lll:d \I:IIIH"; (II' ',/II) . "q" .
should always be used. Normally 'protection slips' of 10 I 11 Ill. ;111.1 <l1.lll,< (>j " " , ' " ,. II
carbide, are
with each set. These should be uscd un III\' ,"II.j'/ .. ,1,1",/
combination to prey~nt un~ue wear of the actual gauges.

3.3 LENGTH BARS

The fulJ specification of length bars is given in B.S. 1790, and
;")\ l';l!i'
grades of accuracy; workshop, inspection, calibratlon and rc[crcncG.
Their purpose is similar to that of slip gauges, but for
sizes or 1'1;\1"They are therefore less commonly found in the average
inspection department. The end faces of the individual baIS
'wringing' finish but, due to their weight and general
Ie. cannot be relied upon to
hold them in combination.
The bars,
those of 25 mm in length, are therefore threaded
al
each end, to allow their end faces to be brought into secure contact by a free
~:fitting screwed stud.
~my combination of the bars wi1l have the 25 mm
bars at eacb end to
fiat defining surfaces for the total
Length bars are best used in the. vertical plane but when used horizontally
they should be
at tIO points equidis,anL from each end, the dIstance
being 0-577 x length of l)ars in the combination. The
mutually parallel, the axis of the combined bars being
horizontal outside the
points. It '.viti be Hoted that this is the same condition of support as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a).
It cannot be too
emphasized that th;) accuracy of slip
and
length bars (rhe latter where huge dimension work is involved),
the
foundation upon \l!Llich an
company builds the accuracy of its products, and the
of component
This
the
verification of the accuracy of
It is not
necessary for a company to possess a length interferometer with
to verify
a reference
set of gauges. This wor1~ is undeAtaken by the National Physical
Laboratory as a service to industry. For example, at intervals of
tvlO
years a gnde 00 set of
may be sent for verifkation, and a Certificate of
Examination obtained. This wi!) show the length enol'S in tIle individual gauges,
and wheth(:r they lie within permit/cd tolerances of thtncss and parallelism.
With these gauges as n,ference: standards, and us.od in conjunction with a high
magnification
of suitab1c repeatability of rC2.ding,
seTS of
gauges may be
for usc in the inspecrioll
workshop standards m:q be verified by a similar method.
There is tllU~ established a direct rci.ationsliip bet"Neen the
of \vorkpieces and the uitimatt:: standQJ:ch of
It is the only rational
for inter..
changeable manufa:::ture, and is set out
chart form in Fig. 3.1.
It is, of course, nccesso.ry to carry out the verification of gauges under suitable
physical conditions. The reference gauges should be permanently housed in a

33

Jill etrology for Engineers

Linear lk[easuremcnt
standards room, locatEd in a quiet area, and not subj(~ct to vibration from outside
control to plus or minus l"C is desirable, and may be
sources.
controL Dust control, [hroUgl1 the filtering of air entering
the roOT;~, is a u:ther
agamst the deterioration of equipment.
All comparators should be permanently mounted on rigid supports, and in a
level p03ition. Givcn these conditions, and a technjque of carefulrreasurement, it
is possible to determlm; toe accuracy of gauges to a fraction of a micro-metre.
The appropriate technique is dealt witb in association with the
and ope:o...
tion of the comparators suitable for this class of measurement.

Primary standard of lCGgth (metre)

(Established
interferometry)

Secondary standards
(Veriilcd by interferometry)
I
I

Grade 00 or Calibration grade slip gauges

(Verified by interferometry)
i
Grades 0 or I
gauges
(Vt;rified by
magu. comparator)

be closely followed, in order that machines and instruments shouid possess the
following characteristics.

(a) A high degree of sensitivity.

(b) A r.tigh degree of accuracy.

(c) Fr,;o:cciom from variance.

(d) Minimum inertia in the moving parts of the indicating mechanism.

3.41 Tne
In addition to these
which may be
for
kinematics, a further
important
must be observed. This is the ~'ril1~iplc of Ali~nmel~t, which
may be statf:j : 771e line of'measuranef,t, and trle !me
the cllmens:on
, This principle is so fundamental to goo d CCSlgll
' .
measured, :;lIculd be coincident.
that it is rarely departed from to any serious extent.
A simple e:::lmple, <lIed one of common expetic;nec, is found in the design of
an external micrometer. In Fig. 3.2 it is clear that the
is completely
satisn;;d. Tbis applies equally to an internal micrometer.

Grade II sUp gauges

(Verified by high magn. comparator)

(Verified

\Vorkpiece
suitable

method)
F:g.3.2.

Ahand rnicrometerconfoIlnjng to tb" principle of alignment.

Fig. 3.1.

3.4 D:!<:SIG0T AND OPERATIC)

Il\f~)']~'-R tT :;dEl\I'TS

OF UNEAR

instruments and machines incorporate, 111 their irnportant features,

wbich are based on kinematics.
may be defi!led as a study of the (dative motion:' of parts, in
isolation fcan-t tht; forces "Nhich produce the l1!otions.
It will be Seeil
ill g,;ueral, the motions whir:h must be r;o;lsidered in the
line and roGlry motion. At
it illay ais,j be necessarj to cl:a1.!nate all such lYlotions b~~V\h::jen parts, again
tl1rongh the
of kinematic;
eX]Jcric:r;c:e over many yc~l.fS bas sho'lm that kinematiG principles must

hovvever, vie consider a vernier calliper, it is a1.so clear, F~ig~ 3.3, th.L1t the
principle is Qot observed. It may also be shown, th~lt L'.S tIl" displncf;merlt Y
tlle greater will be the probability of a di.':crepancy arising between
dimension A and the feading B.

UlU11..,")]",,)

Fig. 3.3.

A vernier call1per does not confom: to the principle

of alignment.

34

35

iltfetrology for Engineers

It should be remembered that the curvature of the vernier beam may be
b.r?ught about by the
pressure between the jaw faces. Vf'uen one constaers tl~e extent to \vl."lch this may vary from person;~o person (in the absence of
~ny. devlce t? stau?ardize it) it is seen that this accounts for the difficulty in establIshmg the dImensIOn A with the same degree of coniidence as with a microm,.~te.r.
Other eX:lmples dealing with the application of this r -ficiDle will be exam
ined later in the chapter.
, .
We refer now to the other important funcdonal characteristics which measuring machines and instruments should possess.
3.42 Sel1sHhity

This may be defined as the amount of correction whicll 11111;:. 1>,- 111;1,1" (" III!
in respect of the values of the qnaIlLilic:; !win" 111,-.1:,111,,1
careful calibration of instrument scalc'; will OWl< Ill'" 'I."
difficulty m the time of instrument assembly [lnd testing bul, iJ I w:c, dl'!"l:' '1.11:, ,;
of the operating mechanism may set in, which will require r.:l::i1il'illli"ll ,<I Ii,'
instrument, to restme its accuracy, An anaiogy to th,is iii Ih~ c;i1iilr;l1i,III "I ';1('
to determine their actual size in relation to their nominal ',i,~e,

3.44 Variance

!his may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device of an

1l1strumcnt,
with respect to the measured q
m
mtitv.'
e
,
I 1 we 11o\V consider
over rhe full range of instrument readin9's and
p,otte
1
d. ~.f'In d'(cate d readings with respect w measured qW1Iltities
" ,as in
a
is
.
t.he sensmvlly at any value of y~=dy!dx where dx and dy are lD.Gfements
ot x and y, taken ~ver two consecutive readings. If continuous readings of yare
taken o~er the fulllllstrum.ent scale, the sensitivity is the slope of the curve at any
value ot y.

This may be defined as the range of variation in instrument reading which llI:r,/
be obtained from repeated measurements of a given quantity.
Variance is inherent in many types of instruments, the exteni to which il i"
present depending upon such factors as the quality of manufacture or the :,U\Iability of the operating princip.lr:: for the type of measurement to be undert:;l.:.cn.
A simpl0 and common example of variance is the operating characterislies
of a dial test indicator.
il.. test to determine variance in such all instrument takes the form of 3 series
of observations of ir.:.dicatcd values in relation to the known values
slip gauges.
The dial test indicator is rigidly mounted above a suitable reference surface, such
as a lapped plate. A series of slip
is then selected, the series
111
size in increments of say 1 mm
extending to embrace the full range of
plunger movement. If then each
gauge in turn is passed carefully across the
reference sGrface and under the measuring plunger, a series of correspcndir::.g
scale
and recorded. Let us assume that these readings
are taken with the
moving
upwards, The r>;uJings an; then
but in the reverse direction, and again recorded. If the readings are I:'O'H

or

(!)

z
o

<.(

III

c::

1-.

:z
LLl

;:;:

+
MEASURED qUANTITY

READINGS INCREASING

Fig. 3.4. Sensitivity of a measuring instrument.

,
It '.vill be ncted that this treatment of i;lstrumcrrc
enlarges on the
"~qU~'l'h
ac"ep'f'd
',1,
, 1 - ut:
. comp.etClj
I " (!etlTI{~n 2nd detennmcd by
r '~.
,,' C~) ',c.
,~
h
. ea t'"
fide i. t l!igy
rererence ,0 tile leas! change t11 the measured quantity which will cause an observable
in, tlot'
i-'S'l"'lm' 11
~1'
,-'
h a ("Aennltlo11
J""
,
i'
...
... -'
<..1.1.J _L.~ . . 'w 1 4Gl "" re~l\..l.tng . .::otic.
Has
no
lor the
iae:t ths.t sensitivity may not be un.ifonn over [he total displacement of the indioatsuch as a pointer.
o

36

co,

READINGS
DECREASING

Fig. 3.5.

Variance in a dial test indicator.

37

Jv!etro!ogy for Engineers

Linear lvieasure?nent

plotted as in Fig. 3.5, it may be found that the plotted points lie on two cnrves
whtch form a loop, the boundaries of which represent the maxim?lnI variation of
readings for a given value within the series of values of .he slip gauges used. A
pair of snch curves forms a hysteresis loop, and is a characteristic of the instnllnent
under test.
Fig. 3.5 shows that, in general, dial test indicators are not sctitable for the
mea3Uremellt of h~~ight or length differences of a magnitude approac11ing the full
range of indication. They are suitable for the measurement ~)f small displacements,
and in one direction only.

wholly or in part on a linkage or other mechanical

of a fluid. for their operation, are subject to the
at InCI
Only those Instmments dependent soleJy 0:1 the application of optical principles are entirely free of incrtia :::ifects.
Inertia produces a condition referred to as passi/ity. or sluggIshness. It may
be determined for an~!
instnlment by
til.(; smalkst
in the
mCEisured quantity which
any change ill the inst;umcnt fe:ldil1g.
lf we considci' a
type of instrument in which the elastic movement
of thc diaphragm under fluid pressure is transluted as, S;lY a pointer movement
rclntiye to a seRle: the ~r:stn,lInent "-1lin be frce of passivity only if th:; diaphraglTI
is
elastic under all varhltions of the t1uid pressure to be measured.
The same char!.lcteristic applies to an instrumcl~t
on a mechanical
eiastlcity ,)f
movcmerH fJf the operation of a pGinter. In this case,
iTIay be the source.
From the
brief treatment of the sources
instru.ment '~rrors, it wiU
that in the
of instruments it l1:ay be diificult to separate a
defect from others. For exmnp!e. passivity is
associated with
may only show itself as a
in the sensitivity of an
po:nt in its scale recldlng.
in addition to instru1ne.tlts,
It mdSL oe horne ill mind that measuring
may be
and that in ,;ach
the application of kin.:matic
it mel), be said that ollly
strict observance cf tth:m :::a:-: th~
mcnts of a design be satisfied.
systern, or on the

To explain this, consider a body

in space, Fig. 3.6. It has freedom of
transiatory rnotion along anyone of
the mutually perpendicular axes X,
y, and
and may also rotate about
an'! one of Ulcse, thus making a total
o(six dcgrees of freedom. To completely fix the body in space tl:crcfore,
sh constr::tints must be applied; one
constraint f03~ each degree of freedom.
Commonly, in measuring instru
ments and machines, it is nc:cessa.ry
to allow one
of freedom of a
member, which requires five constraints, or TO completely constrain a
Inembcr, it thus constituting a fixture.

PI, rXCIPIES OF KINEMATICS

The {(lost important t!lcorcm cf kinematics states: A rigid body in space has )'ix

o.Ffj':::cdoln.

38

any

As an
of the latt;;r case, consider the mounting of II surface plate on a
.
. iou
t 'In Sno)."1 a l'lCln11-'"
t'lP~ t,,110\,ll'I'"
stand. The mOllntll1g
must .oe carrJ(~(
< ,~, ~lllat
,
~".-"
'0
conditions ~~.re satisfied:
j

(a) The plate is completely constrained without tbe application of extern,"l

forces.
(b) The plate must be free to expalld and contract with changes of'lmbicnt

or

3.5

Fig. ;.6. Six (kgrecs of freedoJU. If

a body is i're(~ to
in
it
mrl"'1 have \JIIC ('1',
a
of
nUlnber of ; he rnotjon5 sho\vn~

tempemture.
(c) The piate must be adequately supported to

its distorLlon.

(d) It must not be possible to accidentally clisbclge the phte from its set
position.
11)3 ke

A furlhcr optiOIlD.1 TeqmrcrrJ(~nt

may be (,'ha,t 'I
,1e rnoUlIt'TH'!
1 'a
.'
('Lor t 1llC
+\.0 00.
'
, . , In
'
or;'L'(\ut;1
prOViSion
SC:L
":1 trlle"11.,....
I~".'
All oflhesc .~onditions rnay be satisuecl in the
way:
The underside of the
is litted with ball 1e:::t, spacd so that the centre of
gravity of the plate is cont1-.ined within the triangle formed by lines joining the
centres of the balls
3.
. '
1
I'
1
"F'
'th 'b en or~pl i, '0 ")'S' O""C"
The 'Uppcr surface ot, Ue
stal~Q 1S t 1(~n ll"ed "YL ~,r'~ vc0~ . '-', """
,'Y
~ <'Olll'ra1
. '-~rl,'\ther
p'roove:' the third remammg as a flat
Ll __ .t, i:\.
,,-'
_ , ... G ..
,./"
"a 'vce C
contal'~;'l"
surface. -[he arnmgcm,~nt oft.':1ese i:1 as shown in
3.2.
,
If new the kH feet :Ire rested on to the hole, the vee groove a~d !l:G
'1
r-'
\.Q.S tIl" bedv to be constrained, the comcal [JOk 'Jill
a 'ld '''e c nnc;rlpr l'j',C nlatc
prevent all lateral movement along the X, Y, and Z axes. Rotation al;oul tnc
<

J.

'i)

\.,-', ....

,,'-1-....

vv

39

jletrology fur Engineers

Linear M easuremell l'

vertical Z
;and nne of t!J.e horizontal X or Y axes, is constrained by the
vee, rotation ahm.1t the
horizontal axis being restrained by the fiat
support. It shod.d be noted that no clamping forces an, applied, other than that
of gravity.

r
i

-4t~I

emphasize that only by the application of kinematic principles can the design of
an instrument or rna,chine be such that its accuracy in operation does not rest
entirely on its accuracy of manufacture, although it must be realized that for the
moving member of a vee-flat bail slide to have true linear motion the following
manufacture:
conditions must be realized

(a) The vee must be straight in the horizontal and vertical planes.
(b) The flat must

,.'7

, CONICAL

HOLE

VEE GROOVE

pJate.

IJ
_,_ _I..==:J

Thus, th,~ plate is completely constrained, a~d at the s~me time ~he other
three cor.. ditionc;
for its mounting are satIsfied. It Win further be noted,
t!mt the location
the Dlate is
As an additional refinement, if the three
l'J f~>et (;al'~
'"In ';d;ust i "", !'cre'v:> their relative
may be set so that
C C"!'X'j'"o'
.. l.\.<
,,,ba "..........
the plate is
to a true horizontal plcme.
!", .. ~

'~j

,,-(.be>

;,.I

'~

FLAf,

Fig. 3.8. Pian view of kinematic

mounting for surface plate.

Underside of surface

.,~

LINE OF
/MOVEMENT

ILOAD/ /

'-L---~-- m
,

plane.

(c) The vee and the fiat must lie in parallel horizontal planes.

Fig. 3.7.

pe straight in the horizontal

'(

Fig, 3,9.

Kinematic constraints for linear motion.

Not only do kinematic principles allow

of manuf:.lcture, but they
provide for adj 11stment at instrument assembly and testing
so that completely satisfactory operating characteristics may be achieved.
MOVING MEMBER

3.52

One DCg:!Tee of Freedom

If we now consider tile requirements for one degree of fr'eedom. e.g:. lin<::ar motion
along the Y
if we substitute a second vee groove for the conical
we have
a condition <13 in Fi.g. 3.9, the
being free to move oniy aior,g the axis shown,
provided its ccrrtre ;f
is contained within the triangle fOf:lld by lines conball feet.

neeting the cent;1l~s Df

/~ "implc e:::::::nsion of this am:mgement results in a sli,Jew<lY, by making the
vee PTOOVCS COllt1nUOUS" as in Fif~. 3~ 10_
"'For a
to be Droperly supported, and to redtLCe friction,. a series of
rolEng balls arc substituted for the b~llj f~~t: ~h~ distrib~ti~n of villich i11?n.~ the
slide js ',lJSlw.::.D._by.,.pcg&:1:t-stiir:tbJeMrt1C'l'flT'1ls. 1hlS lYpe Of slldeway, or :anaIhS of
it~ is
found In'
D1acmines. 1'he design of dtese ,\,V1U be dealt
,
,
.... ! 1
~
hi ne.).
' J,;.
" :,'
S,H
'.!.o~;"'~t, h"'re ti()
with
appilcatlOl1s
or the partl(w
ar maCL
,,?
l",d.
".

40

/\A

Fig. 3.10.

Vee-fiat ball slide.

3.6 COMPARISON OF GAUGE BLOCKS

Mention has be!Jll n: _de (section 3.3) of the technique ~iUita.ble for the comparative
measurement of slip gaugcs. It is cf such fundamcntal importance that it is worth
setting out in some detail. Aithougb stated here as a procedure, it is clearly also a
case where practical eKp~rience counts for much. The student, in particular, will
D

41

J.1letlology for Engineers

Linear
out un experiment in the calibrati,oll
magnification, sensitive comparator.

considerab1y from

or slip
The accuracy of determination
such 11 method should 'JC of the order of
:to05 p.m, uut obviously it will vary with, and be dependent upon, the accuracy
of the comparator, and the observer.

Example. The calibration of a selection of grade II slip gauges, by com~

with grade 0
gauges.
Apparatus. A selection of
0
gauges. Grade n
gRuges to be
calibrated. High magnification comparator {~< IC
directly~alibratcd in
units of 0-10 /-Lm.
lvfethod. It is assumed that the comparator and the
are housed ill,
or have been in, a standards room or metrolo;y lJ.boratory
sutficir.nt time, so
tllat equality of temperature at approximately lOGe exi.,ts between them.
The gauges are then
clean with chamois lcath,;r, aft:;;:
with
a suitable spirit, say carbon tetrachloride. They are tllec sec out iuto two sroups,
at 11 convenient point adjacent to the comparator.
The comparator platen or table is similarly degreased auc! cleaned.
1} slip gauge is then lightly "N~ung' to the
and the
measuring head is lowered and acljuscecl to read tlw
eEOC of
tbe [:;ference slip.
At this st8.ge, the
should be al10wed to
of cl1:= gauge and
account of possible variation
If necessary, readjust the IllStrumeilt reading to the knowil ,;rror in the
reference slip gauge.
Carefully remove the
0 slin, aI!d substitute a
n slip for
the same nomilla.l size. Using the same technique as before, :llOte the error from
t1::e
zero, and record. it.
.A pr;~caution at this stage is to recheck the instrument zero, by taking a
This is a cJ.edc on possible
se:.:ond readicg Gil the [C':r'erence
in the
conditions,
that of ten~perature.
E:::.ch grade II slip gauge may be simnady treated, and tilt) results tabulated
as below:
!-f",.0'VU

DESIG1\T OF
ceD1parators are the
instruments used in linear measureSllCh th~ir.
has received much attention. Many principl:.;s
hnve. been ~sed to ob[~m slll!.a!Jic.
of magnification of the indicating ~vice
relatIve to the Ghange 1ll the dimenSIOn
measured. The main principles used
are as fGllows:
(a)
JjJl1vl1,:>,"HW."

ment. and as

(b) lvfechanical-opticaL
(c) Pneumatic.
(d) Electrical.
(c) Fluid displacement.

3.71
Additionally, comparators of
sensitivl'tyall,a"
r1

an",
suitable for li.0C in ~tandards rooms, rather than inspection
have
been
and brought into wide use for the calibration c,' gauges. These 8re:

(a) Th,; Brookes Leye] Comparator.

(b) The Ed:::n-Rolt 'f"filJionth'

'-LIlHlJdl

The design of 2:11c11 originated at the Natiol1<:'J Physical Laboratory, and was the
work of men to whO:11 much is owed in the field of line mcasurel11eIlt.'~
Each of r;L;se instrurncnts is now
commerciai1y, but the simplicity
and soundness of th<:ir d::sign is such that no boo~c dealing \vith
Can
overlDok them.

Stc.nc'ards: Grade 0 Set of 8/(0 Gauges

{.tIll)
(Unit
.-

Nominal

Size (nun)

2
3

Known error

Reading all
Grade If Gauge

+01

,LOA

()

+08
+05
-i-0-6

of Grade 0

+02

-01
+01

-0,5

Ei'/'Or ill

3.71J Brookes Lel'el C'urt/parator

Grade iT Gauge
03
-:,0,8
+03

+07
06

\'

Tjle principle on which this

is that of the displacement of the
of a sensitive 10ve1-tllbe, ~,nd is
ill the man.ner shown
3.11 (a) and (e).
The iml'ort:-:.nt design f~3tllres are the sensitive lcvcI.. td)e, and its mounliw!
on a kinen-,~~~ slide to, aJlow it
to take on the correct slope as
.
the
dmen:nce ot the gauges A. and
and the rotatable; platen .

" A. J, C. Brookes, E. M. TIckn, and F. H. Roll.

Metrology for Engineers

J'v!ea:,'urClIh'W'

on its unDer and lower

which are mutually parallel. The lower face rests
i..ipon and' may rotate on the flat upper face of the base. The arrangement is such
that the ph,tcn is accurately rotatable in the plane of its upper face.
In use, the two gauges to be compared are 'wrung' to the platen, and the
level-tnbe is lowered .on its steel column so that the two ball
spaced at a centre
distance of 175 rom, are
on the upper surfaces of A and 13. If then we assume
that A is the reference gauge, the amount and direction or the inclination of the
leveJ-tube at position A-B 'NiH depend upon the height ofB in relation to that of A.
READING RI

of such an instrument is somev;hat slow but, used under

correct
in a standards room, is entirely suitable for the calibratioll of
gauges, as dealt with previollsly in this chapter.

3.712 Eden-Rolt' Millionth' Comparator

This instrument is
suitable for the calibration of gauges under measuring conditions
to a standards room.
Its design is :lotable for the simplici,y and ecorlOm.y with wl'Jch it obtains a
very rjgh mag!lification, due to the combination of a mechanical movement
supplemented by an
:;ystem.
The mech:micnl
system is shmvn diagrammatically i.n
3.12 (a).
THIN STRIPS 5

POINTER

~JII STRIPS POINER

E [ I
FIX ED BLOCK F \;,]11
1/
U,NGl H
l
/1
~~~g\
A\
.1---.------1' b--:r=.=~1 --'J
___0
--..L

(b) READING
GAUGES

~l}~~~:~ING f3~O~~~Jl_1

(a) READING IN INlTI'),,- POSITION

Fig. 3.11.

Principle of comparative measurement by Brookes level GOmp,irator,

Also, since a level-tube

in relation to a true horizon, account must
aiso be taken of the plane of the
in relation to this. This is don.e by rotating
tbc platen through 18;)" to the
shown at Fig. J.l j (b), h:1.ving first raised
tbe tt"id-luoe clear of the gauge. A second r.c<lding is ull;en at position B-A. The
;;:!it'Ierence bct,veen the
'\-13 and B-A must tbm be twice th~ difference
in height betw(~en the ,(wo gauges. We therefore have,
R1-R'J
difference (iSh)
2 .

where R, ,met R2 are the ,,-,,,,,,,,,,,.) A-B Hnd B-A respectively.

T!-w instrument scaie is
directly to 02 i-,In, and may be read to
O;'{)4 ,um by estimaticn. It
when one considers the 'douhling'
(!nect of ellis method or
to dotce!; differences in height i:l.S small as

CHf2 ,,,,::n.
A:'e:lture of this
and one which is quit;; L!nique, i'l that the gauges
togethc;-, and l'.ot in isolation from cud} vthc-:-. ]'11';
of
t'bis may be judged by the fact (ilUt having 'wrung' t:K: Jaugcs to the
~Uly !h~;!~~ he left to
jn
before readings arc taken~
I min/;:nm of g:mge
recommended for thi" purpose.
The lJl~;lruTD.ent is
:,on 5iz,:;s to aGCOmmodllte gauges up
to 1 .m in length. This agaIn is a unique feature.

l!'rc

44

II---'-----lr +-=1

/
FIXED
ANVIL

(~It~c~

EAR MOTION
Of' I,jOVING SLOCK

MOVING A~iVlL

(SiHG~[

~-

~J

LINEAR DISPLACEMENT OF
:. MECHANICAL MAGN

WE8~

\)
\

~f

l==.-:"~I-~-'""~\
'\ --~

.'

IF MOVING SlOCi', IS DISPLACED.;

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

d"SEPARAT!O?;
OF r'OINTER
\
\{
STRI;:>S
'\

\___

---I

BALL)

WEB

I ...........

I~
I~ -

,0

EFFE::1 OF DiSPUl,CING

--MO\,I~;G BLOCI{

----Fig.3.12(a),

Mechanica! SYSt0!11 of Edcn-Rolt 'mil1io!.1.th' C0mparator (rtlagnificzJion x 400).

The reference gauge,

is phced bct'.vecQ the s.nvil and tbe me:lsuring
plunger, and CUtiSes a sm,dl lin'~ar movemcnt of block M relative to block F.
The blocks are connected by thin steel strips, :3, and to a pointer carrying at its
other end a
across which I:; stretched. a st)ider web. The movement of block M
causes a deileclion of the
which is 'lbout 200 mlU ill
The spider web at the end of the POiD!C], is nOL viewed
but
as an
image moving dative t,) a scale. The
system producing thIS is shown
diagramm3tic::dly Fig. 3.12 (b). It is a
projection system, to
a """,",H.ur
cation of x 50. If, then, the mechanical magnification = x
magniflcation ,= x 50, total
= 400 x 50 = x 20 000.

45

ll1etrology for Engineers

Linear

The scr"L, is caUh;:ated to read dircsdy to 02 p,1ll and the scale divisions
are about 5 rom
It is therefore possible to read by estlmstLon to 002 ~lm.
It will oc noted that thi;:;; design produces a very
magnification in two
relatively simple stages, the first of which depends upon Idnt:mrttics for its sensitivity and simplicity of manufacture.
The contact faces of the anvil and plunger are also unusual. That carried on
blDd: ]\(l consists of a single ball. The anvil face,
consists of a cluster of
three halls
a
The gauge.: is therefore seated ':Ofreetly on the
and cannet take up r!_~ incorrect attitude rel~ltlve to the line 0f trlo'V~~raerrt of

j}1 easurement

3.721 1/1e Johansson 'lvIikrokator'

Perhaps the simplest, yet most ingeniolls, movement used in ~his type of
instrument is one due to EL Abramson, a Swedish cngh1cer, and which is ma.de by
C. E. Johansson Lid. It is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3.13.

block M.
SCALE

STRIP
ClIHTILEVER___

STRIP

BELL CR/\NK
LEVER

PROJECT'ON LENS

WEB
SCALE
COf'WENSERS

PRISM

Fig. 3. 12(b). Opticai system of Ed"n--Rc:lt 'millionth' ;;ompdmtor

(mugnification x 50).

The instrument is considered to be an

~\-vhich

of 111anufacture pJays iUtIe prrrt in

th~:: a\~cnracy

is not ncceSS::lrV :for either the

of' tile
or the;
(){ the point;,;r.
oi';:he::>pticai. system may be; of a lwmi nul value o:11y.

For e:mmpk,
the pointer t:)

oe

the lilstn.l!nen

46

to be eXi;zctcd ..

Movement of Johanssonivlikrobtor.

of the reG-dings.

~teel

strins c~'xrvjng
the m~Zi11ncQ'tion

dcilciencies
.fronl the n,arluf~lctur.'3 of ::;ither of r:hcse systenlS may
for by the cal!braticH of the :;cnie of' the ins~',:.~un.l(~{~tt by rel{~rel.1Ge
to
_. ct-naiI::d on a 3e/ics of stip gauges
ki1(>'1/I1 l;{Wrs.
!,./;le '-.:'iul GCnS1(1,er nOVl the
of
of !.he niGi'(~ 'iI5U~:1J types of
comp;m'.wrs,
in which kirrerrw'(ic
are
and
b~

Fig. 3.13.

example of design, in

A thiil metal strip carries ,It the cr:;ntre ot ItS

g very light
tub,~
pointer. From the centre, the strip i:~ pcrmalli~tltly t',vistcd to forn)
aDd l[;fLhand helices. One end 0[' the strip is fixed to the
cantilever strip, [he
other being anchored. to the spring
elbow, one arm of whidi is carried ml.

the

plunger.
As the measuril'g

moves, ei.ther upw3rds or downwa-,.(!:;. l.h'~ ,~lI:h'w

ben cranl~ \~ver and causes the t~vjsted
il:'; !t.;o: 1.11 .lnt! l_j:I:,~;
further twist, or untwist. Iknce the pointer at til:: cenci'_; 1)[' 1\:;: :\\'i.,
~.'I
rotat.es an amount propor(\or,uL to the change in
11 Dr ill" <;llil'.
It CUrl be shown tbu the ratio
acts as

(1

47

}decrofugy for Engineers

I"".
5

Linear !VIcasuremcf!i

,~

d8

=- =

di

.. ~.

amolrncatlOl1 =

911

---

W2n

where 1= length of twisted strip, measured along its neutral a.,-us

W=width of twisted strip

n = number of turns
8 =twisi.. of mid.point of strip with respect 10 the end (d.;;grces)
The dimensions of the rectangular section of the tl:llistc:d strip are always
very small. and vary according to tb~ amplification of the lnstrumcm. An average
value for these dimensions .is 006 m.m x 00025 mm and the stresses in the strip,
for a given tension, may be further reduced by smail perforations along its length.
The purpose of the cantilever strip, other thiln as an anchorage, is to allow
an adjustment to be made in arnDWication. Its effective .tensth may be varied,
and if for example it is increased, then for a given lotal rnovelnent of the plunger
mOTe of this movement will be accommodated by deflection of the cantilever, and
les~; by extension of the twisted strip.
It should be noted that here again is an example in which design allows
simplicity of manU~lcturc; the final setting of the instrumem ampli:lcatioll bt~ing
made by a simple adjustment of the free length of the cantilever strip. It should
also be noted ~hat the cantilever mounting is adjustable, and by slackening one,
and tightening the Olher mounting screw, the initial tension in the twisted strip
may be adjusted.
The lower mounting of the plunger is in the form of a slit C washer as shown
in Fig. 3.13 and this completes the movement of an instmmenl which has no
mechanical pivots or slidcs at which Vicar can take place.
The instrument is surprisingly fobust and is produced comm~,;rGial1y in a range
of j~lagnif,C:J.tions :.1p to :< ::;000, B.lthough under controliedl".coratory conditions
much higher sensitivitie3 have been 2.chjcvr;d.

3.722

fix~:!d .rHein ber, t";Onncct0u

by thia flexible strips

;jIter~"Un~:;1.y

at right angles

to ead, other. ;t ;zm be shov"l1 Lh,1! if 3.,1 '~xI~crnal f~m~ is applieJ to the moving
member it will pivot, as would a hii:ge, clb011t tb::; line of intcrsect;ou of the strips.

48

SCALE

I
fr

~?-"
./

/' /

(e;'" --'"

.,\\'(.~~
A
o~.
f
~~~/
FIXED

/%"""\
\

DRIVING

=_=~~fSLIT

DIAPHRAGM

.---~

j'J---- "i--

~
h'
,lR~1 OF

?:r;/'FJ

-SAPPHII:U: BE!,RING
BLOCK

J. .

I\~

LEI'lGTH l.
CROSS-STRIP
PHOSF'HOR-BfWI.jZE
HINGE
DRIVING BAND

Df,UM

l~---, C\
x
'-)
SCR~NS
I-~ 1---1/
MEMBER--......n --h----rJ,-- Iii
l"'--'-'u

POINTER SPINDLE

\ /~~......---./'
!J .//~,'~'-..

-PLUNGER

MOVING
BLOCK

=r
NOTE: FOR CLARITY THE FRAME

SLIT

~IAPHRAGf~
I

AND OTHER DETAILS----1

ARE OMITTED. ONI_Y THE
I
ESSENTIALS ARE SHOWN V

Fig. 3.14.

The 'Sigma' Comparator

Another meclianical comparator of illgeniom, yet simple design is that produced in a range of magnific:niolls by the Sigma Instrument Company. The
movement is sho\vn in diagrajl1n),l':i,~ form in Fig. J.l4 (it mlls[ L',~ emphasized
that this is Q diagraIIl explainIng the pr.i.n~lplcs and that thl3 ac[ual 1110VCrncnt is
m.uclt m0[{~ cornp;tct than this).
The plunger, mOll.nted. on a pair of sFi. dhDhragms to give a fricti-Jn1css linear
movement., has mGlElted upon it a knj~'e ,edge which bears I.lpml. th;; face of the
T.OOV.iDg 111Clnber or a cross . . strip hiuge, rfb},:,; C{)1l0.lStS (If the rr~oving c:)G.l.ponent

and a

Attached to the moving member is an ann whieh divides into a 'Y' form. If
the effGctivc length of this arm is L and the distance from the hinge pivot to the
knife edge is x then the [irst stage of the magnification is L/x.
To the extremities of the 'Y' arm is attached a phosphor-bronze strip which
is passed around a drum of radius r attached to the pointer spindle. If the pointGr
is of length R then the second stage of the magnification is R/r and the totai
magnification is !-/x x R/r.

I
I
I

!!
I,
it

II

L_

Di~graIl1

of movcnlcnt of Sign1:l

rr~cchanical

compara.tor.

Th8 magniii:atioll can be adjusted by slackening one and tightening the

other sere"", attaching the knife edge to the plunger and thus adjusting distance x,
while a range of instruments of differing magnifications C8.n be produced by lJaving
drums of (:hfiereI].t r"ciij r and suitable strips.
,I\part from tbe movement t.he instrument has other interesting features :1S
follows:

Ca) Safety. It shouid be noted t]-,~lt the knife edge moves away from the moving
member of the hinge :lnd 1S followed by it. Therefore. if too robust a plunger
movemcl,t is lllaac thc knit"; edge moves away from the hinge mcmber and shock
loads arc: not transmitted tl.irol-,!;h the movement.
(b) 'Qead b~'ai" ,.ead;I7~;s. TJle poinkr is cau~cd to come to rest, with little or
no oscillation, by mounting Of) tIle pointer spindle a Den-ferrous disc moving in
the field of a permanent magnel. Rotational movement of the pointer and cli~c
cause eddy currents to be ,;el up in the disc, which have a turning effect ill opposi.
tiOl} to the' direcf:Oll of motion and proportLonal to the rotational velocity. Thus

49

]yJetrology for Engineers

Linear jf;l'easuremem'

oscillations are damped out by a damping force "'ihich increases as required, i.e:
the amplitude and velocity of the osciHation.

7v-:rtl

AND

(c) Fine adjustment. The normal height adjustment of the viGrk strrge, to zero
the pointer, is too coarse for the
magnification of silch an instrument, and;
..is uHslLttablc for this purpose. To overcome this tt,;: dial of the
instrument
is mounted so that it rotates about the spindle axis. Thus, final setting of the
. pointer is achieved
the
rather than the
and in this case the
Instrument
rather than hinders.

UGHT SOURCE

CONDENSERS
INDEX

(~lTOnconsly

dial type
The line between the
eye and pointer is
normal to the scale when the pointer obscures its DWJ\
in the silvered
of the dial.
pnf::llIax by
the tip
tip is turned through
across lis end a small 'Tee'
moves in the slot and thus
of the sca!es. As the pointer and scales lie in the same plane the
is cOlnpit.::tely elin1inatecL

(d) Parallax,. This common cc.use of

Inents is overcome by having a rel1ective strip or.. '(he

.1

'

Constant measuring pressure. A feature not shown in the simplified

is the use of a magnet to en,lbb the plunger contact prc'isu;'C to be con5t~ult OV(;i" the range of ihe instrument. In any instrument of this type, the greater
force required,
the clcikc::ioll oftile moverr~ent, the greater wiH be the
(lmt1j;m the
the
pressure. This adverse effect is co.mpensated
r~)r
u horseshoe
on the fmme and a
bar on the top of
th~
and the force required
the
m~.u.u" attraction between the t\VO increases.
for':::e hlcr,~ases the o_t:;slsta,nc8 given
the magnet
has been discllssed at seIne
from being an excellent measuring instrument,
design
i~ach
bei;lg cc;ns:rio::red
"I,d a means
of O"l(rercorning it
o2.~sed on the use of
sl:.uple and \Vf;li-known
principles.

are

inlc~ge* ~rbe mechanic~i ~~ystef[!.

axis~

of an index is

fhe

causes

th~n

PRO.!ECTION
LENS

SC~tle.

MIRROR

:t
v

PLU~~GER

Fig. 3.15.

Principle of optical comparator.

In such a system:

Mechanical ampJificatioll

1 x 20 x 1=20

il!1itS

=50 2
=lC{) units
=20 x 100 units
=2000 :units
The factor of 2. contn [ned in the
following manner.
(~onsi.dcr a
bean1
relative: to the normal to the

form the

11

an1pEfication is
falIiI~g

on

Fig. 3.:6

rcfkctor, aed at
The reflected bearn \vill

r::;lativc to the normaL

arnp1iti~.d

of an
tilt about an
to a posicion rc1aIi'ic to a
and
t~

on to the inn-3f f(}ce of ~1

3.15

lil

dit:i.g:ranl

forB}

only, SUC11

;)Xl

arfangl)lncnt
Fig. 3. \6(a). ReElection from a phlnc scl!"i:IC";.

50

about in tll;,7
I)
al~;o

JVietrology for

Linear lvleasurwrcn(

If DOW, the
incident beam
plane reflector
through 2ou,

is turned through the

3 1.(
turned through angle 88, the

r,~'11'H'-",,'

COIFtant
j t 1'S ;;e~n
[PI'
. v
,..!.:i
V
.1. ry~

.L IJ

D~

the path of the

the normal to the
beam is turned

REFLECTOR
TURNED THROUGH Ci8

It is ill effect an auto-collimator, in which the reflector is built in, and deflected
by the measuring plunger. To keep the instrument compaCt in design the
path is turned throOlgh 90 by the prism, and of course the scale is graduated \11
linear units, usually of 0-001 mm.
Such instruments have very low inertia in' the movements, as the only
parts are tile::: pli.mgcr and the reflector. The norma'! point<::r in mechanical instm
ments is replaced by a bCD.m of light which is of course weightless, and the
lever system (Fig. 3.16) gives a doubling effect to the magnification.

Fig. 3.17.

FilS. 3.16(b).

Refkction from a plane surface

tUT1Jed

Reil~ction

from back and front rdectors.

If the distance from the plunger centre-line to the mirror pivot is x, and the
plunger mOi'es a dIstance fl, then the
movement of the mirror

through anglo 80.

The rElg[e
the incident beam and its new normal
Likewise, the clDgl(~ betv'Iecn normal 2 and rei1ected Deanl 2
The total angle between the ineidefIt .1nd Eflccl:eci bC3.tns
2(8 + MJ).
le i::: this 'built in'
of 2 obtained from a
which
is of such value in
COll'lparaton. Clearly
if a doubk reflection is
provided, as may be
from two opposed ret1ectt)fs, one
the other
capable of tilting
then t.'lc factor becomes 4.
~orm[l:Hy, _
. :mHkient amplification is obtained fmm a
mirror
~sed III COl1J,mctlOl1 WIth a suitabb length of reflected beJ.m,
as a weiohtless
wver.

h
x
the focal length o[ the lens then the movement of the scale is 2fcf)
4).

ae

,., Scale movement

The magnification of the instrumenl

I;;>

and of some impClrtanCt~, in mirrors usC!d fot this and

instnlIncnts~ is rhat
are of the front

. ..A point of

sl~:Jia~ llurposes In other

renectlon typ~~ and hence tile

norrnal bac~~
. , rei1ectioJ'l
.,
.
~

{.onSlUf';Tatle

care IS

to the n::DcGting surface.

brush.
Fif,. 3.18 shows a
Omtimeter produced by

loss of deElnition \v.hk:h res'..iJ.ts

the use of the

as shovvn in Fio 3 i 7 lOt'" o:.."Yf.'(ljd':llrd
_
\,.
..
-in tht.) bandling ofs :,.ch lllirrors to nV(tid da111age
should be cleaned 0111y \:vitb a ~::;lean c::llnei~hnir
_1;;.,.

.... I)-

oJ

'j

C11)plicatioa of the
Measuring Tools Ltd.

Scale movement
mo\,cmem:

x
It should be r;o(ed tb<1t this
is double that of a silPple mechanical lever in which th~ mah"1ifkaticn is the ratio of the
or;. either Sit1C of the
fulcrum. In t11i:; caGe one lever arm length is the distc1.ncC x; the orllcr lever arm
is the focal
and the factor 2 is due to
lever.
Further mngnif,cmion is provided by the

in the
Overall

rm~gnifica tioll

magnification

53

F
Linear

Industrially, pneumatic comparators, in which small variations are maGe in. the
dimension being measured vi'itb
to a referenc>.O dim(~nsioil and which are
shmvn by a variation in either
or
the velocity of air
are
becoming of
importance,
The reasons for tilis "xc that very high L"U'.'.H.'''~''
contact is nmde either with the setting gauge or the part
and. that
internal dimemicns m;).y be readily measui'cd. not
boundaries, but also
form.
the system lends itself to the
inspection
a
or a number of rlimensions
either
or
immediately ancr the operating
of ii metclline 1001.

or

3.741

Back-pr'essure CUl1iparatol's

The air prtcssUll; variaLion sYGtem is based on the ilse of a two-orioce arrange111<:nt, as shown ill
3.19.
ME;:\SUii!NG

CCN:flOL

o2

ORIFICE 01

COLLIMATING
LENS OF
LE~lGTH

f
I.VOR:\.
SURFAce

Fig. 3.1.9.
MCVEMENT
OF PLUNGER

Fig.

3.18~

Op\ic~l arrangement of O.M.T. optical '~()I:!p,',ratcL This instrument

~relkc[ed imngc of the scale Oll to a sw;~n.

the

E~scntia13

of a

bacl.;:~pressure

pneUD1atic gauging systen1.

at controlled pressure into the

and
tile
Air is
soun:e prcss~m;,
the control orifkc G t ;.~1to the il1lermcdiat,:;
chan1.ber. ()r:.1ftCG
bUl~ tlJ8 t:::tTcctivc size of ():J nlay
varied
Po abc
<1(,d thus
a
by the djSt~lilCC d. As d
measure of dj;~'Jensiol1 fl, TIm:;
devic0 i.s a pc(;ssure gauge ':~f TI1ano .
meter
the pressure l)t; bet\vcen tbe onfices.
By suiLaoly
the djalYletr~rs of
and.
and
the
\vi th the eir(~crive
pressure 2,t I'b may be liH(ic to vary
limited
the curve obtained by piotring tht:
ratios
->

OVt:ral1 magnificllLion
(Co['rle~y

0/ C'Plical jl;fcasuring

AB

are d:e areas of orifices

" x-y:

Tools Lid.)

within
for the

bet~Nef;:n approxin:.ately 06 and

the curve is Hncar
these values that arc us en in the design of such comparator"

diameters

or orifice;;.

Linear JHcasuremc!ll

liletrology for Engineers

If we consider the linear portion of the curve, i.e. between the values of 06
and 08 for
its law may be written as:

bA 2
Al ,

The

at reduced pressure then

through the control orifice, and

from the measuring orif:.ce. The

pressure in the circuit is indicated by
head of ';Fater
in the manometer tube. The ~ube .is gra:luated linear~y to
show changes of pressure resulting .from changes 1ll dllnenSlOl1 d,
'Amplifications of up to 50000 arc obtainable with this

j.l9.

CONTROL ORIF!CE
LINEAR 'NlTHIN
1% IN THIS flANGE

I'

."
Fig. 3.20. Charllcteristic curve of backpressure pneuma/i,; system.
TUBE

MEASURiNG

JETS

As with any other comparator, the sensitivity is the mtio of the change of
position of the indicator with respect to a corresponding chang;: of position of the
plunger. In this case the change of position of t:le indicator is
and of the

h
' te
d,,'!~,

.senslttVlty
. .. b'
cmg dPIJ

pneumat~c

dP o

bA 2 Ps
..11
bPs

Therefore, th,; pr.eumatic magnitlcfltion is proportional to the input pressure,

and inversely propoftional to the area,. or rhe ..squilre of the .,diameter, of the
control orifice.
It is clear that an essential operating requirement is that pressure
is con.;omroI!lng the
stanL It is thus ncccss&ry to bave a
pressure of the air frem the Hormed
aWi It nece.)sary
it from
:.lbout.55 N/cm 2 [0 i
Fig. 3.21 !).\Jovr's the circu~t di~lgranl of '~he instru:ment
for internal
produced by Sokx Air Gauges Ltd., the instrument being
measurement.
The air from its norn-tal source of
S~l~r th~
air line, is ""1.,01<01.1.
and p~3SCS
a fIo\v "'valve. Its pressur'~; then t'educed [EJd cnaintained at a
constam value by .:c
tUDi;' into a water .:hamber, the .p,cs:;ure value being
cewnninect by~J1C head of the wa~cr
excess air
to atmosphere.

56

DIP

Fig.3.21.

Application or \)::lck-pressurc air gauging system used by So/ex Air Gauges Ltd.

Another back-pressure cornp:.Jrator is produced by Mcreer Air Gauges Ltd .

but this
at the much
pressure of 275 N/cm 2 gauge. The constHnt
pressure input is
{"rom the Ene pressure by a diaphwgrn type
and passed to the coattOl oriike aDd thence to the me"suring orifice.
Interesting featmes nre:

Ca) Magnification Otij1lslment. It has beel! shown that the mngnifkation can be
varied by varying the di,nncler of tbe control ('riflee. This is achi(;vcd by means of
a taper ..l1ecdie valve in the control criDec and t:ilabics a
sea.,c; to be used
for all work
adjusting the magnific,Hion and zero
(b) Zero ad;ustmellt. An air bleed, upstream of the I11Jusuring oriDce and
a taper.needle valve, provides a zero adjustment.

controlJ..::a
dial

prcssUl"C gauge, the

The pressuxe rncasuring device is a ~BOllrdoll tube
grao.lmteu. in linear nnit:::. i.e. 0-01 mIn, O'GOl mJ.Ti, or inch units.
As with all other comparators, initial setting is by means of' reference

gauges.
Il

jl;letro logy jor

Engineers

In this case, it is important tbu the reference gauges, and the

being
are of the: SrtlTle
fcrm~ For exampie, slip g::..uges arc uDplicabic as setting
2auges for flat v/Qrkpicces, while circular section wor;( f/;(j'..1ires the llSe of cylilldri~al
gauges . For work i)f the type shown in
3.21, a pair of ref..~rencc
:dug gauges is necessary for
purposes .. 1f tllis preCUlilio? i~; n:)~ taken, the
ar-;
characteristics uf r!lC air escaping t'ro~n tll~~ i11easunng onl1cc>
changed and aUed the accuracy of ['1.G':S1Jj'f: rmdings on Ihe manl)l11cter
.f\
\)1' t:JG
Cy pc of instrtunent, i::1 tt~
oj' 1';;:;plln:,t; Imdcr some condflic n:; of q:;<.;. It i:i clear (hat a:;
the VOlll'lh; i)i' :lir in I ill: :;y:,kll1
il;; 1'1;::1)('
'.if pressure will,
due to ii:-; '-\iln::t"I,:~'i~;iLjli!':l, ["l; n:dUl:c~,L 'fhI:; L';
r:~r~tTcd to tIl
s;;;c;til~n
r.;, Tlti:: ,:ilacad;:ri';li(' j:: uf 11;) ,':,IC:.lf ilK:.:I;l Will;ll I.hc tnt'.!l
OI the
ClI'(uit I'; :,hOI':. /:.!! lil ;ll:pl;\::_H,illlJ;'; l\,j ,j;Dl\.~n',i(;!)~d 0:1!;'\[t\)~ irl the Di;cration Df
rn<i', ilill,; I",;i, for
t~li:; 11'I1I~lh lTl'ry {)l;
and
rise to

Lineai'l}[easurement

Additionally, each may be used to show the geometric form of a

increasingly so with
This is a characteristic of very great importance, and vvill
th0 reduction of the size of dimensional toIer,mce zones. That if" the
of a part
must be conto.il1cd within the diameters of two circles
boundaries~ ~iVb.ere tbe diffl;rences between these is very
a frLlction
of a micro-metft:::, the proLx,bility of a machine
prodlJcing
geometric forms of tbe required accun~cy incrcnses .

YO ,\T[vIOS?HEPE ,:"DJIJSTS ZERO

C=:=J===:==::?---:::-

TO GAUGING HE,AD
I,e.

MR PLUG G!:;UGE
GAP GAUGE

RING Gl,UGE, ETC,

ily

VM~ES

'1'1: ..."
!;( : \ \'

",(.\illd

! lI. ,:,[:;

<;lj;;c;li 'i':
r;~tt:

COmp;lnltor if, that based on 1,~le velocity of

';y:>icl11, no cO!ll[ol orifice such as
3.19) is llsyd. The
t:1C system is measured, mId thus variations in the
mea d the crince
arc measured as variations in the t10w

fon!) <,C

"

cross...secuOrJ Of the gauging, orliJ,ce. l1.11S IS 5ho\vn

indica'tC)f on a linearly
scale"
Til;;; Sy':;L'3[Q nny

tag~

ST/\r.~iU

TY

() f l: .'.;:

322 shows the circuit foc such a system. Ajr fwm a main suppJy, say the
is 5ltefcd ,<mel
It pass:.;s
an
in th[~ for:n of J.
Ihe bore of \vhich is
and in which tlie
.:11e indicator tikc;$
in
tube such that the air
the annulus
the 'Hoat' and the tube is constant. The mrtllen escapes through the
crince.
If, nO\"-1 a nlHstcf g~it.~geD.f corr;~ct size und
fOrD] is used to pre vide
a 4datum' ~~Llt\~ of air ffo'l'Y
cystem, and J <LS _:~lGVv.n by the height of the
iIldi~;.r(or in ~lle tube, any vurla-:50n in the dInlensl0n of the part
\;:ill
1

"
....
,
e
the effective
prouucc
::1. va,r~:u:n
in
dl:,r2.-~t,!
?~ JlO:,.j' .
~ t1".I",

. ~pal't

C,AUSZ::
TO HOrArE FOR

b[~

used in all applications where the

system

RC::-7 Ut:\TQR

Fig. 3.22.

Lin,; diagmm of flow-veJocily-tYl:C pneumatic circEIr.

For
tb,,, norma;
unit: for ln~:ornJ.l di:xnetcrs consists of a
free !jttiDi~ pLug g,:.u,!;e as in. Fi;~.
having two
By rotmi;g the hC:ld ] 80" in the ~ore being
t1.'.c
be detected.
By
a
head
3.23)
orilkcs,
the <;onditi:Jl1 of a lbrec~lob~;d sh[jft detected..
the shaft through
120. The same head will also gi lie an average diar:::cter ,)1' the shaft.

that
J.n\~asured.

]}lis

detrilI:cntal to the sui'1i.(ce finish of the part.

58

59

}rfetrology fot Engineers

Linear Ai {!aSllrnJJl'lIt
Fig. 3.24 shows a similar principle out for an a.c. circuit, in which the !llO'le
rl1ent of the plunger dispiaces an armature, thus causing a variation in the indue
tance of a pair of coils forming one ann of n.n a.c. bridge. A possible armnge;,,:nt
for the
head of such an instnrmcnt is also shown, in which till: piul1p.:r
displaces an arm mounted between the coils on a thin flexible steel strip. The ann
carries an
and the inductance in the coils is dependent upon r.ho displacement (JUne amlature reiative to tIre coils. The baJance of the circult j:,;
, set to' zero, and the amount of unbalance caused by the movement ofrhe
plunger, and hellce by that of the armature, is amplified and shovm on a scak
graduated in !.inear units. Magnifications as high as x 30 000 arl~ possiblt" WiLli
this system.

3.76 FJ:rld lJi::mJincen,er,i Comparators

At the present time, comparators employing this principle,
application.

3.25, have limited

FI~1GER

FINGER

In gcncrL!i these cc~nparators di;p~nd upon the 0pf;ratbn of a. \Vbeatstone bridge

circl1.it in which, f.::>[ a d.c. circuit, a change of balance of the e1.ec~rical resistance
in each arm of the bridge is c,msea
"he displacement of an armatul"e, rdative
to Ihe arms, lli1.d under the acriou of the measnring Dlunger. The out-of-balance
graduated to read In
d1bcts in t.he circuit (lrc meas1ll'cd by a
]jnear
and in terms of [he displar::ement of the measuring plunger.

SET AT

rlE:GHT OF FLUiD

FLUID CHfl.M3ER

PLUNGER
Fig.

3~25.

Principle of Pr:st\vi~h fluid g3.ugc~

<
'r:

.
1 D2
1\',agl1l11Cs.l!on
IS approxIll1ate Y"(i

z'

Eg. 3.24.

60

Measuring bea.d

tOf

dectrical ~omparutc;.

1\ fine bore. capilhrry tube is ar:rangcd so that ~t~ low,: ?~d ,is plll~ed in a
chaluber or reluIl'Vel~.r
cross-)ectlonaJ area. contaUll!1g a DUld or lov,.' 1./1SCOSIty_
The bottom of th.~ eil:lfnbGl' rakes the [(lIm of a diaphragm which may be defi.ec.ed
by pressure transferred to it by the n'!casuring plunger. j)japhragnl def1tction
'cnuse~ a small quantity of fJuid to be displaced from the chamber into thl> tube,

61

Linear lV{easurelnenl

]1;1etrology fOl Engineers

tbus raising the level of the fluid in tins to a point above its free height. A scale is
at the side of ,he
and Limit pohter:; may be set relative to this to
indicate the
and low limits of the dimension being measured, and as obtained
master.
reference to a.
The magnification of such a Gystem is giv'~n by:
Cross-sectional 'Ilea of chambt:r
Magni fica ti on = --c:o;---~-:-;-----:;-------,::-,,-:--

The supports shown in Fig. 3.26 are oi'vee form, and

for
and luter;:-.lJy across the bed.
In use, a length bar of appropriate grade, and as referred to In 3ection 3.3, is
placed on the vee" supports which ::w; the? ~djusted in
so. t~at the ax~~ of
the bar and the aXIS of measurement are comcJ(.tent, as shov;n by illmilTIUm reaGl:igs
the dial indicator
one of the vee
is adju:ltd
and acro:iS
the bed, and a reading is obtained on the micrometer at some suitable

There ar~ certain disad.vantages in a system such as this:

(a) The t1111d reacts to temperature V"l<U,,,-'.0 in the same
as in a thermo~
meter; hence the Deed for a pointer to shu\'! dlC free height
the tube. Any
v:lriation in this requires a corresponding
of the iJigh~ lind low-limit
pointers~

(b) There is a certain passivity in the in:>trurnent du~ to the characteristics of

the diaphragm, and the viscosity of the lluid.

(e) The defiection of cite diaphragm

as the resistance offered by the
increases.

The
iimit::d

\:0

.i11UCfl l~ss

?';i'ucn

u .......<J'"U!Lf',

is not constant.
the measuring force

instruments consldered in section 3.4 UIe, \vith a few exceptions,

linear
of about 25D f:lIn. In fact sGvC:Tal have capaGilies
than this.
linei'~r rne~1SLlretncnt

vior!(; ho\,/::;\'cr.
rlst: to

:.1 nU'~llber

l:-;]scd

Gn

th'::

U,iC

bet',w;'cn a

othtr

~Jrce

1nvolv~::1 djrn~usic'n.s

of

of a

:-naclttnes of various
screw as a means

G1icrom<.':l;~r

master and a -"vor~(piece or

gauge~

3.26 is a direct develop-

with screw
a;) tll 1 m.

Fig. 3.26.

Length-bar !11easuring lTI,(lchinc set to dck:rnlinc tb,;

of a pia gauge.

of the
of the dial indicator. The
or
now substi1.utcd r'oj" the
bar cmd a
same
ofthc indic~lt()L The difference between the
is clearly lhc difference between ill,; kngths of 1llC

~en!ith

be measured is
is taken at d:H::
t\VO l11i(:l"Omctc~:'

(~rrOI in the length bar

oataiJed from the
caJibmtion chan:. Sinc~; the m!cl'omcter reads direct to 2 VITI, an. accuracy in at
least this order may
cxpected in detcrmining the
but
.it shollld be noted. th,j.t whcacvcr po~sjbk the
be close to the length of the \fvorkpiece to avoid undue J.1l0Vf;D1J.::nI
Lh;~ ! '(J:! 'I \ ~,
meter scre\v ilnd the
intrcduction cf its p~tch crfers L1t ':,!':e nl\.'~!~;:!n"
ment. It is ~ilso nec(;,jsary to allow ~, suilable period for
before taking any readings.

allowallce 11cin3 rnadc for the known

or

been seen that the COffect

a
is an essc:o.t:alfcat'.lrc of GGffCCt rr:casun:a:Gcnt) and tlHl"t the t'NO
should be
0577 L ap"[T, D being the lc:mgth of the bar.

62

63

Linear l''/leaSlIrcmc!!t
3.32 Universal Measmring Machines
Several machines of this type are available to cover a wide range of types of
rneasurement. One such maehine,
3.27, is made by Societe Genevoise. The
divided scale viewed through
basis of the accuracy of m"nsuremcnt an
a rricrosGope, and used to determine the movements
the measuring ilnvils of
the machine. It should be noted that the divided scale is positioned to be in line
vrith the line of measurement as determined by the axis of the measuring anvils.
Thus, the principle .of alignment (section 3.41) is satisfied.

or

~.,

The reading accuracy of measuring machines based OIl the use of built-in li~e
standards has been greatly enhanced by the development of the photo-electrIc
microscopc< The scale reading in such a machine is taken by causlng a
of
hairlines in a m~croscope
to straddle evenly a UIiil line on the
com bining the scale andgraticule readings. It must be
that even straddling by the hairlines is a matter of subjective judgment and is thus liable to variation.
The photo-electric microscope overcomes this by scanning
with a
photo-transistor or cell, the light contained in the spaces bctwe:::n the stradd~ng
wires and the line. The electrical outputs from these alternate scans are causea to
be of o~posite sign and their algebraic sum is recorded on a meter. To make a
reading therefore, the microscope is sct by eye in the normal way and then adjusted
until the meter reads zero, when the scale line is accurately positioned midV{;:'eY
between the two hair lines. Thus greater rcp::atability of readings to a higher order
of accuracy is oi.lm.ined.

3.9 AU1'OlvlATlC MA,CIIU'jjI CONTROL

It is felt that the topic:; of metrology and machine control Elrc so closeJy associated
that some mention of the latter must be made here, although in fact machine
controJ is the subjcct of odler volumes and papers, and space limits a detailed
consideration of the subject.
Consider an orerator performing a cylindrical grinding opGratioll. To obtain
a workpiece of" the corrcc~ size he must carry out the following sequence of
operations:
(a) Measure the work.
(b) Calculate the difference bet\veen the actual and the fGquired sizes.

Fig. 3.27.

M~asurjng machine incorporating a divided Beak: as a ref<:rcnce.

(Courtesy 0/ tha S(P.::iele Generoise)

Th,;;,; IDEtchine is uluvcrsal in the sense that lengths, and diamet~rsj of both
and G.lxcaded WOile, tapers, and the
vi scre'.'v threads m2.y be measured,
nne! to a higb order of ~ccuracy.
Simiiar machines an; bL1~lt by SocietrS
cmployiI).g; t'vo and three
co-ordinaU:~ measuring
a.iso based Oil til':; -rise of line Dt::tf1dards. It is of
inter'C3t d:a.t the ~ca,res 3-re enc\)sed \vithin the i13Qchines and atc tlnt~ ilot !i;:tble to
,-,,,"'e,;,;,, by physical contact and atmospherk
~i:; z:re the
faces of
.nd ~i.luges.

(c) Move the table cross-slide by half tills amount.

(d) Take the cut set.
(e) Check by lllcasurement the final size.
In an automatb sizing device this procedm:e is carried out continuously,
a grmgifl6 Ilcad measuring the work continuously and transmitting its readings w
a complltof which compares the size at a given instant with the final size reql1iT<::d.
The compmor oul !}ut is then used to control the infced of the
W11C~L
A blcck diagra.1ll of this system is shown in Fig. 3.28.
is immedIately
apparent that the
'.
unit oj' such a system is most important, and further
that the measuring Lmit must haVe; an output capable of being used ;lS the input to
the computor, i.c. it must read in terms of a physical quantity rather than a numerical value. For thi" type of work the back-pressure type of pneumatic gaugiilg

64

65

jYJetrology for Engineers

system is extremely useful and is incorporated into automatic sizing devices
prodllc:ed by :.[ercer A;r Gauge Ltd., and others.
Electrical (lUiput is also suitable IrX machine control
and the output
from a line standard and photo-electric microscope is
Boci6te Genevoise
for tape control. Df their jig borers.

CHAPTER 4

A:-.JGULAR lllca.sUjl~n1cnt and v"cv,.<.t,u

of mCiw.logy, Freouenrl ,j '
n:easuremc:Jt heing concerned with
ClfClilar
the COD
a circlc~ is c.'Jnsider,~d as ahnost
Ii is felt, howi:ver, that it is of such
facets of a sInp[(::
th~t
.,:>
1')fOhl"tn
_,'-J;,.,
la
!,.1
..!.l1"
v
measurement will lead into

COMPUTOR OUT PUT

CONTROLS ~;!C iNFEEO

Fig. 3.23. Essentials of an automatic sizing

~yst<!m.

Tr;:msmissicll ditTraction gratings are used by Messrs. Ferranti Ltd. to provide

a prognlmmed.::;c.nt.rol system on machine tools und other
such
auto1l1atic flam,; ::utLi~Jg~ Y-he lTj0~iDn ol l,/[clrt; interferenCf!
oi'di.G.luctiml gn.it:ings is th,;; measure of tile mo'!~mcnt
aLother.
by counting the
a
111[;ved
a slide Is con1pated \vith ttll! distance the
furth,?l' motion ::s deper..dent upon this comparison.
In all ca:o'.::s, it should be nOF:d, the whoLe system is
method of lill,;ar measLlremcllt, eitner
or
to meet the dt:marrds of modem ii1dlistry.

-J,.

-,

and important PQrt

tVIO

4.2 Ar'TGLKS
SIr~E El~~l:{

It ;..vas notc:-\ i~l Chapter 1 tbat

angular Jl1C2.SnrcIJ:!cnts of J.

~)C li~~~a[ :11C2.sur(;rnent~,

E~~~:'~:~;:::~~~~:~,:~::~i:~:~~;i;'

Fig~ 4.i

1 ilC Sine

bar utfcI'cls
set at a

Shtc bar. set up to ,ulgte fl,.

66
67

11'1etrology for Engineers

Angular lvfeasurement and Circular Divisiof!

If 1 is the linear distance between the axes of the follers and h is the heigh t
of the gauge blocks, then sin fl=hjl.
The design requirements of a S!M bar are as foHows, and urJess these are
carefully maintained the Girder of accuracy of angular measurement will fall:

trial and error. This time can be simply reduced by following a logieal procedure
as follows:
(a) Sci up the sine
and workpiece as in
4.2 so that the upper surface
of th(~ work is approximately parallel with the table surface.

(a) The rollers must ibe of equal diameter and true geometric cylinders.

(b) Take readings with a dial gauge at both ends and note their difference,
noting which end of the wad:: is low.

(b) The distance between the roller axes must be precise and known, and
these axes must be mutually parallel.

(c) Assuming that the end nearest the high end of the sine bar is low, then
the gauge block height must be increased by an amount equal to the
difference in the dial glluge readings multiplied by the proportion of sine
bar lengtb to '~vork h~ngtho
For example, assuming that the end of a "'"orkpiece was 001 lTIm low,
the sine bar being 250 mm long and the work 100 mm long, then the
required increase in gauge-block height will be:

(c) The npper surfac:c of the beam must be nat and parallel with the roller
axes, and equidis~llt from each.

These requirements are met and mailltaincd by care in the fnanufacture of all
parts, which should be hardened and stabilized before grinding and lapping.
Provided that all i3 in
and with n 250 mm siIle bar the distance between the
raHer axes should be aCC'I:1;t:"Lte to witl;in 1 ,urn, then it m.ay b,~ nsed in COqjUDCtion with gauge blocks t(} realize high orders of accuracy for setting individual
angles.

O.01 x 250
100 = 0 .O~"') mm

TIlis will not give an immediately carrect s(;tting from a first approximation,
but it is mm;h quicker than by a trial and eeror method.
Finally no sine bar should be used to 5et off ftngles greater than 45, as beyrmd
this
the et[crs (he 10 the centre dinance of.railers, and gauge bloCKS,
in error, arc much mr.gllified. It is interestbg to plot a graph of angular error
nominal
if an error of 002 rD.m in an values of his as:;umecl.
angle:; should be SCL off, '.vhere possible, by subtraction from 90", I.e. set to the
complen;cnt rather tbm the angle, and to a datum provided
an
piutc
or cube known to be square to the table surface.

Thcs;; are a d'';'le!opmcnt of the sine bar principle and aF; set in a 5imiJa,r manner.
It is ckar tli;lt the sine bar is sui1able ollly for relatively small '\I(ork of
The sine table has a lnrger
surface and is much mom roi)Llst th:lJ1.
the sine bar ~U1d is suitable for
heavier worle.
A further deveJopment is the compound sine table in which two sine
their axes of tilt set at
(0 c<{cll other, are mounted on a common base.
The compound angJe to be set is resolved into its indivicluni angles in two pl::i.nes
at right
to each other, ;'Inc! each table is s;;;t accordingly. ~

Fig. 4.2. Sine har useu to check angJe of wedge-shaped blot;k.

In practice the sine h~rshollid be used ou a Grade A surface plate, and even
so it is desirable to support both f;;llers on gaug.e blocks s;) that the [l1jnute
irregularities of the plate may L'e eliminated. Thus in Fig. 4.1 the height h would
be the difference lrr
between the two prIes of gauge blocks.
To measure an indiv~d!;al angle Gare lImst be taken not to r~)nn a compound
angle by having the workpiece'mi~,aligned '~,ith tbc; sine bar. Thls is avoided by
lightly holc1ing the bar
an
plate or cube, The
is similarly
held
the
(lD.c1 a s.-;ries of
IDl\:;;n
upper sllrL1.ce
with a dial gauge. '\~Vhcn the readings nrc constant then the ang~c of rhe \yorkptece
cun be ohtailled from :;in ,9
In determining a workpiece
rathe;: than s;:tting it !)ine bar to a prl~~
determIned angle, much time is ofwi1;:vasted 111 finding the correct value of h by

68

4.22 Sittle Centre

For the testing of conical work:, centred at each end, the sine centres shown in
Fig. 4.3 are extrcE1ely llseful since
alignment 2.ccuntcy of tho centres ensures
th,lt the correct line of measurement is made along: tiK; workpiece.

69

)l;letrology for Engineers

f;

The principl,:: of setting is the same ~lS in the sine bar, although a hazard to be
avoided is of the work and centres not being co-axial. To ovcrcorm; this the werle
s;lolllci be rotated on the centr~s until the maximum dial gauge r:;;ading is at the
""P Tht' C1Il01t>
rraUi!c
blocks in this condltiGll, Hud then the
f:; '"'.,is c"lcl'l2ted from the c
-..'
worle turned thrcwzh 180 and the process repeated.
~.~,

. .I..i

1:.."

'_.

/......

6-----1
---- .J--J_--1

.--8-1:37\
.-~

~\---

Plvar i'-Ji - .
L

t.----r--~

I_'J\

I ( ) c ..

. -__._J

_--

G.t>.UGl=

-R:"'-'

f3LOCKS

_ _ _- -

I__ ~
.__ C=~

.. ____

The mean of the two angles determined will be tho" semi-angle of the wod::
n;,c."c,,,- <~ ~,tJcll'1'IC;11 ~-.!-,. Yl\U~t b Dc,j n terl 0 1 rl- tn8.t an~{ ',vork yv.bicL:. run~ 0 ut to a rneasurj-'.1""
able extent ~~ouId probably be considered as sllb-stac.dara ill quality aud be
rejected on this account
.

J.

'--

i:

Fig. 4.4.

AngIe of a taper plug gauge rC3.dy for ch(;cking on Si;lC centres.

Fig. 4.3.

f..~_

I.

; i

, i

/r---f ::1p--:J -

~I___._____~. _____.__.

\.t.

t;

_~-~r-

____------l;:-7.;."j

------t-.---J

ROLL~t~ (

Angular Jvfeasurement and Circular Division

-'

.......

-"
",

1.

-'.

_.

In triangle ABC it

r[;

...

Measurement of taper plug gauge.

seen that Ii is the height of the gauge blocks and

:BC;=(f~I2-Jfl)/2, in v/Ji_lcb 11,</1 and 11!l;~
arc the nlea:;En~D1cnt~, ov,~r t.he rollers.

... (1)
Thus the semi.-a.!lf:\le ()f tRper can be
deter:rnincd by direct ll1CaSl1l"en-::cnt.
1'0 find the Ill;}xiDll!lil and n1inirDtl.lYl
diameters at the top and l;uttom of the
step it is first nccess;::ry to dct.::rmil1c Dc,
the dia.Illctcr at the sInaJ.l end. Fig. 4.5
represents the small end of the gauge
during the measurement of jl1'l'

Tauer Ernlt g:l.ug~~s are not (1(Tc~nall'\! used to rneasurc the taper, or angle, in a hole
r<~ ....~fl'l)l:-j0., hnt
vI..
. - . . -\a['~"l
- . .:>r 'L'O BTla
.. - \V~1('tll;r H"le ui2."lrteter cf ;rl (Jartjcu1c~r cros:;,~se:,:tion of
-,.H_~

Into

~;1/Jrk

~~

-~...,

is

~vithin

~./..........

-1.

"ii'1"!.its. 'The) di8.1neter check:~d i~; USli8..l.'l? <~l( on:.; end

of th:~~ v/erk: therefore the :~:l~L!'C 13 1nadc \v.ith ;,~ step) the clirlln~:(er of G1G cone at
tl;c: tap :illd bottoG1 of the stcpt,eing the limi::ing sizes of the \;ork.
the

the

Tll(:;

m;~:l~llrcment

t\VO

sIi:ges:

allov~'ed

of a taper plug or l'mg g:luge may mcrefore be resolved

(0) I)eter:-n.i:.::ation of tl1f~ angle of tapcL

(b) Determination of specified diarncters.

Fig. /L5. lvf(;(':c0~ri;il'!ent uf the ~F:un,.'(cr

of the smali ~nd '.jf::-l tap~~r lJiug gnug;:~.

It is seen 1h8.1

A11 =L~s+2r+2x
and from Fig. 4.5

tan

90 - 0 r

---=-

.'. x

. j'.;11 = Dc

01

(90 - 0)

r x cotangent -'--2:----'....

+ 2;- (1 + cot 90 2~~)

(
Jf1 = Ds -+ d \]

+ cot

.'. Ds=11il -d ( 1 +cot

70

90 - 0\ '
.
-2-;
wncrc d=roller d13..
90 - o
--2-)

71

Angular lvfeasureillelU and Circular

.;'lroiogy for Engfneers

Referring to equation (1) above it is seen that tun
increase in radius 1';01 unit of length.

f)

is in fact equal to the

and D min
where H is the
of the gauge
and S is the height of the step

Ds + 2H tan f)
Ds +2(H ~ S) tan

"
."< ;1

, . Increase ill diao;nlcter per unit length = 2 tan If

.', lJrnax =

iiI

~1

(J

;1

~i

If a measurement _1\13 is taken at

some inter-mediate height between the
positions for All and ]vI'!, then' two
further values of @ can be determined.
If all these values. ;of angle are not the
same then the taper is not a true cone,
.i.e. its sides are n"t
A check
on roundness can also be made by
carrying out the measurements M i ,
and 1'1;/3, at diff,~rent positions
arouad the gauge.

Fi:;.4,7.

lvlcasurement of a taper ring gaiJg,:..

Again it can be seen that

tan

e=

-M~

~.2-~,_':::'

But in this case

+cot

90

and Dm ., = DL - 2(H S) tan

DOlin
DL 2H tan e

shown in
4.6. It consi::>ts
, )f a
reading to
O'C002 r,m l;lnits, J.BC a fiducial incli
cater, which is fr'ef;) t(~ '11oat' across

:lS

the line of m~aSill-ell1ent . The !neasnriq:; head Cat, be raised or lowered on a "
stiff ..;oillnm, and tile work is Sl1P~

ported on a

base having a

drical standard of kn,own sb~ and

'pith cure high Ll:rders of accuracy
can l}e maintained.

0-1
J

(where d =

b~tll

dia.)

!}

The nccuracy obtainable by this method

on obtaining the
correct '[ecl' bc;!we~n the bnEs and the
comes oniy with
practice and
However, it should
remembered thal in makilH! ,;uch a
m~asllrement ill illerc are four point contacts, all
a
t(10
exerts :1
compression, and that a gauge block
The L1utho(s feel lhat d,e best method is to St~dt wirh the gauge blocks
and to ~;ee how much free movement of one of the balls is pos;;iblc. The ball C1.11 be
manipulated v(ith a stcel Knitting needle, As the gauge block .sizes arc illcrc;:J.sect in
0,01 mm inerc:11GmS the frz:e movement of the ball is rcduce;c! until finally no
movement at all is
If the arWni!Cmel1t is left to cool and stabilize; after
handling, a Hnul check can bc nutde on tl~t: 'feel' of the baJJs and gauges, and any

A renned method of carrying out t.he

above me:18Ul'0mCtl;t is to use a machine

lapped surface and. held in position

by a centre at 'the
The mrcromell:{)[ set to a cylin-

J) i Fisioll

Flg. 4.6,

Taper measuring nm';hine.

::-o"~ntry

Co, Lid.)

necessary size
fHade.
This method at least provideS an objective process in approaching the correct
'feel' and is not simply :l method of ",uessing al a 'nice snUf" fit' \vhich l1obodv
defines.
~
~
.'

434 MeasUl'cmcnl. of Tapcr Eores

Gauges
Tl1e
here is similar that llsed for taper plug gaUI;(oS, the measnrernents
being made with
,~alibraled balls Zend gauge blocks.

72

The procedure describd in section 4,32 may only be useo whc~re the taper bore
is of large enough di:llneter to allow easy access of balls and gauge blocks. For
F

73

lvletrology for Engineers

A'ngular Aleasurement and Circular Division

smelller diameter tapers, angllbr and diametral measurements may bc; made using
shown in Fig. 4.8, in which the height at which baJls of
the
diameters seat directly on the taper is measured..

h~, to giv~ rise to .rdatcd errors in t~le calcul~ted angle. On no acco~~t shoul~ ~he

balls be dropped mto the taper. It IS better l[ they are gently reIlec, mto positron
with the axis of the taper lying almost horizoEtal.Again, here is a case where
practical experience of snch measurement allows one to overcome the difficulties
involved ...

Reference has
been made in Chapter 3 to the Brookes Level Comparator,
in which the bads of comparison of the height of two gauge blocks is the sensitivity
of a spirit leveL
Essentially the

l11easuring device in which the bubble

tube, the bore ofwbich is g!'Ound to a
large radius. 1h::: sensitivity of a ,spirit level is goye~:ncd
by the ndius of the
Lube
vial
the liquid, and by ~,he base
of its mount.
a levr;l has graduations on the vial sep:lrated by a diStance of I and
tl]c Itlh(~ is of radius R.
Now let ODt end of the tube be raised so that it is moved through an angk o.
If [his cmJSC;; the bubble to move 1 division, then:
always moves

Fig, 4.8.

IO

level is an

rhe highest point of a

l"fcasuremcnt of Q taper bore.

3 radians

The centre distance L:\l between the balls will be

LM
C1

sin :::
L.

If the graduations afe at 25 mill intervals .and these represent a till of 10 sec

of arc, eben:

-hi r1 +1'2
1',IL
LM

10 sec=O'OOO 0485 radians

thus found the

, its uniformity may be detertoklng a further me3,S11ffment on a ball or ~;uch diameter that it rests

mid-\xay
of the
tion t'or the new m,'8:;Ll1"(,d v<:!hes obtained.

25mm

25mm

= 51 500 mill

orR=515m

the caIcula

Using this Vi~lI radius then in a bnsewhosc

is 250 mm, the
Olle end must be raised fol' 25 Jnm bubble movement is given by.

To find the diameter D;; at the large end of the taper:

If C, .lS the apex of thG

0,000 048 5 raUi<lllS
1'1 -- r 2

111m

or ,,>0012 111m

andOP=OL+PL

Similarly as the base length is reduced from 250 mm, so the sensitivity i;;
increased. 'l'hus, if the standard base of 250 DIm is reduced to 115 n1m: tl1en ca!..:h
scale gradui:ltion represents 0,006 lnl1l.
. ,
'
Tl1c main use Df Q nrecisiol1 levcllies, not in measunng
"r,( ill U1l'a:w!"
and IVi;ld in machine tool
This is dcail Vii:]; aWl,.' rid!>'
in
6, but bridlY, if the level is stepped along the ollde ;)\ i:'i,:,"':iI:: "I- il:
Own base length, ti1C first position
taken as a. daturn, h(;it
liC ~llj 01;,('(
points relative to this datum can be determined.

~1l1c1 D,;=2( OP t[1n ~)

The
dlfHculties of thls rnelhod of JTI(::]SUfCITICnt arfj
more
severe (.'-;;,;en than. in the
if the
hilS a s;-I~;'Tl angle.
The
!,.::h~:;ti!:::
bod1 of the
balls and the gauge can c~r!.!se
;:;:TO[$ irL tile measuTed values of h1 nlld

74

;}(

75

Angular Aleasurement and Circular

M euology for Engineers

Although simple in concept and use, it should be remembered that the
accuracy of a given level depends on the setting of the vial iclative to the base.
In most designs provision is made for adjustment of the vial in its mounting.
However, in taking precise measurements of ie v e1, it is as well to assume that an
error in the vial setting does exist :lad to take two
aiang the same line
but in opposite directions. The mean of the"e readings wlIl indicClte the true amount'
of error ill 1e'/cl of the surface.

4.41

Dil'isiOIl

This effect is shown in Fig. 4.9 (b). If the ray passing tlJIOugh the gcomel,ic
centre of the lens is considered, as it is, unaffected by refraction, it can be seen that:

x=2ofmm
where f is the focal length of tlle lens.

The Clinometer

The clinometer is a special case of the appJication of the spirit level. [n this instance
the level is mounted in a rmatable body carried in a housing, one f'Jce of which
forms the base of the instrument. A main use of the instrument is the measurement
of the inclUded angle of two adjacent faces of a ;vorkpiece. Thus, in use, the
instrument base is placed on one face and the rotatable body is adjusted until a
zero
of the bubble is obtained. The angle of rotatIon necessary to bring
tllis about is then shown on an angular scale moving
all index.
'
A second reading is takeu in a similar manner on the second face ofthc workthe included angle between the faces being the difference between the first
and second
Depe11ding upon the type of instrument used, re3.dings direct
to 1 min are
and up to a range of movement of 90"

COLLIMAnNG
LENS

Fig, 4S(a).

RCFLECTOR

Point source of light in focal plane of a collimating lens.

w
z

0:'

4.42 Standards fur Spirit

f,cv~ls

sensitivity, ca]ibr~,-tioll, and condition ami accuracy of the

dealt with in B.S. 958. For
precision work a sensitivity of
10 SCG
mOSe
i.e. ~El
displacement of iO sec causes a bubble
mOVel1:lent of I division 011 the via!,
about 2,5 mm.
Standard of

4.5

OPT1CAL INST}':tUMENTS I<'O~!{

1V1EAS {J~REl\rIE.I"rr

ANGULAR

For the measurement of small angular dittbrences a group of

bstrurnents i3
avai1able 1 all ,)f \VIlich
on the c~')iHll1DX~0i1 of it beam of light.
If a
source of
iJ.t the
focus of collimatJng
lens it wii!
,:>rojectcd as a
of light a3 in
4.') (a). 1.'" dJ.Is para1!el
beanl no'-"y st~'ikes a ph.u:e
~vh~c.b lS nor0111 tc' tile
axi:\] it i,viII he
reflected back
its OWl! p~l,th and TcfGcusd dI the sonrce O.
If the plane refl.ector is now tilted through SOf:r;C smail
0, th;: reRected
parallel bcaI:: ~vill turn through
and v,/lll be brought to n focus at (i l , in the

focal

76

a Jistance x from O.

REFLECTOR

Fig. 4.9(b). Projection of a point source beillg reflected from an

inclined reflector.

There are certain imDortant points about this expression which are Dot
immediateJy apparent. Thc~e arc:

(a) The distance between the reflector and the lens has
separation neJ:\veen source and image.

(b) For high sensitivity, i.e. a

value of x for
a long focal length is reqllired.

it

110

effect on the

small angular deviation, S,

77

lVetrology for Engineers

Angular ivfeasureincnt and Circular Division

(c) ,AJthourrh the distance of the re/'lector does not affect the reading x, if,
cit a giv~n value of 3, it is moved too far back, all of the Jf;;ilected rays will
I err
f
..
miss v the lens completely, and no
Wi'I'I ,-"
IJO rormCG.
.ms, .or
a WI:!;;
range of
the minh"TIUm dis:ance bet;,vcen lens and reflector is
essc~tial. This is particularly impor~:Jnt where llw principle is used in
optical comparators (Cha)ter
However, in -1tis application it simply
limits the maximum remoteness oftlle refiector if the full range of
of the instrument is to be used.

of one 1 sec of arc. With care, and given a rigid mounting for the instrument,
repeat readings of 0,2 sec arc possible.
The instrument normally has a range of readings of 10 min of arc up to a
range of 10 m. It is invaluable in machine tool alignment
or for ;JIlY
scale measurement involving smull angular dcvin tiolls. A fuller description of iIS
use for such purposes is given in Chapter 6.

4.52 The

The idea of projecting the

of a point source of
is not practical, so in
this instrurnent a pair of target wire:; in the focal plane
thG collimating lens is
illumiD2,i!.':d from behind and their
prejected.
4.!O S~10WS the optical
of the instrument, the projected
striking
re1ector and
l e 'ol'o
" . 0 f"tne m1llge b'emg
.
{.LO
. a rlOCUS
.... - :tn t,,1,
n" OF., L1tl1 "::> +'j"fJct
'''l'r'e
the rCTIechon
k'"''''
U '0
"
v.
l

TARGET WJRE
REFLECTED i;'1'\GE
OF TAaGET W:RE
~IICRO!vtETEF/

ADJUSTMENT
FCR SETTING

LIGHT ::;OURCE

SEcm,os
SE',~CND3

CONDENSERS

Dekkor

In this applicDiiorl of the collimating principle, an illuminated scale is set in the

focal
of the collimating lew; olltside the field of viC'll
a microscope ,~yepicce, It i;; t'En
<13 a p"ralIei beam and ~tr;b;s a
reGector below
tIle iDsi.rurncnt It is
and rtfccns(~d by thr~ jens so th(:~t its
is in the
field of view of the
TIn
not ,'ccross a
datum
but
across a sl:l1ila;' axed scale at right
jlIUE1.itlrtLc,j
1'hus the read-

ing on the iHutninatcd scale 111eaSUrcs

fron1 one ilXlS at 90~ to
the
on the
the ;;eVlation about aa
axis
This r";:'.tlJre enables angular errors in 'Lwo
to be dealt wirh, or more:
import[tl1t: ~,o ensure thn.t the
on a
tnaster
on the ~NOlk j,,) the
same ill one plane, the error
read in the other. Thus induced compouild
errDI."S nre nvoidt.:d.
The
syGtr::ll1 and lbc view in the cyepjr:ce arc shewn in
4.1 1, The
physic::d r~;[tlg,:s sjml~ly cO!1sis[ of a
fi::tt and rellccti 'Ie bas\~ above which the
optical dct,dls arc mounkd in a tube on all
brackct.
In usc} [:.

nl~l$ter,

citl1er a sine bar

a group of cOftibin:ltion

(see section
is sel: up on the
p1ate and the instl'Un}e~lt
readillg en bot}l :jcalc.s is obtain,~d. It is '10\V
ti1C
to

EYEPIECE
OF T,i~RGET \ViR:::

and vlc\"1! LhtGuC!h

tne rnicrornctcr Urli:;t

78

Df auto-co1:iinator. A. reading
scltin[!. wires 5tnudlc the image.

on tbe face to be

gauges
until a

~i1"',~"',,,,,1.

be held in
v;ifh elust:c bani.l~. 'Tl1c -<vork ~3 t1C;VI
rotated unti] the illuminated scale moves aCrdSS tl,e iixcd
nnd is
until the n;,,:d scale
is tllC SalltC as on the
gal~ge. Tll:; error in the
work
is I:.~l'; difference in the two
on the iaLlll~iIl:lL::;d :;Celk,
To c!v::cJ.:. tile angle bCIJv 0en f~tces \vhich are
no TIlast,:::: ncccs~ary . If gauge blocks are held
dekkoJ'
to give a readi!l!~ it '\vii! be found to con~;;si. of two mirror
(due to double ren;ction) of til; illuminated
on each other.
The
of the readings of these images will
the error in th:::
right angle.
The
this manner is sl10wn in
it is difficult to
the method provides a quick and accurate means of
:lllgle3.
the
dek.kor is not as sensitive ,,$ the Ci.l.ito-collimatcl' II: ;,':
extremely usefal for a wide range of angular measurements at short dlsi:mccs.

79

lyl~troll)gy for

E;rgineers

Ang,tlar ]vIeasurernent and Circular Dil'isiol!.

It therefore finds its application in toolroom-type inspection. Reatlings direct to

1 min over a range of 50 min may be mken, and by estimation, re::;.dii:gs down to
.about 02 min ar; possible.

Conlbination angle
angles, so that they can be
realized that angular blocks can be

blocks, hardened and lapped to

Unlike gauge blocks, it must b;
or subtracted as in
4.13.

REFLECTECD !'A.aGE
OF ILlliMINAn::D SCALE

XED SCALE

FIXED OMUf.1
SCALE

DOUBLE MIRROR IMAGE

V!EW IN

OF

OF ILLUMiNATED SC-'".LES

~YEPIECE

.~NGLE

DEKI,OR

MICROSCOPE
EYEPIECE

GLASS SCREEN IN
FOCAL PLANE OF
COLLIMATING LENS
CAruM SCALE ACROSS
CENT!lE CF 5C?EEN

!-'ig. 4.12.

CO'IVERG:~IG RA"S
RE~lECTED;MAGE
f~CALE

View in angle dekkor eyepiece when checking squarcness

direct.

FO'lM

Cf

ON SCRcE>1

COLLiMATING
LENS
~--

TOTAL ANGLE 36

___

____________._L-

Fig. 4.B. Addition and subtraction of combination angle;

F:g. 4.11.

4.521

O::nlcal syst(!lTI of angle dekker.

Combination

11 was mentioned 111 section 4.5 that the

which i" essentially an

cDlllparatof \Vas :::et to a InaSTC/ as is f.1.n.y ~)t:-lc;r cOfnp,rratof. {t is ~o~~3iule'
to usc a sin!.! bar, hut ill i941 a YlYlwh more convcniertt form of setting master, the
combination angle gauge set, was intr'Jduccd.
j

80

gaugr;s.

The values of the angles lloed al"~

in a modiJied
progression w'ith a COlilnlon ;'atio uf 3 as shmvu on Lhe fcilnwing pa!!e.
These thinecn gauges, Cllong \vith a square block e~ch '~f whose 3.llfzks axe
calibmt,~d, enable any angle between tt' Clnd 90" to be realized in increments ~f3 sec.
The gauges are used ;,;i~her in
'with each other or may be subtracted
from tlw squar~ block.
The gauges, which are manufactured to the S2.me high standards as gaugr.
blocks, are
hliVC 'wringing' characteristics, and are ealjbrated to a hi~\h

8J

Angular lvieasur:::'lnent and Circular Division

jld etrology for Engineers

of precision. Tbe reEective properties of their Japped surt1tces make them
particuhrly suitable for uSe with collimating typeofinstrumcllts.

Decimal
Afilmtes

}I[inutes

3
9

IMAGE OF TILT
GRATICULE IN
FOCUS WITH _..{+---rTELESCOPE
FOCUSED ON
INFINITY

0-05

1
3
9
27

01
03
05

Fig, 4. 14.

The principal use or t11is instrument is in testing trle alignment accuracy of bearings,
loca.tion SUl'f~lCeS on
assembly futures, and work of a similar nature.
It Gon<s,s of two
unit and a focusing td;scopc, the body
of each of whieb is ground
and to a precise outsici<; diamet~r.
the oplical axis z:mc'. the mC<;;~1(;lnical axis arc coincident. Thus each unit
T:~ay be titted directly or ,hy preeisio~ bl!:;l~ng iDtc tWO
a comidcrnble
(lr~t:~LDce apart, ane! slgl!t~.ngs tnken tram tlle
unit to the colErnuting
unit.
The
mtit (;o:r:,ains a
grH LlcuJe in th,;; fcc::d
.is
as ;1 parallel
fncHs(;t3. at iriinic,: it
bring to ~] focus the
Ln
diItul'n Hae:; lit the
to

a second
1f ~he fOCllS of the
the d<ilum lines of th::;

ColHln,~ling unit of an

31ignment tekscQj'.,:e showing vi~ws in telescope

eyepiece \vitlI two conditions of focas.

Most of the carly work in line standards of measurement WEtS carried out
Sociele
a Swiss firm 1.'vho have sincG
preciSe Jille
including the International
Thury, the
for this
n:aJized
precisely divided circular
and
high-class instruments
circular dividing machine
1865.
At this
there was no m~th.ocl of
~he SP:1Cillg of the teeth ar01md
the table of the
m:tchinc, and Thury set OlIt to usc the linear
as a form of ~ine bar to c:dibratc
machine, used for manufacture of line
the
The first divided scale used for circular division was 1.11 made. Since tIKi1
Imve been found for snch scales in optical rota,.y tables,

~ach othcr~

and

th,c
ThllS the Gccuracy

82

or dtis reading dtmlnishes

distnnc~';
i;)

with distance,

i3 in1JreRSed,
reduc(;d"

al~fo

sca.lc wbich caE be

The simplest form of optical divider
as
in Fig. 4.15.
mounted'"' 'In a nl;u~dIC1 and ViCV\ftd
a
and in rclation
The scale is illuminated from behind and n,ay be read
to the scale in the
eyepiece.
It is ,;ssfntial yvith
of this type thztt the divided eire!:: is Dlol:ntcd
so that it rotates truly
its OVID axis. If any
is
'.,
induce errors of diVIsion. COD.s_idcJ: the disc in Fig. It 16 as having an
Le. as it rotates the centre of the disc describes a circle of radius e.

83

Angular kIeasurement and eifel//o!' /i/l'i.,i( 'II

Thus the error passes from 0 to + 0, through zero

to i3, and a ."1:1 plJ
of the error is of siriusoidal form. The maximum
error bctWCCll allY' wu
readings is
and from the diagmll1s 0 radians..
"
.
..
the maximum angular error, which wIll occur lil Hus case l( the
disc is rotated belween readings of 90 and 270, will be
where e is the
eccentricity, &nd R is the radius at which the readings are taken.
or as suggested,
a divided scale call be used in an optical
mounted on a mandrel and used to enable a
to be rotated through a

I I
\ \

-/,;- - - _._.- --$~I

means of calibrating an _indexing

to a precision polygon.

such as a dividing head, is

+

I \ \

:Fig.4.15.

Principle of optical dividing head or rotarJ table.

ErmeR
(SECONDS)

Fig. 4.17.

(al REI\DING O~ ERROR ZERO

NOTE: WHEN

(b) READING 9(j~ EHROR

(r;) REACING -70~ E""OR-I)

OF
IN

Fig. 4.16.

i;![fO(S

due to a di';ided circle bchlg H1mmt<;d

eCCRJ1triG

by an amount e,

shown, the di~c '.ViII (ead

t~1e ci::ttnm.
fr turned llntil it w::;ds 90~, hov/eVt;f, its own centre "vill !lave moved to the

In the

position shown in 4.16 (6) and to rc;~t<l ;;0" it Dlll;;t be turned

an angle of
90+0.
Similarly in ,U6 (c), to read 270'" all equal error of 3 occurs, However, in
this case the disc is turned through k3S than 270 0 to reaJ that aagle.

84

Graph of indexing elTors from an indexing device having; an

eccentric mOUlli ing.

This co mists of a hardened and stabilized

of steel whose reflecting faces
divisions of a circle. The
are accurately lapped so thQt they arc normal to
polygon macIc ~la~ 72 1':1(;ets at intervals of nominaHy 5. Normally a polygon having 12 sicks at intervals of 30 is suitable f~r most work.
' . '_
The polyg(',n is mounted on the
d'~VICC, and an auto-coillmator 1:0
set up to
-; rci1ection and reuding [l'Om any face of the polygon. If the device
is now inde::ed tbrough 30 or
of a
the
should be repeated in
the auto-collimator. If this is not so, then the difference between the readings is
the error in indexings. Similarly, the difference between all readings and tbe l1rst,
are the errors in indexing through the total
while tlu; errors bctvie2n individual
motions are obtained by subtraction.
Normally a repeat
is taken on the original facet of the
any error in ,::.;petition is
distributed among the separated
The fable below is for a set of
on a milling machine
set for simpie indexing, the resultG
set out in graphical form in

85

T
,,"

.iYfetrology for Engineers

Division

Angular kJeasurement and

.,

~'

Correct
for Zero
(sec)

CUlJJulative

Position

mill

4
4

1
2
3

4
4
4

4
5

6
'7
8
9
10
11
12
(Repeat 0)

4
4
5
5
5
4
4

sec

Error
(,ec)

53

45
38
36

0
+025

-15

+050

,-17

075

39
42

-14
11

+ 1-00

48

+ 150
+ 1-75

01

- 5
+ 6
+15
+16
+ 8

56

+ 3

+2-00
+225
+2-50
2"75

50

+3-00

59
08

09

+ 1-25

ii

Actual

r!

Error

(sec)
0

7,/5
1450
-1625
-13-00
- 9-75

[:
!

350

l.

+ 775
+ 17-00

I:

1825
+ 1050
+ 575

., ~ ~ -\
1

pi .C~!,iPPOSeS
,;lat the
[s
perfectly accurate. None are
(lDSOl1!tclY uccnrate of course, but so long as the angular error at each face is
known then allowance can be made for tius error.

4.63

t~, 1,,,+...,.
._~ e,l.}U
eL,lUn

"""t)i(~ b

r'tc
"',0.

two m,;.(o"collimators set up to D1easure

the errors in a
polygon_

Now 360''j1l i8 the nominal

<".

'11'"
I,

\.1

ll"I''"
"""'<' A
dIet l~ '0
t.
l~l.L>~:;v~
,,-,

i)

anU.1

anu

,
iJ.,, - Ti.

- . f,J.1C
,
IS

T~}.~ ---.:..--~.--.:::
n

... (1)

I:Sc= -,'.,T+

[(1)

But lJS = 360 0

R':.

Rl

R 1)

Viewed

0- 45

lJlin

sec

mill

s'ec

min

325

487
338

45- 90

299

90-135
135-180

ii,

3
3
3

':11--/\)--'")

30-7

18Cl-225

th::; rrunlb(jr of sides of the poiygon,

360"

J..'T

.--:::= ~~~
."1

86

E(R? -- R.)

,'1

315

_I- ~'.~.M_':::~-":;
11

3
3

07-2
10-2
41-0
253

225-270
Dividing through

(1)

Faces

:s considered and all values of S, T, and (R,!

thus

From a complete series of rcadi!1gs

can be:
the value of T detenrJr:ed. This value can
substituted back in
for each face and the angle of each face delf;rmincd.
The calculation is normally set Qut in tabular form as shown below:

angIe -bet\veen tne

S + R 1 =.~ T + R3
If the complete
added

T is a constant, the

11

12

autocolIin:atofs, then,

<l:i

360 =T
or

l) J

")
,+-,;co1'1
r... \.,;I.'~
'v~

of the polygon lad,

angle between the auto-collimators, then I-T/Il=T.

Cullb.rllting a l"redsion Potygon

If the errors in a polygon an: not known th;-;n it can be calibrated using two
auto-co.E~inatGr3 set un 1'0
reflections from adjacent polygon faces as shown
dl~o'lPq7"'
L: JL

JOn
If
D
'
,ail.(I i'2
are tne
on rmto-collimatDfs 1 and :2 respectively, Sis
..

Arrangerr~cnt

Fig. 4.18.

Total

J :;,1
06-7
181
08)
J

"

-1-

1,7

- 67

47

25

87

Angular 111easuretnent and Circular Dil'isiofl

,jliletr%gy for Engineers

degree of accuracy required, and parallelism can be. prodl:ced by a number ot~
means, surface grinding, spot grinding, etc.,
dependmg on the degr~c 01
accuracy required.
Let us assume that the block is accurately parallel but om of square. If a
parallel strip :Jfknown accura~y is c1an:p~d_ agains~ an
plate in sOIl1c.attitlt?c
Ilcaf the vertIcal, then gauge alocks of dIfienng SIze can
tr:lpped betvveen t,:(~
block and the pal'alld strip as in Fig. 4.19 (a).

3600

T=-- - -----n
n
25' 47'2"
-~

A-O

-I')

,,'

-J

134"
-'

S= T+(R 2 -R 1 )=4Y,Error=c (R2 -Rl) 1-3' 13,4"

l"(R -R)
,2

-t-(Ra-Rl)
STRIP

GAUGE BLOCI\S

1l.i
W'-~~~t~T

Thus the polygon can be calibrated 1;\iithout reference to any ::lilgular standard
and to a surprisingly high degree of accuracy. This is of course based 011 the fact
that a circle is a continnous function, i.c. whatever the value~ of the individual
of a polygon they total exaG,tly 360. This then provides us with il natural
stamhrd of angle and the maintenance of anguJar worl<jng standards such as
combinr,tion angle gltuges tS considerably helped by it.

4.7

8,-~--j
I . ___

YvLE).,SURElYIENT OF SQUARENESS

There is one particular angle which is probably more important than any other,
Le. 90. Over the years its importance has been emphasized by the fact that
spedal names--square, normal, and more particularly the
angle-have been
assig:1Ccl to it.
If a iathe cross-slide does not move at 90 to the spindle axis then a flat face
will not be produced
a facing operation. If a depth micrometer spindle is
not square to the !oc2.Ling
an incorrect measurement,
ar:osine error,
will b,; incurred. if the blade of c\ flttcr's square is not normal to the stock then
ma:in'~
will 11m fit togeU:;.ci' as they should. In fact i.f cl right
was unattainable to v{ithin ::1 dose: de;;ree of accuracy it is doubtful whether the achievements ()f modern science weuld have reached their presellt state of advancement.
Fortunatdy:::n angle 01'90 lends itself to accurate measurcmcllt, as in most
of the t~dtniques u:sed a
etTect is possible, An example of this lias already
been given in section 4.52 as a particular use of tb,~ angle dekkor. Often it is not
enough to test a
agaimt an engineer's square, Tbis simply shows
whether iUs a right
as near as can be
by -:ye, or not. N[G,'I,,) often the
amount of error, ei[h~r as rill
or as a line~lr m,:aSUf',;l1lent over a
length
Df
is required. III any caSe each result G,lU be readily converted to the other
form.

(a.)

Fig. 4.19.

SGR?ACE

SquarCI1CSS test !Ising gauge blocks. Squareness

error =~(B B I) over length L.

The contact position of the slip gauge is noted and transferred across the
block, whkh is then turned through 1800 and gauge block l\ is now trapped at the
top contact
If the
is "quare a slip gauge equal in size to 13 should just fit at the
lower contact
If it docs not, bl~t ;J gauge block of size B J jU3t contacts
correctly then tb.::; difl'crcnce B -- 6 1 is double the error in squareness in ih'J worKpiece over the iength between the contact mrrrks.
A
but morc convenknt method, is to use a measudng instrument
designed for this
incorporating a dial test indicator or small comparator
head (lS shown in
4.20.
In thi,; ~ase the difl1::rence in the dial gauge
is double the squarelleSS
over a length of work
to the centre distance between the fixed contact and
the dial gauge.

4.711 Correction of Srjl!:li'cncss Error

,Contnct l'vktlltHJ:; 0-1' ;Vle:ls'Jrin~~ Sqnun;ness
to be puralJd, rmd whose
COJlsid.cf a block whl)sC O1:::pos;.t,~ faces are
:1djac ;;ilt faces are t1om1aaily at
angles. The parallelism of opposite faces can
oe
checked by m.:ans of a micrometer or compara~or depending on the

It is of little value knowing the error in squareness of a workpiece without

being able to correCl it. F'Oi:tunately tIlis is not diftlcult.

88

89

]'vletrology for Engineers

Angular A!easuremellt

again to
4.:0 let us assume that the difference in dial gauge
is 012 TIun, i.e. the block is out of square by 006 mm over the length ~f
surface of the contact
and dial gauge c';;ntre distance. Correcting this value for
the complete
of surface let us say that the block is Gut
by 0075 mm.
To correct this, point A must have 0075 mm remcvedfrom it, nothing being taken
GiT D.
C must be brought 0075 mrn towards D, no metal being remQved
at B.
DIAL GAUGE READING RI

Circular Division

4.72

A similar principle is involved in a simple fixture for use in coniunction with an

auto-collimator or angle dekkor. As ';vith so many simple,
extremely
devices, credit must be given to the
Physicai

II

Optlea!

IVjfetbcd~1

of Checking t::.!iiMfl:re,Gc:3s

of a bar pbotcd at a convenient point,

squarcness tester consists
a pair of hardened and
steel cylinders of
the same size.
also has mounted upon a plane rcl1ectof:. and the in5t~mnel1t is set
on a fbt reference plane of a suitable
of accuracy, usuillly a Grade
surface
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.22.

DIAL GAUGE READiNG R2

(a)

Fig. 'L20.

Dial gauge fixture for testing 3qua~~encss~ Squareness

eITOr~}(Rl
R~) o'ferlengthL.

If the block is now set up on a sl1rfa~:e

face AD
mm cut can be taken aclO:Ss tbls face to within about 25 mm
4.21 (a).

The block is no,,'! turned ove;- 8:; 1:1 4.21

end a cut taken to dean up face
:Be, ',yfiich ha~ now Gc,~n COEcc((:d by the rc;qulred amount and is therefore
sqtlare \<v1th rcfere,~ce to AJ3 and CL)~

I'
I.
I:

r
I:
1"'

I!

III'

Ii

Ii
(b)
Flg~

4.21.

lvlethod of correcting squareriess ..

II

Ii

SURFACE PLATE

Fig. 'l22.

eITor

Ii'I
I

811 (1;}to-coH11nator. Squ-::relJeSS

- 1\0)'

A readIng \S talcn ',vith the autocollimator with the square in t.he first
showl!. The square is then moved to oosition 2, and the au~o-colJjmat0r
again noted. The: angular error in squ~reness is ';al/the dift(;renc~ in tbe-two rc;adings.
It should he noted that apart [rom errors in reading the aWG-collim;: (1))'. :: p.l
human
c1e:luing contact
d;(~ ollll!
liiii!'
of error
of unequal dj"l;l';~CI. Tl;i:: .:\'1"\:1' (';, ,1

be eliIninateci
b.J"H
..

Squarcncss. lest

and
:~~T){"p ...
... -- ..'c7Y~2.';lIlr.r
1 ..... -... ;:; t~le ,/'.
"'~.

'n

--''-'oJ .. ) .

The actual error i.n squareness is the mean of the two results.

91

ikleir%gy}'r Fn;r[;u:crs
. It i.s of i~tcrest t? DOt;) that all of the methods of testing sql1areness refe .
to.m
sectIon
are
tundamental anrl~,_do not r"fer t ., "n"
sta,,'l~r,'
of UP!!I"
,....,~ed
d . . thIs
:l
1::.1
tf,
J
- J."",~<.A~.",J.
4.1.,.:; "' .. lllev
e}l"OG sO:t:,y I)U .ne l?ccuimr geometrIc properties of this important 'right' au!),' =
Other mCli1~ds of testmg are available but have purposely beea ignored since d~
to ~he fact taat the~ depend .on the accuracy of ancillary equipment, errors'm e
For lDstance m Chapter
6. dea1i;}"< :with
mc,Cj"'l'ne
tu' 01 me. j ro,e)gy
ay
be(.': mtroduced.
"
- '
:..
. - ,
' 1,' '
rClcrence IS made to the pentarronal
D"i~m Ot' 'CF\tic'll
~F1U'"
"<0' 11
c O.r ene
;,:::.
-"
i: '"' \.
.....
'-1
,Ci\.lO
t;he squarencss of machine tool slideways. It should b,~ noted that this metho~
<'lcpends on the accuracy of the prism ,wd if the apgie bt'tw~"n ;tC' ,"Q~ctl'n",
f',,,
'\"0
is not 45" 1he error incurred will hQ double the error in tho prism.
..
0

.f

J/i

..

-),.

... ..;

t.;v- ""'.

(;

........~,

,~

........

CHAPTER 5

f.<.l......

.......,..

"

"""",

~ ..,;) A ....... l}l.....

.~,'~.::s

correct and prolonged functioning of most manufactured articles depends on

the correct size relationships between rhe various components of the assembly.
This means that the P;lrts must fit
in a certain way, e.g. if a shaft is tq
rotate in a hole there must be el1Ol!Qh clearance between the ShetH and [he hole
to 1tllow an oil film to be maintain~d, but not so much clearance that excessive
radial finat is aUowed. Similarly if the shaft is to be held
in the hole there
must be
intcrrerence bet'\'vc~n the shaft and the hole to ensure that the forces
of elastic comprr:ssion grip tightly and do not ilIiO',v movement. However, the
interference mllst nor be e;,cessive or the member containing the hole may
Ideally any .such condition could 0;; obtained by specifying a definite size for the
hole and for the shaft, but tl1is unfoftuuately isnotpossiblefortwo very good reasons.
THE

(a) It is i'TII)()ssibie to make a. part to a specified definite size except by remote

chance.
(b) If by cliallce a part is made exactly to the size required, it is impossible to
measure it accurately enough to prove it.
If one e;;'.amines B.S. 431 ~ dealing with gauge blocks it is found that grade 00
gauge blocks C1 up to 25 mm in
are accurate to within 005 ~tm, but they
Further, it should be noted that
are not exact.
as the required degree of precision for
u component increases so does its cost.
This is not a linear relationship as it
costs little, jf any, more to make a
WORK
part to within 0-25 ~um of its nominal
COST
size, than to make it \lrithin 050 mm.
However, it costs mueh more to mak::;
a part to within 0002 mm than to
within OOJ. Elm of nominal size. Thus
the form of a graph of accuracy against
WORI< TGLERANCE
cost is as shown in
5.1, the curve
Fig. 5.1. (karl> showing lype ofrcbtionships being asymptotic to the cost
i.e.
betwcc.1 toler,mc<) and cost-accumcy is exabsolute: accuracy costs an infwitc
pensive.
amount.

~-

93

jVfetrology fat El1gillee.rs

Limits and Limit Gauges

If then a part cannot be made exactly torts nominal size how can two parts
be made to fit together in the required manner?
.
There are three possible answers to this question, each method having its
place in industry.

5.H

(a) Interference fit. The minimum permitted diameter of the shaft is larger
than. the maximum allowable diameter of The hole.

fit. Th.e di:lmetcr of the largest allowable hole is greater than

that of the' smallest shaft, but the smallest hole is smaller than the largest
shaft.
ec) Clearance fit. The largest permitted shaft diameter is smaller than the
diameter of the smallest hole.
(b) Transition

l'bJdng to Suit

This technique simply flXJ.uires one part to be made to its nominal size as accurately as is economically ,,~asonable. The other part is then machined away a small
amount at a time and the parts orTered until they fit in the required manner.
This method ma.y be useci for 'one off' jobs, toolroorn work and so Gil, where both
parts will be replaced at once. As such it is of littlE: conCt,Tl1 in this book.'

These conditions are shown in Fig. 5.2.

TOLERANCE ON
SHAFT
rt~lN. INTERFERENCE

..L-.

5J.2

Sekctin Ass:mhly

llJ
N

iii

tV
I'J

It is sometimes found that it,is not economic to manufacture parts to the required
bigh degree of accuracy for their correct functioning. Inst~ad they are made in
an economic maDner, measured to the required accuracy and graded, or sorted
Into gl"()Up~ each ofwlLlch contains parts of the same size to within close limits.
'riley aTC thw assembled with matieg parts which ha'ie becn simj]arly graded.
A good e;~ample of this system o'~curs in ball-bearing manufacture. A bail
bearing consists essentiatiy of an imler ring, and an outer ring, separated by steel
balls. Both types of ring and the balls are graded automatically and when assembied the follo'iving conditions can be allowed:

iii

ltL

:r:

<.(

...J

Ul

11J
N
tI)
ItL

:r
V)

><
,
L:l

l
SHAFT
HOLE
(a) INTERFERENCE FIT

(a) LU'ge balls are ,i;sscmbicd 'r.to small inner and larger outer rings.

(0) 0,f,cdium balls ,E'e ,lssernbled in i.o medium. inner and '.)Uter rings, let cgc
inner and outer ifings, or sJl1all inner and outer rings.
(c) Small balls are assembled into large inner and SU1o.11 outer rings.
Usually a selective <.'Lsseml11y system is used where the assembiy is replaced
as a u:'lit rather thml rep"\acing separate parts. For example, if a bali cracks in a
bea(ing the whole bearing is repl.Qc,~cl, not just one ball.

~l

CLEARANCE OF<
.jINTERFERENCE

f:7.> ..

II

HOLE

5.13

Systccms of V.mits mld fibs

17.~;pctiti\1C

-production of cornponents and asseulolics 1.) bas~;d (J,hno;~t cJltirely on

cGnsidering shafts ~l.nd ilO.le.S, CrlC COtl1-POnellt
sizes are speciJied and the ailo\vable cie"i/;.aticns frOfG. th':~:se 3j.zI.~~; ale s"l8!t:d, the
aJ.1o\A/.:'..tJlr; deviaticns bc.in.s such th.'2t 2~11~r shaft \viil rno.te \vi-i:h .'ll1Y .hole and function
coe-reedy fDr the designed life of the assembly.
'T'herc are th.r.~e oasI.c types of t obtainable using this Inethod. 1'hese are:

. "c,.:1

".,> .................. '"

F'-~~~_.d ~ ~--~-4

~_rb

iEter,:hangc~ble :mnnu~'ac:tu~'c~ .l.~gQin

94

---I
Fig. 5.2.

(e) CLEARANCE FIT

Possible size relationships bct';;ccn ~ hole and a shaft.

The cii:;.gr8.m in Fig, 5.2 also i.llustrates the terms used ill this type of work
definitions of these term:') Oei!lg as follows:

95

ivletrology far

:~-ilgince/'s

Limits and Urnit Gauges

(a) Limits of size. These are the maximum and minimum sizes allowed '~n a
given component.

Further it must be realized that larger sizes require greater tolerances, and
consideration must be given to this. A working system of limits and fits is therefore
fairly co.mplex if a manufacturing organization is setting one up from ilrst principles. Fortunately there are standard systems already available.

(b) Tolerance is the maximum size variation which will be tolerated on a given
component.
(c) Allowance is the size difference betweetl the limiting conditions of, size
on the two cbmponents. It should be noted that a positive allowance
produces a clearance fit, and a negativ(} alIowance "Jroduees interference.
A given manufacturing organization will require a number of different types
of fit, ranging from light driv(} fits requiring shrinkage or hydraulic pressure for
assembly, through keying fits for locations which can be ,1ssembled with light
mechanical pressure, to running fits and clearance fits, Such a series of fits can be
obtained using two distinct policies or basic methods,

(a) Hole basis system. For a given nomInal size the limits on the hole are
constant and a series of fits are obtained by varying the limits on
the shafts.
Thus assluning a hole of dimension 25 mm +002 mm
- 0000 mm, a sh~ft of

(i) 25 mm +008 mm diameter gives an interferer!ce fit;

+O'04mm

(ii) 25 mnH-O'02 mm diameter gives a transition .fIt;

-GOOO lUm
(iii) 25 mm - 002 lTL"Il diameter gives a clearance fit;
-0-05 rmn

and all of these fits are obtained with a common diarn;;ter hole.

(b) Shqfc basis system. [n the "aTIle way a series of fits can be auangcd for a
given Dominal size using a standard shaft and v8.rying the limits on the
hoIe~.

For most work a hole basis system is used because a great many
ho1.es are produced by standard tooling, e.g. ICamel'S, drHls, etc., whose
size is not adjustable, Thus for a nominal 25 mm size a 25 mm reamer [s
used to produce a standard hole, the shaft sizes being more readily' variable'
abou.t the nominal size
machine adjustments, e.g. roller box, centreless
grinder, etc.

It must be realized that a singJe class of hole <lccuracy is not normally sufficient to rr:..eet the requirenlcnts nf ~ln clacses of work. 'There is no porn!: in renrning a
hole just to utilize one S(;[ lif limits \VhCfl th;, Qccuracy of l]. drilled hole wiII do,
111L,3 a given SY~l,c.m WOUld have
four cl,!::ses of hoic, the tolerances on
vlhich al i<;Yf ror fOt~r dilfel'cnt
method,;. [I. ;night also reqtl.lrc, say,
nine diJrcrell~ d3.~;ses of shafts to giv;,; nine ditIerent types Of fit when associated
'{lith a
dass of hole.

96

5.131

Ii
Ii

I
t

The Newall System of Limits and Fits

This system is very popular because of its simplicity. It is a hole basis system
providing two cl:sses ~ of ~oles for diiIerent degr~es oJ- precision ~f pr.o?uction.
Limits are also gIven ror SIX classes of shaft; two mterIerencc, one cransltion, and
three running fits. These limits arc specifIed for a wide range of sizes of work, the
whole system being set out in the for~n of a table which makes it very convenient
to use.
5.132 The British Standard System (B.S. 4500: 1969)
B.S. 4500: 1969 is a cOillprehensive system designed to cater for all classes

of worI< from instruments and gauges to large heavy engineering. At first it appears
to be an extremely complex system until it is realized that no one organization
should attempt to usc all of it. Iilste[td a company selects from within the standard
system a 'sub-system' to suit its own requirements and manufacturing techniques.
The system provides 28 type;; of hole designated by a capjtal1ew~r A, B, C, D,
.. " etc. and 28 types of shaft designated by a lower case letter, a, b, C, d, . ,., etc.
These letters define the position of the tolerance zone relative to the nomin;]! size.
For instance , all class H holes havc limits of +
x. Similarly class h shafts have
-0

, 0 f + 0 and -so
nnIts
I

-x

011.

To each of these types of 1101c or shaft may be applied 18 grades oftolcrancc

designated by numbers, so that a hole may bc designated H7, a shaft j4, and a fit
between the two is specified H7 jj4.
Thus an organb.ation requiring a hole basis system would select from B.S. 4500
a series of bxradcs of hole all of one type to suit its work. Then a series of shafts to
give the required number and types of fit would be selected. A typical hole basis
system would be:

Holes: H4
Shafts:

s6,

H7

H9

p6

1116,

L_-----.;---'

Interference

L-~ ..

Hll
k6

h7, g6, f7, e7

"'-.------..J

"--------v---------..J

Transition

Clearance

(used in
association
with H7 hole).

The requirements of many organizations can be covered by a vcry small

range of frtsand to lD.cel rhese requirements the British Standards Institution
publishes data sheets 4500A and 4500B, being seIeckd fits of hole basis and
shaft basis respectively; each provides for six clearance fits, three transition fits
and four interference fits.

97

Limits and Limit Gauges

1'vfetrology for Engineers

DIRECTiON OF WEAR
WEAR ALLOWANCE
I
GAUGE TOLERANCE 'Ni1HIN
WORf~ TOLERMlCE ZONE

G.AUGS

5.2 LIiVUT GAUGES

Adoption of a system of limits and fits logically kads to the use of limit gauges, .'
with which no attempt is made to determine the size of a workpiece-they arc
.
used to find whether the component is ,:"ithin the specified limits ot' size'
. or not. The simplest form of limit gauges are those used fori:lspectjng holes or

~"r~

",

., 'shafts.

\l i\OMI~L

Consider first a hole on which the limits on diameter are specified. It would
appear that quite simply the 'GO' gauge is ,~ cyliad.er whose diameter is equal to
the minimum hole size, and that the "NOT GO' gauge is a similar cylillder equal In
dIameter to trle m,lximum hole size. Unfortunately it is not as simple as tillS, for
the same reason that limits of size are
for the 'l{ork; rrothing can be .made
to an c;,aci: size and this includes gauges.
the gauge maker requin:s a tolerance
to which he
and the positioning of this gauge tolcnwce rdative to the
nominal gauge
requires a policy decision. For
If :he gauge tolerance
increases the size of a 'GO'
gange, and decreases the sizet; of the 'NOT GO' end,
the gauge will tend to
good work which is nC:lf the upper or lower size
limits.
Similarly if the gauge tolerance increases the size of the 'NOT GO' plug gauge
and decreas('.s Lhe size of the 'GO' end then the gauge v,rill tend to accept work
which is just olltside the specilled limits.
Obviously a firm which is qu,llity conscious would use the system which
would reject doubtful work but it must be realized that the gauge tolel'llJlce is
approximately 10 % of the w06;: tolerance. Therefore, using tllis system thf; production department is deprived of 20 % of its allowed tolerance_ This pwblcm
has be~ll dealt with in B.S.
which lays dO\m the
pciicy for the

aPPlication of ga.uge toleranJ:es*

0,'

OIA.

\
V
II'

'NOT GO' GAUGE!

!
,.

NOlvilNAL Dlt\METER
CF'GO'GAUGE

MAXiMUM

HOLE
D!AM::TER

\!

II

!_._~_~J
(NOT GC\ PLUG
GAUGi::

Fig 5.3.

I!L!

_I

Is--_____________----lI'
l)i~posltion of tolenu1c<:-s on

plug gauges.

'GO' GAP OR RiNG

C,t.,UGE

(NOT Go" GAP (!r~

RiNG

(;A.U~;l::

The tolerance on the 'GO' gaug\; shall be within the w'Jrk tolerance zone.
The tolerance on t:1C 'NOT GO' gauge shall be outside the work tolerance zone.

This poEcy

to all plain plug, gap

In addition to the gaugernaker's

and :'ing gauges.

allowance must be made

fOf the
Thus a wear allo\'\'8.nce is made
which is ~quat to
20 ~/~ of
gange tolerance and is itc1ded to, or
subtracted frorr}) the n0L11inal gauge size in
to the direction cf YVt::ar~
It ~hould be noted that the vvc:u~ QUo~.vance bccome$ teo slnaU to be useful 1:vhen
che v/ork toleraI!cc is less than o t'r:i1m and no al1o\van:.::e is 111aJe for

init~,ll

\Vf:;,:.rwhic\I takes place on a

ll"W

\v!1osc tolcran.cl'; is less than this. J'\Tor is the ,,\fear aHo\va.nce applied to
ShOE1 J
littte "\-~'car in use~

~:NOT GO'

t\OMIN.:\ISIZE OF

'GO'

GAUGE
StZE OF
'NOT GD'

may be summarized as follows and applied as shown

Oft

t;ic

5,3 and 5.4.

tolerance

\\7 car

allo'Nanc(:!~20%

of '.vork tokrancc to nearest 0-001 mm unit.

of gauge tolerance to

n~afcst

o-oot

tJ.lrtl

unit

Fig. 5.4. Dlspcsition of tolerances on n-n,--d

g ~Jl "of)
0" gan''''s
0'- ,

99
98

""

In B.S. 969 it ,vill be found 'lilat tolerances on plug gauges are in some cases
less than those for ring and gap gauges. This is due to Lhe fact that plug gauges
lend themselves more readily than do ring and gap gauges to measurements
where the order of accuracy is 0-001 rom or less_
Thus the dimensions of simple gauges may be dealt with. However, in any
design problem, the geometric form of the component, in this case a gauge, must
be considered, and under conditions in which the diai1Jetral tolerance is small,
this assumes considerable signnkance.

Limits alld Limit Gauges

Such a gauge will not enter the hole and therefore the work is accepkd
although the length is outside the specified limits.
.
Had separate 'NOT GO' gauges been used for the two dimension::; the breadth
gauge would have accepted the work but it would have been rejected by the
separate length gauge.
LlM;T OF HOLE
METAc rc,':rm,.~'"

"\."}It,;"lC""

FU;"'L

5.3 TAYLOR'S THEOJRY 01? GAUGING

This theory is the kcy to the design of limh gauges, and defines the function, and
bene::: the form, of most limit gauges. It states:
'The "GO" gauge cheeks the maximum metal condition and should check
as many dimensions as possible.
'Tbe "NOT GO" gauge checks the minimum metal condition and should
only check one dimension:
Thus a separate 'NOT GO' gauge is required for each individual dimension.
Consider a system of limit gauges for a rcctangubr hole, as shown in Fig, 5.5.
Fig. 5.6. RectungulUf hole oversize in one direction.
A full.j'orm 'NOT GO' gauge will not reject slJch a hole.

MAXIMUM
8READTH,

Fig. 5.5. , Tolerance zone on a rectangular hole.

The 'GO' gauge is used to ensure that the mm~imum metal condition is 110t
exceeded and that metal does Rvtencroacn into the mininn,m allowable hole
It should therefore be rcl'adc to the maximum allowable m;~tbl condition
due alloV/ance
mad!;) f:)f wear :.tnd the gauge r:olemnc';~ as in

:iection 5.2.
Now consider 'he 'NOT GO' gnuge. If this was made to gauge both dimensioJls
at' the! minimum metal conditiOlb: (maxirrlllF:i ~lOJe si.~c) a (;o7lriition :would arise.
where the breadth of the hoie is withill the
limits, but (l1e icngtl1 is oversiz',:;, as in Fig. 5.6.
~',',.

100

'

This principle should be applied to all systems of limit gauges, and where
possible ~his is o.one. In the simplest case of a 'GO-NOT GO'
gauge it would
'not appear to be so, but to a large extent it is. The 'NOT GO' gauge is always
relatively short, and approximately
equal in lengtb to ille hole diameter. Thc 'GO' gauge should
where possibJe be equal in length
to about three or four diameters.
In addition to more readily dis"
tinguishing between 'NOT GO' and
'GO' ends of the gauges, the length of
the '00' gauge ensures 1hat the mal:i.
mum !)letal condirion is not exceeded
Fig. 5.7. Length of 'GO' r:1ug gauge pNvcnts
it entering 3 non-straiLtht hole.
due to geometric errors in the work,
e.g. straightness as shown in Fig. 5.7.
A .similar situation occurs when gauging shafts. ideally a nIH form 'GO'
gauge, I.e. a ring gauge of reasonable iength in relation to its diameter. should
be used, in ;;onjunctiol1 with a 'NOT GO' gap gaugc. In practice both ,~o' and
'NOT GO' gap gaus.;s arc frequently used, but it is advisable to SUIJplement these
. gauge, to be used at frequent intervals. This is particularly true
;"'1'tJ1 a 'GO, nng
In the case of centrdess ground work which is liable to a conditiOi1 known as
lobing.

101

clears the metal. This chec:(s the low limit of size. The gauge is then rocked back
until the lilgh point prevents further movement and thus the ;:naximum diamet:r
is tested. If the raised portion passes tbough the hole then the work is rejected as
the hole is oversize.

J1iJetrologyfor Engineers
The simplest lobed condition has three lobes and is based on an equilateral
triangle as shown in Fig.
but it may occur "vith any odd number of lobes.
From each corner of the triangle let radii of rand R be struck, the lar"e
radii blending W.itll tht: small radii struck from the other two angles.
/;>
THREE-LOBED

/~. -~~FORM ~~r

[

j\
" \

R tr IS THE
ClIMENSON

/
,0

"~~

WhiCH WILL

)~~y ~~~\g~~~

~~"

'-t-------

'\.~/
~
,~,~~~ ___~_.L
I

D IS THE S1vIALLEST DIAMETER

heL::: WHICH THE LOBED

FiGUFlEv'lILL ENTER

Fig. 5.il.

Effect of lobing on cylindrical work.

The dimension of any such configuration, if measured between a pair of

.
will
+- rl, but the smallest hole that such a form wiil enter
W1!I 0e omca large~' CL"
the outer circle. Therefo.re a gap gauge \viIJ accept
such "vork and a diametral measurement with a micrometer wiU confirm that the
work 'diameter' is
within limits.
a. 'GO'
gauge will
rightly reject the
That such a condition is
can be conflrmed by
the component
a vee block and rotating it under a dial gauge or compar'Jtor.

., .

531

ie-to Gauges

These

afC a particlllar
Co. Ltd., in Sweden.
normal

th,~ 'GO'

r.oler~Ync(;

limit

Oil

of plug ga~lge manufactured

the S.K.F. Ball Bearing
are main~y concern;od with larger diamew.cs them are
gcmges, and are ground to a spherical diamet;;,r equal to
work, due allowance
maJe for the

and 'Near al1c\vance~

A;;mal1 circular f:rr;;a anhe gauge is raised, byelectro-phting, Qn amount caual
to th~ work tolerar,ce. Such a gauge is shown in FiS. 5.9.

It is inserted into the [lOle by tilting tbf, gauge forward so that the h.igh portion

102

Fig. 5.9. Te-bo-type plug gauge.

(Courtesy of Ille S.K.f: Ball B':aring Co. Ltd.)

..

It is ofillterest to note that the 'NOT GO' gauge conforms to T<lylor's principle,
and only g3.uges one diameter at a till~e, i.e. it can check
However, th.e
'GO' gauge, unlike a normal plug gange, cannot reject a hole wbose diameter is
within the allowance
out whose \L;k of straightness caus::S the maximum
metal condition to be exceeded.

SA SCREW THREADS
The allowable errors in commercial screw threads arc quoted in diameter 0111y,
i.e. for a thre:.l.d of a given pitch and form, tokrances on
o..nJ. flaILk
are
not given, but Qrc inch;.ded in the tolerance
on
diameter. BrieHy
the reason for this is that errors ill Dicch and fi::lI1k angle
'lbom a virtual
increase in the effective diameter as' noted in ChqJter 8. Simiiaf errors on an
internal thread hin.!! abolll a virtual decrease in effective diameter.
The effect of these errors is more fully dealt wiIh in Chapter 8, dealing with
screw thread measurements, but the fact tl{:lt a pitch error, or a Ylan.,1< angle error,
can cause an
chJnQ"c in effcctive di;tm~ter is most imlJortanl in
con
sidemtion of the
ofscrcw Emit gauge, and calls for' lhe applicat

or

Taylor's

Limits and Lilliit Guug('S

J.VJe tro logy /or Engineers

\
5.41

Li..'1it Gauges for Screw TbIeads

Consider first a 'GO-NOT GO' type screw gap gauge in which both 'GO' and 'NOT GO'
gauges are made to the full form of the thread, and both of which engage the full
length of the thread. It must be emphasized here that such a gauge is incorrectly
designed, but a consideration of 1tS faults will lead to an explanation of how these
faults can be corrected by ccrrectly designing the gauges.
1f such a gauge is to be used for inspecting work threaded by means of a selfopening die head, as it frequently is, it wllI also be of assistance to the machine
setter in the initIal setting of me die head. Consider in this case that the die head
is causing a pitch error.
If the diameter is cotrect the work will not enter the 'GO' gauge because of the
pitch error, although it a.ppears that the diameter is too large, The die head would
the1l be adjusted to reduce the thread diameter until it enters the 'GO' gauge, but
not the '"OT GO' gauge. The work thus appears correct, not because the diameter
is correct, it is in fact under:;r.ze, but because of the diametral compensation by tue
pitch error.
- Tris is an outstanding e."l:arnple of gauges not conforming to Taylor's principle.
If they arc redesigned accordi"~g to this principle, the gauges required would be
as follows:

(a) 'GO' gauge~Full fm:m and full length of thread to the maximum diameter.
of the thread.
(b) 'NOT 00' gauges-(i) A gauge for the major diameter.
(1i) A separate gauge for the effective diameter and one which is not
influenced by pitch (o::rror8.
Ideally the 'GO' gauge shotlld be (l full form ring gauge, but these arc cumbersome !n use, and in practicer a full form
is used, a ring gauge being kept
for the periodic checks. The plain ';;lor
gap gauge is oftcn omitted so that a
simple 'GO-NOT GO' screw g<tp gauge can be used,
To prevent the 'NOT GO' g:~'1;lge beillg influenced by pitch errors, it gauges on a
short length of thread only, and checks effective diameter only, by
cut away
at its crests and roots. Thus the anvils of a 'NOT GO' screw gap gauge appear as
shown in Fig. 5.10.
Consider now the w{lrkpieoe haVIng a pitch error,
gauged by a gr,p gauge
having anvils of tins type. The dtametcr is reduced until th,~ dlfcad passes the '00'
gc.uge. When offered to the ')lOT GO' anvils it enters :J.nd passes the11l because the
diameter is undersize, and tiJ,.e
length of thread is not long: enough for the
pitch error to be seriously effective.
Similarly, for gauging rnt'.;rnal threads, an ideaL set of plug gauges \yould
consist of

(a) '00'

i:

\'1

i,

:.\'

g~lUge~Fun

(b) 'NOT GO' gauge--Cleared at its crest

and roots and being only t'NO or three
threads in length.
(c) 'NOT GO'
piug 'NOT GO'
gauge fOf the minor diameter.

~,

In practice the 'NOT GO' thread

frequently omitted, leaving a simple.
,
plug gauge, an rd HIe
' ,GO , end 0 eIn'"
ended
it; tne

AT CREST
AND ROOT

full form, full length of thread gauge, and the

'NOT GO' end being a plain plug gauge to ensure

that the minor diameter is not undersize.

5.411

Gauge Tolerances jo!' Thread Limit

Gauges

Fig. 5.10, Form of anvils on a

The al1o'Nablc errors on a limit g,mge

for a screw thread are tabulated l:U1d ex. l'
919 Th:~ S"llV'l~-d gives th(, tolerance for major, minor, ::md
lamec
In B"
,w. -'
'-' h -;. a l . ?
r.
l' ' \.
Pffective diameters of a tlllc~,d gauge, the toi<:"ances l~r pl:ch and ,uu~r' ( ~
:rr~rs being wllverted and consid.ered in terms of thclf cHect all tile ':1 (~C_IV"
~NO

GO'

screw..gap gauge.

diameter.
.'.,
.- . 1 d;~' oa wear "llowance added to Ie> nomiHa .. ,m,. o.
Thus a screw P1ug gauge lla"
"..
.'
. ,
,. t
.
Beyond tl1i" )'S " tolf'rance zone for simple effective dmmeter wrw:;[l C~!1I:(jt De
SIan
,,'
<..
~
11
f
,. - ,,-d
,~. ded 'DU'" r.oa'cd to this is a further tolerance zone to 3.0W or PLC;l .,',
eXL;C~

.
d'
. Tl
tolara[1~e
flank angle eHOTS in terms of an increase in effectIve tamewr. .lese "".. 1 0.;
zones are shown in Fig. 5.11.
. ' ~ 't' nal
Similar tole'ance ZOiles <,xc
for gap .find nng g;;u~es tor t"X Lf
", d"iJ a"l "i'lt
set out In tabular IOun.
t1le magr:'.lLIl
. v tolera'-'c,'
_
.. v b"':n"
Y.< b
A

5.42 Referen:ce Guag(;5 fo>' Sere IV Thr.:::ads

B S 919

a1sc defines tolera:1ce zones,

. '
..
re4'e~ence sc~ew plug }T<lU.rres used for

ana1

-.\,'

l.llClr

.
'. d~ for highly accurate
rnagmcu.v
. "
d
q

aU"t1 t esf mg

'~-~w

~Llv

!Zap :raurre

.'"

l>

.~

-,

an'
.,

'ie"y small dmmeter tnreaa IS

small screw rmg gauges. r. scrc.w flhg b au ",,-- lUl a , 'L". , "
"'.
~~_
:Il1p~sc;'O'I'"
to
lW'8sure
to
determine
the
accuracy
01 Its 1lldlVldual elem~l"ib.
a1nl0st 1 J<.iCQA"
.........
,
" " . , + 1 Ula( e t"
' tllerel0re
l'
",,, '''';n<> 'l;I'l:t plu iY gal~pes whose SIze I~ aCCUfMC Y
v
Uy
~.I...i
.b....,,'"
..:J
It 1S
the hlgh and 10'1';' limits ~f the rwg gauge itself.
. . . ~ it'"
Similar
are used to inspect and set screw gap gauges, wlucn are a ,nvst
impossible to measure by contact methods.

< ,

'"

'''A

i,4.J.l 1..';)

',-

c,', '7 __

form and fulllengtJl of thread.

105

104

Limits and Limit Gauges

fOlERANCE ON Er"ECTiVE 0

~O

ALLOW FOR PlfCH AND

rLANK ANGLE ERROF?S

cr-!

IAMETER
Vl"'R
CJ _ ANCF. ON SIMPI.E EFFECTIVE

-=f\Jl\I

~---i--

f~;;~~g~~~~~.:..-:;:;:D:'A~METE'I'?ALLOWANCE

LJ

=:

(a) DIAMETER WiTHIN LIMITS

Fig. 5,:2.

Fig. 5.1I.

Dispo~it!on of tolcnll:ce zones 011 \:;0'

screw plug gauge.

(b) Dlf\lvlETER TOO LARGE

Method of using a taper limit gauge.

small diameter of Ii taper plug gauge, These measurernents ,He fuHy 0xplained in
Chapter 4~
tl~js rneans that
the manufaci:urc of su.ch ga.ug t:; it is
not pO$sibl~ to 'neaslIre the required sizes directly,
Consider a taper plug gauge. If the
diameter D is det~rD1incd, rh!~ diamct'::Is
D ms " and
afc functions of the h;;igilt of'
of taper .
gauge and the

It is shown in Chapter 4 that

-. D .J_, ')H
tal
....
;;1 ~
Dmax-'
2

andD mill =D- L 2(H

~):an~

Further, the
of til2 ,'/OTK to be
\vill have a tolerance, and so vvi11 the
gauge. If the
tolerance on th'~ war:,
is say, :1: 5 sec, lhe tolerance 011 the
should be of the order of 1 sec (Le. 10%
the work tolerance), or A sec.
If D is correct, then over a height
this angular gauge tolerilf).ce -w'ill make

HiI

5.5 TAPERLlMlT GA lfGES

nificanL difference to the diD,nlcU~IS ~DmHx

D min
It is suggested that the fonowing method of mmmfncturing these gauges may

Fig. 5.)3.

Taper PlUg gauge.

be used.
(a) ]vIakr; the gauge o'verlength and to an

as close as possible tu [h,

nOJninar -\vork
(b) Remove the gauge from the machine and accurately determine
D and 1he angle

106

diiillld:1'

107

Limits and Lillih CUlll!".':

Metrology for Engineers
(c) Calculate the height H which, based on the above measurements,

will

give the correct diameter Den,x' Similarly calculate the height of the step S
wrJch will give the correct diameter D min'
Grind the length to the correct values of Hand S to the required degree
of accuracy for Dm and D min
A similar procedure may be used to produce taper ring gauges to the required
degree of accuracy.
To use taper gauges to check the accuracy of ang[e of the workpiece a line
along the gauge should be smeared lightly with a marking agent s]lch as -prussiau
blue Of rouge. The g'.luge is placed in position on the taper and rotated slightly.
The registration, a transfer of the marking agent on to the work, gives a slibjective
indication of the an2:;,'ular accuracy of the work.
however, will not give a
measurement of the angular error and the effort WOt:id probably be better spent
in <::nsuring that the machine alignments necessary to produce the taper are
correct: this techniqIJ.oc is obviously not suitabie for a production check and can
ordy be u:::l~d for setting purposes and as a spot check during production.

5.71

G~mging

rM.e gauge used for this purpose is a. 'pin' gauge whose lengL~ has been accurately
J.JJ.

"
,
~'~hirl" ("ce Chn;l)ter 3).
d"termtneo mang a iengi.ll oar mc"sulhlg me..- '~", ~,l' " ' w f" bore
v
T'le l~rl'Jth of Ule
"auge should be smaller Wan t'.1e o.lamel<:. 0 dle. A'
D '(1":
'"
b
t .. "lr about pOlnt
Ttl." m'oort o "; jn the bore and the amoun 01 l'Ov ~ <
.i
to b e galLge ..... ""
~,,~~. > - .
'
r:;.'. ~ 1 measured with a llexible steel rule or tape; see J. If? ) .. ).
1

"

,.',.

F ...C

SA, HOLE DEPTH GAUGES

STEP HEIGHT EQUAL TO

Limit gauges for illspectingthe depth of

holes are also 'thumbnail gauges'. The
gauge is normally cylindrical und is
made a close sliding !tit in a sleeve, to
enable it to be remov~!d from !he hoie,
and to
sharp edges against which
the step can be felt.
Such a gauge is sllown in Fig. 5.14.
it must be remembered that not only
are roiemnces required. on the length of
the gauge and the step~ but also on the
thickness of the sleeve. If the tolerance
on the depth of the ]hole is relatively
smail then these parts must he made to
a high
of acctlracy if ~he work
tolerance is to be maintained.

5.7

TOLERANCE ON THE DEPTH

OF Tf.''' HOl"

'..

~.~

[~~1TT'
:

--11. /

From

Be

VI

I
I

Fig. 5,14.

Hole depth gauge.

As the angh~ in a semicircle is a right angle it can be seen that

GAU-GING 0.7 LARGE DJAl\lETERS

The g;:uges used for dete~'mining the diameter of iarge workpiece!> are not, strictly
speaking, lirrtlt gauges altnongh they may be used 2S such.

Or

109,

108

. Limits and Limit Gauges

jI,I&tToIDgy jor Engineers
its diameter, and can thus be used to determine the radius of a segment of a circle
The L2 terms cancel aIid if the amount of rock is small 8 is sm"Il, and 02 can
be ignored.
W!l
.. --:-=2LS
4

5.16.

as ]n

a
where L :is the length of the pin gaug;} and W is the a.menn, of rock
and as D=L+3

W2

then D=L+8L
or W=V{D-L)8L
If th('; Ihaiting values of ,0, and the known length L are inserted into this
expression, then th'~ limits allowed on the amoLlnt of rock m<:\y be derived from
this final expression.
The aCCl!.T!lcy which carl be achieved by this method is of a much higher degree
than can be obtain;,d using an imtrumcnt sl1::;h as a vernier calliper to make the
measurement direct. Consider a gauge of 400 mm
exhibiting 50 mm rock.
Then
2500
8 x4ll0
,=400 +078 mm
C\

D='h,O+---.- mm

The
1S

me~snremt;'nt

Me"su"emcnt
of larg() external radii.
a!

(if W is normally accurate to 1 mm and if a 1 mm error

assurned in VY"', then

If
(51 )2
D = 400 +--~--.- mm
;5 x 400

=4CO

is the semi-angle between the faces of the all~!e gauge,

To carry out these Il1(;ast!remcnts an angle; piece m2cy be mude up, the Induded
.kno'l,vI1 . T'lris may be fitt~;d \:Vittl a n1icl'o"

metcr ciS shown in

5.1 6 or used in conjunction W1l11 a stepped setting block,
the
of the secp
related to the Emits of the radius under test. It is of
interest that ;;11i5 t}'pe of equiprnccnt d:~tcnnines the radius of the workpiece, 110t

fr0rn

Fig. 5.16,
cos (90,8)

5,72

bet\lJecn ",vllose faces is

(J

2601 =400 +-0, 81 mm

an error of
Thus 2m induced error of 1 mm in the amount of rock
O'03 mm in the d~am(t'Cr measnfcn:,ent, and on a diameter of ';00 mm this would
be difficult to improve upon with simple direct measuring equipment.

110

~.
F :19....."16

.', cos (90

(R+

(1)

cos (90- O)=R

.H cos (90

81 ,~R. .- R cos (90 B)

, =R[1 - cos (90- 8)]
If cos (90 - 8)
P
~-'. ~ = [l - co~ (90 - 8)1

f)\'
In this expression for R the term cos V(no -.)
15 a

r'"

ns-rarr'L for a o'

G~v(n

~')l,.

('f'7tn~rG

,,' ,co

HK
R=(l

IC)
111

LItnits

},[etrology for Engineers

and referring to

reason it is desirable to have a low expansion coefficient but it should he

noted that P:lrts of the gauge which are to be held ill the hand sll.uuld
have low thermal conductivity. It is recommended, for example, Gwt
gauges consist of steel gauging units held by tapers in ebonite or other
plastic handles.

5.16 it is seen that

H=h+Kl

III

which K = cos (90 - 0)

{;I = semiangle of gauge
Kl =,dismnce from intersection of gauging faces to datum
Ii = height from radius to datum face

K are constant for a given gauge, and it is useful to have

them stamped on the gauge ail numerical valu'3s to avoid confusion.
If the expression for R is tr<l,lsposed to give II we get
, R(1-K)
rl =,---- -KI
K
and if an trJs expression the I.i1111ting values of R are used then the values of h
obtained arc the thicknesses of a stepped feeler gauge to use w.ith the gauging
unit, Df alternatively the micrometer readings at the limits of R, assuming the
micrometer reads zero at the datum.
Another
1S to mount a dial gauge in place of the micrometer, and
fit limit lingers to the dial gauge at the limiting readings of h.
.
It should also be rlOted that since this method reveals the error hl the radius
l)f !h~ workpiec::, it is doubled to
the error in the diameter of the work. It is
thus :.1 sensitive method of detecting en-ors in relurively largG diameter workpieces.
The values of

and

It is perhaps fortunate that a suitable material for gauge manufacture is a

relatively inexpensive
quality high carbon steeL Suitable heat treatment can
produce a high
of hardness coupled with
<ind at the same time
it can be rea.dily rnachined and brought to a high degree of surface finish.

A high carbon steel is fully hardened by healiGg to 730 lmd quenching in water.
This will
a hardness of appwxirl1atciy 64 on the Rockwcil 'C' scale, but it
will also make the steel extremely brittle. It is J:ccc:;sary to
tl10 gauge to
reduce the brittleness,. but not to make it so son as to :'cduce its 'Ncar re.si.stlwr:;C.
At the same time the tempering tre:tlment can be used to stabilize the IDGuerlal
and relieve any intern::l stresses Wllich [nay distort i~ over a period of time.
A tempering temperature o( 2UO"C vI/ill reduce the brittleness so then the)
C>
'
'1 ' L4, 5b. li',. ~,m!.:>
.
gauge not
to
iI.nd the har d ness va Iue Wl'Jl. 1oe h.oeb:weJ
temperature of 200C is maintained over a period of 8 to 10 hours it will also
make the gauge extremely stahle.
Screvi thread g;mgcs arc particuiady fragile and pronG to damage if rOl.1J.;hiy
handled, and these gauges should be 'let dm,vn' furti1:.::r at a temperatur,;: of 240"j::::
to
a Rockwell hardness of 'C' 52.

5.82 Gfter IVlatcrir.!s fer Limit

5.3 MATERIALS FOR GAUGES
If a material is to be used successfully for gauge manufacture, it must fulfil certain
requirements, either by virtue \)f its own
or by having these properties
conferred upon it by ma.'1ufacturing or a
treatment process.
These req uirements ar{!:

(a) Hardness. To resist 'Near.

(b) Stability. Its size and shtlpe must not change over a period of time.
Corro::iolt resistance.
(d) Machil:eability. It must be easily machined into the required shape and
to the
degree of accuracy and sllrfacc finish,
(e) Low coefficient of linear expansion. A. limit gant!f! is often subject to a
oonsiderable amoUDt of handling comparl;)d with the workpiece. For this

If a large piece of high carbon steel is water-quenched it will prolxlbly crack.

If it is oil-quenched it will not attain 0. high enough degree of hardness to resist
wear. Large gauges should therefore be mad~ of an oil-hardening tool
usually of a nickcl--chrome alioy.
Where expansion due to tcmper3.tun: is of particular importance as in the use
of long precision
a material cdIed [mGr, an alloy containing 36 %
may be used. Invar
an expansion cocD1cient of less than 1 x 10-1! per cC
but is unstable over a
period. 1t has been found that a 42 % nickel alloy,
known as Elinrar, is much more stable and has an expansion coefficient of is x 10-'
per C which is still remarkably sma!l.
Frequen~Jy a low carbon steci is used for gauge mal1ULlcture and is bardened
bv casehardenin<!:. I Iowever, the h::miening process is rclativcly expensive as
c~llsists of curbul:L~ing . core:rcfini11g~, case-hardening, rrnd
Such a. gauge
will probably be whcily satisfactory and the choice between high carbon steel,
11.1..)
I"
M

'.,.

.''!' '

kIetrology for Engineers

hardened fight through, and a case-hardened low carbon steel is largely dictated
by personal taste, material availability and economics.
Direct electropIating of chromium on to steel has been developed, not for
decorative purposes, but because chromium is extremely hard and wear resistant.
This process is useful for reclaiming worn gauges, which arc machined slightly
undersize to correct any form errors which may have develo"'cd. They are then
plated slightly oversize and ground or lapped to :;ize.
During the war when good quality steels were required Jar other purposes, a
number of
gauges were used, particularly in the United States of America.
It was claimed that they did not burr if dropped, but gave a clean chip and could
still be used, or broke altogether. They could be stabilized and given a high surf1ce
finish. A peculiar advantage claimed was that they did not obscure the work and
that visual inspection could be carried out in some cases while gauging was in
progress. The Corning Glass V{orks, of
N.Y. have reported a much
longer life for glass compared with steel gauges, when used for gauging gun
barreJ.s.

R 6

5.9 SU.RFACE FINISH FOR GAUGES

.lvrucb. can be done to reduce the initial wear rate of a gauge if its surface finish is
good. A poor finish with a small number of high peaks is prone to more rapid wear
than a finish having a large number of very small peaks, giv:ing a large contact
area. Thus a gauge should be finished by high quality grinding or lapping to give
a C.L.A. value of not more than 010 Ji-m.

114

115

JI;Ietro!ogy for E"1gineers

'Pilie tests applied to machine tools, regardless of type, fall into well deiined !TroUDS
whlch may be summarized as follows:
<:>

(a) The level of instaiIation of the macrJne in L'1e horizontal and vertical
planes.
(b) The main spindle is tested for axial movement and in the running truth of
its axis.
(c) The bed-ways are tested for straightness and parallelism.

(d) The line of movement of members such as saddles and tables alorlg bedways is tested.
(e) Practical tests in the form of the machining of test specimens, followed by

line, and it would therefore be impossible to turn a true geometric cylinder on Lll0
lathe. Similar effects are obtained 011 other types of machines when the accuracy
ofinstallation is not of the required order.
The maintenance of the initial installation accuracy is dependent upon the
, type and thickness of foundation on w1:1ich the machine is set. Many machines
require no more than the norma! thickness of workshop floor, say 150-200 mm of
concrete laid on hardcore, Lo
cases. such as jig boring machines and high
grinders, it is necessary to prepare a special concrete foundation of
considerable
which addiLional1y may be insulated from the surrounding
fioor.
6.1 in which is outlined the
The method of testing for level is shown in
bed and bed-ways of a centrl3 lathe.
BRIDGE

careful and surface finish of the specimen.

The tests carried out under (e) above are in the natui'C of dynamic
in so
far as the resuits of the measurement of the specimen reveal the behaviour of the
machine under normal conditions of operation. That is, it is not sutficient that the
madline should be satisfactory under conditions of static loading only, but that
aC(''101wt should aiso be ta,ken of the vibration and ciefkction of machine members
under dynamic loads .
.Much pioneering work in devising and evaluating suitable tEsts was carried
out by Dr. G. Schlesinger, whose work Testing 111achlnl? Tools is a standard
tre2:ti,se on the su qjcct.
At a subsequent date, a series of test charts were prepared jointly by the
of Mechanical Engineers and the Institution of Production Engineers
and it is these which are
- or J:ofm the basis of the standard tCSi:S applied
most machine tool makers, and constirute the procedure [;)r the final inSDection
of the machine.

Charts for Machine Tools' are

The accuracies specified in 'Acceptance
rei:;G:!"CS.:1Zf~(j as ceing satisflictory fDr the types
machines to which they
but
time improved methods of llul1dng the measurements are available,
and
will be included in this chapter.

by

6.21

It

Test-; f.or Lev.;;] fif Install~ilfln

be toe strongly :::mphasized that it is essential that a machine tool be

In truly horizontal and vertical
this ,lcsuracy must be
m:,mml.!n'~cl. If, for example, we consider
bed lathe which is not
truiy llOrizontal, it is dear
a deflection, either
.to PifGduce a
bend, 01' if the lie.i:le.etion
intmduced.
It would thus follGW that the
"add!,.; could not be in a straight
a!.DD.ot

116

SPIRIT LEVEL

Fig. 6.1. Testing a lathe bed for level and wind.

With the saddle at the approximate mid-span of the b;;,d support

a precision level lS
at a-a to
the levei in the longitudinal direction. Tht
transverse test at b-b will usuaUy
the use of a bridge
to span the
front and rear guide-1Nuys. Preferably, readings should be t:lken
in each direction so that the effect of a,djusrlTIcnts in one direction may also be
observed on the level in the other. It will be notc:d that readi,igs taken transversely
will reveal any twist or 'wind' in the bed. That if [he bed is out of level, L~'''~U',""
of tIle bubble
:;hould all be either plus or minus.
The process of correcting the error in level may be dm~e by wedges and
shims set at suito,blc points under (he support feet or pads of the macl1ine until an
accuracy of 0,02 mm/mc:tre is obtained.
The
of level suitable for this work has a senstivity of 0-04
and has a vee base, so that direct contact may be made with the inverted vee ways
of the machine bed.
The bridge piece to span the bed for (he tra.t1SVerse test may have a flat base
for use OIl fl:n-bed I,Hites, bur a vee bridge is generally considered better. The
manufacture of such a briJ;;\~ is somewhat simplified if hardened and ground
cylinders form the vee').

117
'l'j.I'

lvlachine

lJ:letro!ogy for Engineers

6.22 Spindle Tests
Considering again the testing of a centre lathe, the running truth of the internal
taper at the front end of the spindle is of vital importance for the production of

accurate work. The equipment required [or this test consists of:
(a) Hardened ground paraliel test bar havillg a concentric
is a dose fit to the spindle nose taper.

shank which

of the
plunger is then arranged to lie on the
axis of rotation.
The slip should not exceed 001 mill.
.
. ,
It is imr;mtznt to distinguish oet';'reen the necessary end play)!: [he spmole,
.:l e to
,,... ,,;
><'-"'1'
'oet"\""~l1
hea1'ing
and axial slip. The latter is due to
til!
,. t 1I...J
I,..,J1Y
.. ~~o.. !'"C"
...
' c ' ......
~~
errors in
of the ,clbutm<;;nt faces or locating faces ?f end
,:vltn
respect t'G
axis of rotation, and produces a
cnd-wlse movement Of thf"
spindle.
I...t

10,,<

,j.J

""

"

(b) .A dial test indicator calibrated in 001 mm.

The method is shown in Fig. 6.2.

POSITiONS I AND IT ARE FOR
TESTiNG SPINDLE COi':CENTRICITY

6.3.

Fig. 6.2.

Tests for spindle concentricity and alignment with guide-",vays.

Two readings, at I flnd n, are taken of the running t;:uth of the test bar,
which obviously must itself be a highly accurate one in all respects. Over a distance
sllch as JOO mm be~ween I and II, a difference of running truth is allowed. At I
tl1'c' ,~rror should not exceed 001 nun and at II, 003 mm.
j\ most
test is that of the paniklism of the spindle axis with i'cspcct
to the
in both the vertical and horizontal planes. The method of test is
shown in
6.2. ,<\ny error in p:tral!cEsm whi.ch is revealed \vhen the saudlc is
moved along the bed should l10r exceed 002 nUll/300 mm in either phne. In the
vertical plane, shown at
the reading ma~' be in the plus directioIl at the free i;nd
of the test bar. Ia the case of ihe horizontal plane, shown at (0).. any c.rror should
incline the <est bar towmds the directior. of the rool pressure. By permitting only

these directions of error, the tendency is for the !ccl pressures to correct them.
The axial
or fioat of the spindte is teSted as in
5.3. the dial test
indicator
firmly mC1Jn ted at any suitab;e position 011 the machine.
must be a snug fit into the spindie no,:;e laper, and have its
Outer eIld hc\.: ground flat and sqmlf<~ to the taper axis. The Ene of movement

118

Tcst for axial slip of lathe spindle.

Chapter 4,
with 11() 'v.
Assume

of (l lathe bed 2 In in
i.nGiISUreG.
the auto . .
'.)1 measurement 'would be as
or the lathe
the
projectcu
oEth~ bed~
A
of the tripod type,
fDr tIns.
AS'TPli'1. 7
:'c':
havc
the
reflector is set 011
b~'d jn~E:r~r tlt;' i~sirument and u rcHectioil obtained [!'Om it such tl;at t,h~ ,image
'u,' "P5 01' ill'" c(~J1ima[or ilpl)e8~r nearer tIlt: centre of L1e fleIG, The
.t t;"~ C-()-'"
.0,)'n.l.....
0 ..
reflector is thel moved to 1he other end of the bed, Clnd.
the
line of moveme;lt of the rCJ":;~ctor has been reasonably
. , .'
r'
of Hw
then the
of the cross-wires
:,~ppear m tDe fIeld 0[. '.Ii.'::
r 'c''',
Of~ tl", ,"rl'p~tor aise Tills ofoceclure ensures that rettt~Clwn;,
ey
. e)l
l;-C e<..i.. !-.u1-:>
~
a:t i~terme(bte positions wiII ;:e with.in the field, and is thus an
ened;
on the level of the bed in the horizontal plane.
.1.1 ......

1.

"C'; ".',.

the

'-~

,_, _ . . .

.l'.... LvI

......-

.1 _

119

1\11etrolob~
0" V for EllO"ineers
'"

1vJachine Too! Metroiogv

A straight-edge should now be set down on the bed, to ensure that the reflector
is stepped along it in a straight line.
Assume that the distance between the support feet of the rdlector is 1035 rom,
and that LTJe interval length at which measurements are taken is also 1035 nun.

2-;r

Now, since 1 min of arc

then, on a base length of 103-5 mm, 1 min of arc

=-~-----

ra d'lans

___-_"rr_x 1035

mm

=0-03 mm
That is each tilt of 1 min of arc of the reflector as it is stepped along the bedway corres~onds very closely to a rise or fall of the guide-way suri~tcc of 003 mill.
Having ensured that an
of the croGs-wires will be received by the autocollirn<:!tor when the reRector is set at the end positions of the bed, the reflector is
now set at th,; forward end ofille bed. nearest the instrument, to begin the series
of readings. This condition, and those for subsequent readings, is "hown in fig_ 6.4
in which the rise and fall of the bed surface is greatly exaggerated.
,,'_~I

be done. Column 3 gives the differences of each reading [rom the first. In column 4these diuerences arc converted to the corresponding linear rise or fall, on the
basi~ of 1 sec of n.fC =00005 mm per lO35 mm. The second zero introduced at the
head of column 4, when associated wilh the previous zero in tIlls column reDresents the heights of the t'1iO feet of the reflector support mounting vbe~ if; its
original position. Column 5 gives tlJ.e lleights of the support feet of ihe refl.ector
above the da',um line drawn through their first pOSition. Thar is, the values in
column 5 ,.re obtained
successiveJy adding, algebraically, the values in column 4.
This is necessary because the individual heights obtained ill column 4 am tbe
heights of the b3,ck feet of thi': support relative to the front feet in a given
and nN relative to the datum.

Position

Adjustment
to bring
both ends
lO Zero

Reading

on
Surface
AUTO-COLLIMATOR

I
2

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
.2
2
2

4
5
Fig_ 6.4.

Auto-collimator used for checking the straightness of lathe-bed guide-ways.

\Nith the reiIecror set at A--R, the setticg wires in the auto-collhnator eyepiece
are moved to straddle symmetrically the im:lge of the horizontal cross-wIre, by
th;~ suitable rotation of the micrometer drum, and the micrometer reading is noted.
The reflector is then moved 103-5 mm to the position B-C and a second reading
is taken on the micrometer drum. Successive reading.s at CoD, D-E, E-F, etc.,
aoe taken until the length of the bed has been stepped along, A second set of read
iml:s should now be obtained by stepping the reflector in the reverse direction
al;ng the bed, to fl;veal any serious errors in the first set of readings, Assuming
none have
the mean values of each ~et of readings ;Tny now be reGorded,
and these
the anrou!ar positions of the ref1ectof, in seconds relative to
the opticalrxiJ
the auto=collin;ator at each of its posilioll::; along the bed.
The merhod of tabulation of the results of measuremem are shown OIl p. 121the position of the plane reflector at 1035 rom intervals along
Colum!J 1
t
the bed. CoiGmn 2 gives the mean reading of the auto-cQllimator to the nea.res
second_ In practice it is possible to observe wb-divisions Of seconds, and this should

8
9
10
II
12

10
10
12
15
17
18
17
15
13
9
12
14

15

i;1(:

(0-001 mill) I WOOl

mill sec

l!rrors
from
SrrctigJlt

-,-"
,,,;

-:-5
-,-3

+25
+35
+4-0
+3-5
+25
-1- 1-5

-1

-05

+5
+7
~8

-7

0
0
+ 1,0
+ 3-5
+ 7-0
+ I I ,0
+ 145
+ 17-0
+ 18,5
+18,0

0
2-6
40
6-0
- 8,0
-10-0
-12,0
14-0
-160
-18-0
-200
-220
-240

-2
-3
25

-1-0
+ 10
+2'5
+3-0
+2-5
0
1'0

-1-0
0

or

120

The total rise in the surface of the bed over a n m length from a chtum
along the line of the fir~i reading is 24 Itm. In cGiun;n 6 thi; total rise is moportioned o",:r the t'Nej\'e readings taken, i.e. in increments of 24/12 = 2 ~J-m.
. These values lGolulUn 6) ure subtracted from the values in column 5 to give the
errors (column 7) in the bed from a straight line joiniDg the end points and wilhin
w~ich the s(:rJ!;s of readillgs were obtuined (I.e. it is as thongh a straight-edge were
laJd along the bed prorl c and touching the end points of the test surface when the'!
are in a ho,izontal jJ18.nt). Th~ rise <wd feJI of the 5urfac(~ relative to the straidrt..
edge would be the values given in column 7
~
A graphical 1'0prescntatioll of this is silOwn in Fig. 6.5 in which the values
rp

1. .... j

. lvlachine

Nletro[ogy for Engineers

in columns 5, 6, arid 7 are plotted. In the graph of cumulative errors a
line has been p:1ssed through the end points, and 7epresents the straight
\.:UJLU"C",U,lll', the ends of the bed. In the graph of straightness errors, this line
has been
as the axis, and thus the values plotted in the previous graph have
the same relationship to it.
It is important to note that the
values for the lC'H.11Ill~:~
colmnn 2 of the table indicate the increasing angIe of tilt of the
towc.rds the optical axis of the auto-coilimator. Increasing readings have therefore
+24

5
POSI;

O~

8
7
6
ON SURFACE

10

II

12

(-+ ) values for the linear rise and

and vice versa. The lathe
b thus both conca-vc and (~onvex
its leJgth rehnive to the datum line
joining its end points.
hut the n1e:thod
also to a
The test described ,dates to il flat-bed
the pLane re.fleetor ll1GUnl: n1U!3t be
bed \vith vee
.ill its base, to soH, the 'lee.
having a vee
bed. T;.1C apex of the
be rcllevcd so that contnct is rilade~
at the sidt;;s of the vee" vv'ith tbis
tile straightnesEl of rhe bed in
as in the Vertical
the tilt
call be
the ilorlzontaJ
of the rel1cclor in the: hod.
ahout the
zontal
"t.,.,.",,.,'; akng the bed in iJ1t(;l";;''l1
is ~'otatcd'90 in lis
of 6 in but iD this cr~se
so ttlat the pair of
"\ires ill the eyepiece arc vertje.:;).L \""llc1Ll",;~
of The im8.r;e of the vertical member of the cross-"vi.rcs ;l~'C
on the rnicr{)rneL~[: druLi, and \VI)u.ld be recorded ill colu111n 2,.
Associated "yvith. tl~.c error in:th(~
oJ?--':ll~Lhe bed Tnay
VlJild vvhicb, exist; lin;:: to t:;;tch vvay orille
having-diiIcrent errors ill
Of, if
tThis condition C3J1JJC i. l}C detected
vvhh an alJn:.:~col1i(n~-::..t(Jr5 sinc\~ {he
in.' its G\'1j~l
and convenient iJl{').hod
its
bOch w span the:

6,3

XLS'IS l?()R

toe !~;, felf

JTHlChines ?Jld ;/~~rtical
an essential D.CZ:Ltf(.~Cy lies in the S(Fnlr~n{;:~s of th~;
C:l::.lS \Vl.tJl tho
phlrlC of rh>~ tnblc? F"lg (,5 illnstraL ~,:; the
'Ill \vhiclJ a le~;(, bl'~I SUDpoxtG a
dial
;fH3.ic,ator at C~.
150 lntJ1.
'"
V\1i th iI1,f~
In rl1any

nl~ichilJ.c

.j.~~ C~l.se

or(~~;r

tHb]<~

Fig. 6.5.

122

Graphs of cumulative error and actual error in a machine bed, determined

using an auto-collimator.

of 0-05

n;i.n/:~CO 111Dl,

(: f: <l rnllf'! g

a::!cl in

(l~f~c~ion

is inc;inGcl
th\~ farce
v;/ard travers':: of the d~'iIllends to correct tile error~
In the CELse of v!~rLi'~D..l
the flin t~st \vould
ib:ccl
hC:ld nnchinc:;. A test ill d. direction
11al tab1e axis on:y j.;.:; D.\~rr=.1ficahle to
0,02
:rnrn, .1s appti(~~.r.bL:;, 'che front
of rhe table
tills l1atllr<; is knciwn as tIl;;: 'turn rOlE.ci melhod'" ancl proves t<,l 1')1; :1
very sensItive one.
In some classes of machine
the accuracy of constn:ctiun cuHc(; fer

lrJetrology for Engineers

(

kfachill(! Tool M,'rro!ogF

N'

straight Ii is necessary only to take two readings; one with the reflector at position
A, and a second at position B, the optical square being set down at the inter~
section of L'1e two surfaces when the reading at B is taken. The liinbrenc~ between
the two readings would then be the squareuess error, note
made of its
direction.
The test becomes more
however, if the straightness errors in t.he
two surfaces are considered. In this case, it is necessary to carry out a straif!htncss
test on each surface, as shown ill section 6.23. The "angle f~nned by th; mean
straight lines
through each surface profile
then indicate the mean
angle between the smfllces.
A squD.renes~ error, which reveals itself as an f.L'cial mO'lelJ1!:mt, is that of
the thrust face and collars of a lead screw. Unless these are perfectly square to the
axis of lead-screw' rutation, a cyclie end "wise movement is set l~p which is of the
same nature, and due to the same reasons as the axial slip in a main spinJIe.
The condition is shown in Fig. 6.8.
The two methods of testing are:

requires optical methods for its testing. Trus applies especiaLly to jig"boring
machines, but is also applicable to milling machi,lies of both vertical and horizontal
types.
6.7 illustrates the conditions of te.st fOI,the squareness of the transverse
table ways with the face of the column.

wm

<'.

COLUjvlN
GUIDES

(a) by dial test indicator;

(b) byanto-collimator.

Fig. 6.6.

Method (a) is sim!lar ill all respects to that used for the axid
(if main
spindles and Lllc error which wouid be tolerated in the case of htlJ.:': lead ssre'iVS
would be of the order of 001 mrn.
The importance of this test inay be appreciated when it is realized that axid
slip will canse a tlu:;ad
a periodic pitch error to be cut on the lathe.
Method (b)
an'
applic<1tiGll of the auto-collimator. The
axial oscillations of the kad screw are convened to angular movet.Qcnts oC a plnne
reflector ball located inlo the centr';) hole in the end dthe lead screw, and mounted
on a cross-strip hinge
6.8). The angular movement of the rei1e:ctor during
one revolution. of the
screw is observed in the auto-coHima-tor eyepiece.

Testing a drilling-ma..::hine spindle for

squar\':ness with the table.

\X/hen
an optical method for such a test, and bearing in mind that the
axis of the incident beam from the auto-collimator forms thc measuring datum,
it is clear that this must be turned accurately through 90. It is dOlle by means of an
square. This is a sp~cial case of a prism, such that, rcgardless of the angle
at which the incident heaiH strikes the face of the prism, then by internal reflection
the beam is turned. tllrough 90".
Assume, then, that the transverse ways and the column face are perfectly

I-MCHINE
END FRl\ME

THRUST

AUTO-COl. LIMA TOR

L.

ANGLED THRUST FACES

CAUSE ~:XIAl MOVEMENT

Fig. 6.7.

Auto-collimator and optical sG.uare being used

square ness of machine slides.

to

test the

Fig. 6.8.

j:.ead screw with angled tlmlst faGes and possible method of tcst using an
auto-collimator.

125

Jvfetro[ogy for Engineers

.sA
i
1,S

TT
C 1'1

'7
I

PRACTICAL TESTS
~rpv:ouslv
nntpd
these
are of a tVDe
desirrned
to reveal ~ the combined
eiIects
l.Hv 1
_. v
~

hi
d.

of s~veral
. , ..

errors both in the aEgnment accur,acy or th,~ mac ~e, an In

involve the machining of a test pIece uncicc pcescnbed c,onits TlgJl11ty. '
t
.....1
te't
C',~c,; ",. ~!~.
OI'rut,
ana" toO! ,geome,ry.
! 1e
S pIece
ditions 0f cutllng
1'_ u
...... ~
is then me:lsured for its g'~Dmetry and surface finish, and the results compared
with standards for these features.

As
from the Industrial Rcvollltion to the
the ncr:d for closer control oyer the accEracy of.
used for transmitting ,he
power made available has also
the iilOSt used me;:m3 of
pc\ver and InuJtiplying torqne is
the mediulil of g.ear trnLns.
It is obviOl:S tkt the ,strength of gear teeth has had to
to me;';[
loads, but this is Q
problem which is not a
COilC',;l'l1 of tli.i,) book.
it "is,)
of a ge2.r train that it shaH hCl:vc a ccr,:1r:)nt v'~i'>'
city

rDtio~

VgriL:.ti.Jlls in velocity

r~ltio

can cause a cyclic fluctuutloH of tGoth

l~Yld",

ing which
rise to
fatirrue, leading to tooth
.
The nOJse
of jnt'~resr if one considers t!Ji~
mobile.
futomobiles ha.d rudir;:entary exh:lust silencers
engine noise caused most of the other mechanical noises to b~ G\/:3:r1ook:;,:rl .
EiTiciellt exhaust
Inade m(:chanical nois:~~; 1"r0111_ th~
E~Ol(~
apparent. This was silenced
t~le use of helical gC1rs and C1CSCf cent.ro! in tiocir
m8..n 7Jfacture. T'he Gear noise \vas redlJCed nod carburcttor il!takc :'1oj~e bc~aTr:e
when reduced by efficient air cleaners and intc,ke
enabled rear axle \vhine' to rnakc its presence fell. 'The use of
'bcvc!~~ and
hypoid gears, '~2D.in v/ith closer
reduced this aDd the
valve tiIning gear;;
required :lttcntion.
th~~s
G~(hD.ust and iU::I.kr;
silencers were improved and the vvhole
started again.
Thus a
item of development in the motor vehicle has been the
ment of efficient gears, an.d tLl:; only considers or.e
If one
this work applied to all of the l1lcchanlsm~ which rely on
nut pO\lier; the in1portance of th(~
apparent.

ft.... fe\v of the dHTcrent types of gea.rs required by modern industry ha"/e l;e~:;n
mentioned above. Witbjn the confines of this work it is proposed to deal
with
tooth (spur) and helical
These cOl1~titut;:; a
invc1ute gears of

127

126

kletroiogy for Engineers

pr?porti0,n of the g~ars in use today, bevel
,~el?g. tOPICS for WOf.KS of a more specialist

spiral bevels, and hypoid gears

Cycloida] gears an~ used bu
~,.,. . 1 ' "
t
IIt'i"
~ ~ 1~ '1'~rl~~n
,vue,.,.
.
. ,111Clr mam use 1~ m lOfolOglcal work, which again
tn", aUchors conslder 1$ oms!ce the
of this work.
The choice of the involute for
flank curve of gear teeth has two great
advantages for general engineering.
.'

:'

I )
\a

r]
' rat'm 01" a paIr
. o.:nvo
f'
1ute gears.is constant, regardless
~ le vel
oeay

of

errors or variations in centre distance.

(b) An invo!ute rack has straight teeth. This enables the complex involute
form to De generated from a relatively simple cutter.

It is therefore necessary to consider the involute curve in some detail.

7/4 THE INVOLUTE FUNCTION

The in.volute function of an angle may be
made by the radius to
and the radius to
the intercept of the generator with the
involute. This is the involute function of the
angle between the radius to the point of
tangency of the generator and the radius to
the
of the
and the
involute.
This apparently complex statement is
better described graphically in Fig. 7.2.
In Fig. 7.2.:
defined as the
the origin of the

AOe is the involute function of COB.

7.3 THE INVOLUTE CURVE

From the diagram (7.2):

A? involute is the locus of a point 011 a straight iine which rolls around a circl~
wl~nol1t, .
An alternative definition is: the locus of a point on a piece of
st.Eng wilic:h umvound from a stationary cylinder.
/0,.(:"Tlle curve is therefore as shown
/),,:)9:../:';
in Fig. 7.1.
~'-<)
! It';! <..i
From the
it is seen that the
length of the generawr is equal to the
"'"
arc length ()f the base circle from
",,the
of tangency to the origin of
""
the involute at A.

7.1:

Fig. 7.2. The involute function

of an angle.

arc AB=BC

'"",

'~0..,

/ /

Fig.7.1. Tne involute curve.

"

i.e. A1Bl = arc ABl

A~Bz=a.r:

128

But from

ABc and so on.

Further, the tangent to the

involute at any point, e.g. A z, is
perpendicular to the generator at that
point.
Notice also that the shape of the
involute depends entirely on the
diG.meter of the base circle from
which it is gcncruted. As the base
r;lrcle
so the curvature of
t!le involUte decreases, until the
11l11it is re"ched for a base circle of
i niinite c!i:lII)cter, i.e. a straight
line, When the invoiute is a straight
line. .

i.e. the involute function

angle and the
in radialiS.
This term
particular

(ifJ + inv if1) radians = tan 'jI

inv if;
,jJ-tf) radians

angle is the

hetwe(;!/Z the

of lhc

involute geo!l1(;try
br;;w deo.It with separately as it 1:; of
in the work to follow.

7,5
A single toctl.l of 8. gear is made up of portions of a pair of opposed involutes.
The tCC;:11
a pair of geors in mesh contact each
along a line
which is the: ,:omnWD tangc:nt to their base circles as shown in Fig, 7.3.
this
is the common generator to both involutes, the
or pressure betw;;C;l the
gears is transmitted along this jine. The
between !:11c line of actio;, a.ad lhl:)
common tangent to the pitch circles is
known as the pressure angle, '/J.

129

jVfetr%gy for

Engineers

Gear l11easuremelU

From Fig. 7.3:

OR

,1.=

OC=COS'I'

Ro
Rp

the

Circular l)itch CP is the arc distance measured around the pitch ciIcle from
to a similar flank in the next tooth.

f!~tnk of ~ne tooth

.'. Rb=Rp cos >fo

..CP

or Db = D cos .p where Db =dia. of base circle

D =dia. of pitch circle

;f =pressure angle
0 and 20
The
standard
values
for
pressure
an"le
ar,~" '141
~f whi~h "'00 18.
.
.
h
,-'<,::,
:!
, v\..."
becomIng ~ e n:os t used as it gives stronger teeth and allows "ears of s~al1er
numbers or teem to be made, without interference with mating t~eth.

Ba,~'e pitch Pi; is the arc distance measured around the base circle from the
origin of the involute on one tooth to the
of a sin1ila!.~ ilr'iolute on the next
tooth.

Pb

CPcos.p=1TMcos.p

Addendum is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the tip of the tooth.
The nominal value is:
Module

Addendum

This may b(~ v[,ried to avoid interference.

Clearance is the ",ad.ial distance from the tip of a tooth to the bottom of a
. toot.l1 SFi;::O w;}:::n
-l
-1
.
4h are
r.:;';ar.,,:,::,~.rd
'la! u:~~.s ~re :
matmg
we
"ceLL
<
~"
Clearance

0157

or

0250

or

0,400

=0,157 M

01

0-2501v[ or 04(;0 Ai

The 'lalue :!sed depends on th.e type of gtars and

0157 M is normally used for
pressure
gears to Brc\vnc:ltw
standards~

0-250111 is normally nsed for Class

0'400IvI is normally used for Class

Fig. 7.3, Pair of spur gears in mesh, showing terms refi~rred to in
the text.

Dimnerra/ pitch P is the number of teeth per inch of pitch circle diameter.
This is a hypothetical value wbjch cannot be measured but it is most important
as it defir;.es the proportions of all gear teeth.
'

De(~endum

D
N

'b

130

tONh Proportions is in common usage ill countries

tIl"v ,"1
""ej-~c SVS'~'n ",1
~
'. !

"_.
,mere 11'1'1S rnade a w>h01e number of millimetres.

=Addendum +Ckarance

0-250

or

}.{=--

.' T;us rnet~od of

precision ground gears.

Dedencllli11 is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the b,:Hom of the
tooth space.

Module ld is the reciprocal of P, i.e.

hS'[;cr

B, C, and D gears,

or=p

1250

1-250 Iv[

0400

Blank diamett?r. The diameter of the

blanl~

is equul to the pitch circle diameter

plus two addenda:

131

Gear iH ,'( 1.\111', 'II" '!If

Blank diameter = D

In this work the measurements mainly considered will b~ tho~(: in i I,ll:

transverse and normal pianes. Consider a rack of transverse pnch CPt ~IS III
Fig. 7.5

+2 111

but D=N1Y
(V L
,', .Blank diameter=iVlVI +2M=(N +2) x .Module or' "

w
if)

0::

*'I~
z

Tooth thickness is the arc distance measured along the pitch circle frou, its
with one flank to its intercept with the DIher l1ank of the sarne tooth.

<!;

0::

N omina1Jy, tooth thic,kness =

}ilcdule

17

np

=~
k.U.

LEAD A'lGlE

O!17X

In fact the thickness is usuaUy reduced by nn amount to anow for a cel"tain

amomrt of b,lddash and mr,y be changed owing to addendum correction.
15ac:!Cw,,'H is the circumferential movement of one g0<.Lf of a mating pair,rl1e
other gear
fixed, measured at the pitch circi;l,
ck:mlflC';s being
elilninated.
.~t wi!! be note(~ from the above definitions that a spur gear can be completely
speclned m te!ms or

<!;
-'
CL

lIrI'_~A~~
i

~".

HEL,X OR

" ._______..
~ SPiRAL ANGL E
~.
0

:)1'-------.. I
~
\

NORMAL

PiTCH

(a) number of (e;eth N;

(h) diametral pitch P or module iv!;
(c) pri,;ssure
.p.

In the VlO1'k on gear me~i,3UremeD.t which follows th'~ expressions derived will,
"vhere possible, aU be reduc;~d to functions of these dimensions.

AXIAL PITCH

Fig. 7.4. Terms used in text dealinr: '.'1ith helical gears,

HEJJIC/"L GEARS
A helical gear has involute teeth which are not cut parallel with the axis of rotation, as OIl [,;~;ur gears,. but: at an
known as the helix, or spiral, angle to it.
Helical gears arc nomdly used to transmit power between parallel shafts.
They pcovide a much smoother :md quieter ,:.etlan than SDlll' gears, owing to the
fact that at ;:my instant a l1iW}ber of teeth are engaged. FUrTher, each tooth is
i;lljl,dY,GU over 8. short lcngtll of its jIanlc at a
a.nd the engag(!Ulent is
up and ~c1eased gradually.
Thil:3 llny measurernent~; made can be in one of three pianes:

(a) Xormcll to the tooth Hank-denoted by subscript fl.

t.
a.

From the diagram (Fig. 7.5):

AB
.. AB=AC cos
CPn

(b) NCG1UI to the axis of rotation-knovYll as tho;) transverse plane and

(c) Parallel with the allis of nf(ation-known QS the axial

Helix angle (j
Transverse pressure angle
Transverse circular pitch

Hl1d

denoted

CPt cos

(j

(1

As circular pitch=1T x Module

then rrJ.{n = 1Tlv{c cos
and lIIn=N.ft cos

(j

(j

133

Gear jyJeasurement
Afetlology for Engineers
Now the angle of th;,: flank face of the rack in any plane is the pressure ane,]e
of the system in that
0"
Considering

7.5:
tan

For any section DF is constant and ;;qual to the tooth depth but
DE=D1El cos (l

. '. tun 'n =1:an 'ft cos

This enables the normal pn;ssure
base pitch

(f

7.7 UNDERCUrrING JIN GEA.R TEETH AND

ADDE;'JDUM~

If in the design of a gear train a pinion is Imtde too small, interference will occur
between the mating pair. The tooth of the gear or rack will tcnd to 'dig in' to the
root of the pinion, causing rough running or fracture. If a
is Cllt by a
generating process in which interference would occur, the teeth become undercut
and weakened. The condition occurs when the line of action extends
the
point of tangency to the base circle.
Consider a pinion being cut by a rack as shown in
7.6, in which the
of the rack cutter tooth extends beyond the point of tangency of the line of action
by an amount S.

to be obtained and hence the normal

as on any scction base pitch =r.-i\i[ cos

f.

RACK TOOTH

SECTION TI
IN TRANSVERSE
PLANE ~ ~-.-(. .-

YEUX
,,,NGLE
d

,I

Fig. 7.6.

Conditions giviug rise to undercutting ill gear

nlanufacture~

SECTION NN
iN NGr,~fAL F'U,NE:

F:g. 7.5,

NOl'tl1al

and

transv(~.(:e

Thjs condition would give rise to undercutting and can be overconl'~ by dis
placing the rack outwards 2. distance S. Thus, to
for
tbe whed
addendum mnst be reduced by an amount Kw and the 'pinion addendum increased
by all amount
to compensate.
The values Kp and Kw arc called the addendum coefficients for the pinion cUld
wheel and are directly related to by S=KM, where jJ;f =Modulc.
B.S. 436: 1940 gives two conditions for the calculation of Kl ) and Kw.

sections of bnsic rack.

135
134

lYletr;;!ogy for Engineers

Gear ldea.I'uT::'lIU.:nt

$ .

(a) If (N+n) sec:! u:;>60, then

=002 (30 - nsec3 a) whichever is the greater

or

checked by optical projection and this leaves only inaccuracy of setting to cause
the form errors.
In the manufacture of gears of higher class, e.g. precision-ground gears and
master gears, it is necessary to determine the accuracy of individual elements.
Apart from tooth thickness, these include (a) pitch of teeth, and (0) form of teeth.

and
(b) If (N +n)

S(;(;3

a< 60, then

and

002 (30 - Nsec o)

tn th\; above e:cprcssions IV and n ,tre numbers of tectll1n wheel and pinion
respcctivdy and a is the helix
for nelical gears, thus for
tooth spur
gears a~; 0 ilnd sec3 u = L

.Knovriug J(p=Xw the addenda

GEAR TESTS

7.9 R
3

fOf

the gears may be found from:

Pinion addendum

=Mn+KpMn

VVheel addendum

+ Kw)=iYfn+KwM"

A common form of gear testing machine for performing these tests is the Parkson
Gear
shown in
7.7. It consists essentially of a base on which is mounted
a 'fued'
whose position can be adjusted to enable a wide range of gear
diameters to be accommodated, but which is locked in use, and a moving carriage
which is spring loaded towards the Ji'\ed carriage. On the fixed carriage is an
arbor made to suit the bore of the master gear, or a similar spindle to suit the
gear under test being mounted in a parallel plane on the moving carriage.

1':Qte that in each case the n.orni:lal addendum lii ie, cbanged by 'In amount IGYJ
w.bJcb. is the amO]!T(t the rack is
to avoid undercutting.

The methods of
,wd
gears depend largely
tb". l11';t.(}.od of mailllfacture, and tb~ equipment available.
rfJ:~nt can consist of:

811

MAo,TER GEAR

the class of gear,

gear measure/

SCALE AND VERNIER TO

!;ET CENTRE DISTANCE

General tests.

Fig. 7.7. Essentials of rolling-type gear testing machine.

(b) MeaSllffCment of individual elements.

If a pair of gears are spring loaded into close mesh and rotated, any errors
in tooth form,
or concentricity of pitch line, will cause a variation
centre
distance. .
movements of the carriage, as indicated by the dial gauge, indicate
gear.
of operation is as follows:
(a) Using gauge blocks between the spindles set the dial gauge to read zero
at the correct centre, (iJstance and adjust the
loading.

or

Inc1ulkd in this section arG

;11 which the gear is
with a
hard:;Dc,j and ground master gear, tooth thicknesf; meaSliremetlts, and measurements oyer roller). Th.,", 'two latter may seem out of place in gew;r:1I
but when
a gC:ll' js b.:.ing cut, eften
reli~1l1GC is placed on CU(ii';T and indexing
i:l';('ur:'lCY, c<lei! of wllich influencE. form and pItch, and these ,W~ the only tests
avaU,lb:c. HOV1CVCr. th0 authors fe:el that more ~tltcntion should be
to cutter
acco.!r:J.cy and to cl{c
of the machine. Fcr instance, in lloobing a gear of
small
tll''o 0111y tests available arc opti(;al projection and rolling tests.
'1110S(;;
reveal errors in fJITll which can be due only to tither a hob of
incorrect form, or to the hob
set, i.e. not inclined

the helix angle of fhe gear. J"fhe

Note.

blocks = C - (D; d) where C = centre distance and d and D

diameters of spindles.
(b) Set limit mark~ on dial gauge.
(c) Mount the master gear and the gear to be tested, and note the variation
in the dial gauge reading when the gears are TOt:ued
hand. If it falls
outside the limit marks, the gear is not acceptable.

straight l1rlnks, call be

K

137

Gear Measurement
Tllis is the standard form of test used industriuIly llnd,~r production Con_

the gear tester can be used to carry out mDn~ comple;{ tests.
Fer
lq
the moving slide at th'3
centr~
of the,
gears, "wtI by fixing dle master gear, the backlash can br~ determmed by setting a
at the
line of the production gear.AIw, at this setting, the gears
,;.hecked for :)1TIooth
pr'Jduce a trace, or

"hown ir. Fig. 7.2.

It is usual for such errors to occur together and a compound trace of cccent~

rieity and tooth form errors occurring on one gear would appear as shown in
7.8 (d).

It should be noted that when testing helical gears on the ,Par1cson tester the
vertical component of the normal force between the teetn has a tendency to cause
one gear to lift, or ride up its arbor, For this reason, the master gear in these
cases should be mounted between centres and rotated in such a direction that it
absorbs the upward thrust, the equal and opposite downward component holding
the tested gear down.
If no master gear is available, the instrument can still be used to check a pair
of mating gears by running them together. It must be ensured that
do not
have compensating errors. For example, equal eccentricities, if mounted in a
particular al1gular relationship, would cancel out and show no r::rror. If this
method is used, the gears should be tested twice at relative augubr positions of
180 to each other.

7.10 TOOTH THIC]INlESS MEASDRElvn~NT--STRA,':WHT

TOOTH SPUR GEARS AND HELICAL GEARS

(al T'lACE DUE

A frequently used instrument for measuring gear tooth thickness is the gear tooth
vernier. It should be realized that, as the thjckness varies from the tip to the base
circle of the tooth, any instmment for measuring on a single tooth must

(a) measure the tooth thickness at a specified position on the tooth;

MiGULM,
ROTA T'O~j pt:.'1 TOOTH

(b) :fix that position at which the measurement is ta!cen.

tooth vernier therefore consists

of a vernier calliper for
The
making
measurement W combined with d. vernier depth gange for setting the
dimension h at which the measurement W is tuk()I) as in Fig. 7.9.
The positions at which the measurement can be made are normally limited
to two.

(b) 1:'iGIV!DL:AL TOOTH ERRORS

f'lSqM;.\U.'{ u:-~ru~
C()"i,,'C, 'NHEM

(c)

'M'

i\,DJUSTMEN

\j
(d)

Fig. 7.8.

:::.~ROR

Typic:}j tr:'lces produced by rccording~typ{;

ron~ng

test

il!st.pJrrl~i1L

~-w-j
Fig, 7.9. Jaws of gear-tooth vernier.

139

Af:::tro!ogy for Engineers

Gear )1;1eaSUrCI1Ul;Z!
In the above expressions it millt be remembered that hand fV arc ideal
values. Allowance must be made for h if the addendum is modified as in 7.10 and
for W to accommodate the baekiash required.
In the case of helical gears the tooth thickness in the transverse plane at the
pitch line is not eas:,! to measure but the normal tooth thickness can be detennined.
Within the limits of accuracy of this instrument, the normal tooth thickness W"
is the same as the tooth thickness of a corresponding virtual spur gear in which
the number of teeth N v = Nse(jl(}' where (}' is the helix angle.

It should be noted that fV is a chord AC, but

the tooth thickl1ess is sneeified as an arc
,1'" ,~ ....., ~
\. n . .-'
t!
h"13 t11C
~
~,
,. . . "
,-us,a"c",
ELi._ "~. 4"".ISO
dIS ranee ~B ann
this is slightly gl';::uter than the addendum ED,
t

Referring to Fig, 7.10:

W=2AB
D

AO

=2

7.102 The Constant CllOra

NM

In the expressions for tooth thickness at the pitch line .it is seen that the dimensions
hand Ware both dependent on the number of teeth. If a large number of gears
for a set, each having different values of N, are to be tested, the separate c:rlculations would become laborious.
Consider an involute tooth symmetrically in close mesh with a basic rack
from as in Fig. 7.11. Regoxdiess of the number of teeth, for a given size of tooth,
i.e. value of J11, contact would always occur at A and F. AF is known as the constant chord.

sin

AB

A.B=AO sin 8

/90)

NM ,.'
SHl\N

~jg.

,7.1 ~-, Measursme.nt of

t.l1c.k.neGs at pitch Ene.

C;J.oIGl11

But W=2 AB

W'~N.ivI sin G~)

-Also from Fig. 7.10:

OE

OB
BASE
CIRCLE

+ Addendum NII;~t-M

anciOE

190)

N!k[
co:, ( -

OB=OA cos

.... h

'" (I)

PITCH LINE
OF RA":"CK-'-"'-~=

Fig.7.11.

vV ,

+-.a.X- Nfli'
,./., GOS (GO)
~__

i\!iV!

.!t ...

Measurement of tooth thickness at constant chord.

In Fig. 7.11:

\N

BD

II

NMf

2
I 1+-

and from (l) W=NJ.1,[ sin

190\ 1

- cos [ - j

G~)

\N I

'" (2)

In tliangle ABD

AJ3

. ill
. I
em;; , ar PltC..l

'lTl,,:l
=4

= cos ,p
7T1V!
..AB=BD cos 1f=- cos if!
4

140

141

Gear I'lleasuren1em
Metrolcgy for Engineers
\"
".. IC h.DC
\. U ~i,,'
... =
[lang

""".
In

AB

It should be noted that the fact

that the jaws are at an
provides
an additional magnification of
O
roughly 2 : 1, i.e. for a 14t pressure
an error in tooth thickness of
0,01 mm shows up as 002 mm on
the dial gauge.

cos 'f

cos if;

.. AC

and W=2 AC

AI
'so,

EG

.
=sm

if!
7.H13

'f

., BC=AB sin

The abov0

IS

norn1a!

Apart from the use of the Sykes

Gear Tooth COlTIpo.;'ator, it should
be noted that boEl of the previous
methods of
tooth thickness may be unsatisfactory
the
gear tooth vemi;-;r, in that,

are for
lOath ~pur gears. For helical ;:rears th""
r.>
'v
ootamec1 oy sub:;tituting values of normal module and
.;

,1

.'

' .

pIe-::sufi-~

Fig. 7.12,
based on

Gear Tooth Comp8.rator

constant chord method of
measurement.

(a) the vernier iIself 1& not

reliable to closer than 0,05
mm or perhaps 0,025 mm
with practice;

(b) the mea:mrements depend on two vernier readings, each of which is a

(f corrcct:::d teeth are

then the expressions are m'xlified further to:

function of the other;

of the measuring jaw, not its [:lce,
which again does not lend itself to accurate measurement.

(c) measurement is made with an

tan

1, "0,,2
'.- ,) ,I,
r

These problems can be overcome

number of teeth, as shown in Fig. 7.13.

measuring the span of a convenient

and hn={l

Tfallo'JlLll1ce is D1uce for b8.ckJash~ it tTIllSt be 3ubtracted fro.m

in ;:f/~ S}.v and b = U"'."""~1J
dw=b sec if;

r'v. If reduction

. _An interesting point about the coustant chord method is that it readily lends

ItSCit to
'H~rnier~
'/"

a fo;:m of
which is 1110[e sensitive than the gear tooth
Such D.n ins:xtnnent is rnanuJacture.d b'tj ' 1;'<1. E.
-~ Id " an'd'IS
L(
L_1Ldrated in
7.12.
Tt \,.'
h(']J':""
"'"
"
,.
1.1(~L~, (
,JI
pmr
or
having
or 20,
()fi tilG
'NidI a dial l1 aurre
down to the tip
',+

"'h~'0 toct~l
U
.. " J .I..,

,.v . :.."
,....,~h
~
.0
~.-.,~) iiu.v\ViL 1 u.e lTIstnl1nent 13 Sf~t to a

s::lJJ8CS W1:l1ch 11X

the 1Josit[on of the limit liP(,

....

- -

- (..,

.,

<."

'J~

IGaSLer tapel" plug

llT"
1"0"1"
O'tl"'4:::;".
.1., Ll "" {lh'!
4-........... b(

Fig. 7.13.

Span measurement over a number of teeth with

,
a vernier calliper.

It can be seen [hat this uses a single vernier callip;:;r which overcomes the
disadvantages 1,1en[ioned above,
those inherent in the use of such an
instrument, and this can be overcome by tl1.C use of more accurate equipment
than a vernier calliper.

143

Gear Measurement

.Metrology fo/'
r"onc;d~~'
',~ edge
.',
-C
,#
i'"
'Jl a St
Illig!.u
CC-U)

"
A r ! ,ceing rolled back and -'orth
i-1C,
along a bas(~ circle as in Fig. 10.':4. ftc; ends will sweep out opposed involutes
~'\l.j\., and. CZ.C.C 1.
lvteasurcments nUl-de across these opposed
mvo.lmcs oy spall
will ~)e constant,
.
i .'~..... T'r V =.t:~1"_",
,1.1' =,LXl
A C
A
{'
,
n
1= . 2~2 =arc ;:.t~(i:bo
i.e. t~t': am,

01

of the base 6jircle between the origins of the involutes. (This

showil at -Fig,
7.1)
,,'
. .

condltlO!1 snould be comp2xed\vith

~

To determine arc AB, th~ tooth thickness at the base circle, consider
which shmvs a single tooth and the relevant data.

7.15,

arc AB =2 arc AD
=2 (arc AC+arc CD)
AC
I
l'
arc Rb =Inv 'fJ rae.lans
.. arc AC=RI; (tan if; if;)
NM
arc AC
cos if; (tan if; - if;)
(} radians

arc EF
Rp

." (2)

arcCD
RIJ

=i circular pitch
1

arc EF

TflU
Fig. 7.14.

C"""""'"'ri,,n of a pair of opposed involutes by

common

Do
.'.

ge~cmtor.

()

1T

1 mV! 2
x--=--xRp
4 NM

radians

:. arc CD
'-f'~":'t~01~or~
"1':11. " . . f .....
I...u"-'" v
.\,; \, iL puvldOu.

t_
\).t'" tu.c

."
taces
is
(1:) lon.g as they
are
and on an opposed
of true involutes.
this to gear teeth
f'<lJ't
;)rl",r-j'er"b
i'~""v +. . . . ror.. ,"'I"lJS~
. ,
1 IneaSllfC111cnt
.....
..'
it is
(."'''' ~....,
u
a nunl ~t_0
;Cf 0 [ teet1~: sue I1. t I1"rc{ tne
IS
m the
eirel.;; of the gear, for it is at tbis point that the
to GonJorm to a tnlc .involute.
'
f\pplying Ihis
to t;~le .,;onditions in
7.13, it is seen that

IT

.,. (3)

<bx-
2N

arceD

{.U I"'U'J

F;"-=arc AD-i,arc BC
in whicll arc .~\..B is tb.; tOOt~l thicrGless '2.t the base drck and arc BC is (.'1 x the
base
S '-.,.~: r.t~.. J'-: le -'11
:--.' ,.:;,. O..t t,ODt h .5j~aces over V/tItC
.. h (TleaSUrelnent JS
. ' rnade.
'- r..;~L.l6 IL
L.. ~ruo.....,r
.j....

If ]I{ is the number of

then the angular pitch of the teeth PI} is

211

by

d'
rQ wna

and base

But arc AB =2 (arc AC+arc CD) so substituting from expressions (2) and (3)

-:f

arc AB 2 [ NM cos
=

Nil! cos tj;

Ni}!

D x-;:,;- cos

... (4)

~.

and Ff!=arc AB + arc BC

Combining (1) and (4)

Ilnd if S tooth spaces "rc

2:'1'

(Tf.) ]
2N

[tan ,~- if; + -~-1

2N

from which W = NM cos if; [ tan

Be

.1.
'I'

Jr

TV = NiV! cos if; tan ~JI ,f; + -IT, + -r.S1NM

- 1-- cos ,p

of tIle bu:ic circle

arc

NM.COS

.p (tau,f;,til)

.. , (1)

2N

0- 0/ +

7T

L N

r.S]

+N_

In this expression, N =llumber of teeth

M=Module
. .b= pressure angle in radians
S = number of tooth spaces"contained in W

145

Engi."tZeers

Gear .iVfeasurement

Measurements by tIlls method can be improved by the use of either a micrometer with flanged anvils, or the David Brown Base Tangent Comparator shown
in Fig. 7.16 which consists essentially of a micrometer with Hmited movement on
either side of a zero setting, the zero setting being made with gauge blocks i)f
distance pieces. Further, the method lends itself to measurement of small tooth
gears by projection, either by direct measurement or by t1'1l.'/crsing the table of
a Toolmaker's Microscope.

I
j

DIMENS!ON IN SET TO
GAUGE BLOCKS
LIMITED MOVEMENT
MICROMETER

MOVIN
BASE CIRCLE

ANVIL

Fig. 7.16. David Brown Base Tangent Comparator.

Again

tI10

measurement W quoted is for uncorrected teeth with no backlash.

In tbis case, if 8Wb=redllction in vVfor bacidash allowance

Fig. 7.15. Thickness of a
tooth rri,~asurcd at the oase

;} b =

bacldash allowance

then 8Wb = - 8b cos

.pn

and if K=uddcndum correction

teeth tlJls Dlcnsurernent .is rnade in tIle n~)Lrnal
cos Ibnlf' tan

,.L

in which

C~ [vfoente

(,b.,,!

'II'

-'-

_'FrS]

;} ~M = change in vV due to addendum correction

. 1'!

in the norroal plane

cos o

oWc= K.!vl.2 sin.pn

Thus, for a corrected gear with backlash,

in the norrrl:ll
tan

W=Ni\J!nCoSif1nrtan 4''/Z
L

146

7r

'TrS]

d'n-'---+-, '2N N

2'ib cos tfn ICvfn2 . sin 0n

147

Gear Afeasurement

7.n

. ular SIze
. d ro 11er Whose ra~1US,
J'
'lTM' cos '1,.
' . case reqmres
. a partie
---,
-', IS 1ess than t he
T illS
4
addendum. It will therefore be shrouded by the
of the teeth and measurement

OVER

d'er
~( "
~onSl
oetvl~eil

;).

1PiQCCG.
'
'J'III tIle
1
a l'DJ' e~
spB.ce
of

ge.:;~r

may be difficult. If this is so, readers are directed to the work of Earl Buckingham,
who suggests a method using any convenient size of roller.
For gears with an even number of
a direct diameter measurement may be
made. If the gear has an odd number of teeth, a radial measurement with the
gear between centres can be carried out, using a comparator with the gear, or a
measur:ement over a pair of
provided allowance is made for the angular
relationship ofihe rollers relative to each other.

.'

tr;cth so that ,its

{'entre lies 021 tb.e pitch circle as ShOvvll

in
7. i 7.
in a sirnllal' n"1~U1Iler to the
constant ::11')1(1
I

cos Vi =

7.12 GEAR. PITCH MEASUREMENT

01\
-----

on

Hut 01\ =radius of roller

The measurement of the pitch of gear teeth may be made by (a) measuring the
distance from a point on one tooth to a suitable point on the next tooth; (b)
measuring the position of a suitable point on a tooth after the gear has becn
indexed through a suitable angle.

1.X21 Tooth t6Tootn Pitch Measlll'emcnt

and din. of roller

Fig. 7.17.

+r
NM'ffM "

+.4 C"I'~
v"

~fhusJ

the (Eu1enslon over a

Ivfe~lSUrCl)1e.Dt

over a

rol1er whose :.::cntre: is oa (he pitch

circle.

"

,Ir
r "'i'I"p
." --.".- >

=radll1s

of rollers in

tcoth

S]:J:lces,

One method of carrying out this measurement is by a portable hand-held instrument which measures the base pitc1I.
In Fig. 7.18, the base pitch i:;
between the involutes with origins at
and B.
It can be shown that

Le. any measurement along a tangent

1::'(";1' modified 'teeth the roller radius becomes

V1 - 2K:"1;1 sin if;

r l110d

_;,

and D t! = l'l,M +

7t11~f

to the base circle between a pair of

adjacent involutes is equaJ to the base
pitch, and base pitch P a

11'

cos

,p,

The instrument for making this

measurement consists of three measuring
fingers, as shown in
7.19.
cos 0 - 4 K.lvi sin :f
Fig. 7.18. The base pitch is equal to the linear
distance between a pair of involutes measured
along a common generator.

.l~nJ1iv.ance for '."_"""",,,,.,,u is directly added to the'roner rad,ius "lnd therefore

to R g

!,lg

149

ikfetrology for

shov/u is
i)f

at

th~

',",''''_!,'''_,C;

1.122 :;vreasmrement of Orl!rmlau'll;; Pitcl:l Error

It would appear that the simplest method of deterillitIing pitch errors is to set a
dial gauge aga.inst a tooth 2nd note the reading. If the gear is now indexed through
the angular pitch and the reading differs from the original reading, the difference
between these: is the cumuiative pitch error. The problem is to index through the
exact angular pitdl, as an error in indexing of 80 radians induces an error of
Rp o8 in pitch, 'yhere Rp is the
circle radius.
However, if the angle through which the gear is indexed is always the same,
and not necessarily the angular pitch, the induced error can be corrected. Such an
indexing device has been developed at the National Physical Labof2.tory and is
InstnJl11ent
incorporated in an elega.'1t pitch measuring device made by the
Company.
The indexing device is basically as shown in Fig. 7.21.

point

i'f!.ngency..

adjusted so
l)etw;~enA. and C is
to the base pitch,
J;cate the

I,

If
is comtant, th:; reversal
on ,:nch tooth should be the
St1In(~ yvhen the
is rocked.
Anolher
;]S0 tV(O dial gauges on
[c{~Lh
\v.~th
g',::8.r JI1ou.n.tcd .rIl ce:;1l:reS, as
7~20~ rThe gear 1s rndo,xed

to
a
A. Any
i),(1

Gear }.Jeasuremer.i

dial B

Fig. 7.19.
(Courtej}'

0/ the

J-Vheel Co. Ltd.,

Fig. 7.21. Indexing device used in dete1mining cumulative pitch errors.

Tl,le gear is mounted on a mandrel attached to the disc and rotates with it.
Rotating concentrically with tI:e disc is a SillC ann. Clamp A. leeks the disc to the
base and clamp B locks the ann to the disc. To index th~ gear, and starting with
clamp /\ locked, and hence the disc: and gear locked together, the procedure is:

G.L,UGE
A

I
Flg. 7.7.0.

150

Ijs'~ of t"fO dia!

tCOtl1~[O-100tIl

to dctern1ine

(a) With clamp B unlocked, raise the sine arm and

suitable gauge
blocks OIl tbe stan.d, such that the arm is rotated through
8.

(b) Hold the stylus down on the ga.uge blocks and lock

B.

(e) Release damp A and remove the gauge blocks.

(d) Swing the sine arm down to the base and lock damp A.

151

~l"".
,-,

Metrology far Engineers

This precess 1S repeated until. readings have been taken on all the teeth and a
~ ...",,,u.,,,, is taken on the first tooth. The difference between the original and
final readings IS now distributed :1n10ng the intermediate
to give the
'~umulative pitch error on each tooth. An e::ampk is shown in
table below,
graphs of elTors
as in
7.22.

Tooth

(O'Oltnm
1
2
3
4

Correction
Induced Elror

Cumulative

(0'01 mm units)

(001 mm 1mits)

.i'f?etJding

19

+ 25,
+ 60

38

+ 80

57

+110

76

6
7
8
9
10

+ t3'O'

--'''9-5

11
12

+175

13
14

15
16
17
iO
.0

19

20

'Thus the C11.!TIulative

Sand 15 oyer an :JIC

Error

l~

-- 11-4
-133

+2~6

- 152

-02

+ 16-5

171
190
209

-0-6
-15
-24

22~8

~':24'7

J.3
-2,7

+21

+22
+23
+26
+2B
+31

266

-3,6
-2,)

--24

+36
+375

304
323
342
- 361

+38

-,331)

error is 70 (001 111m units) bf,,;ween

! 0/20 x 21:

radians~

35
30

20

-H
+-18
+ 14

0
~ooth numbers

15~
I
10
CUMULATIVE

Fig. 7.22.

Graphs of readings and cumulative Ditch error. Note [bt tooth-lo-tooth error
can be obtained by subtracting adjacent readirlgs.

7.13 TESTING IN"iOLUTE FO}lM

If a measuri11g instrument incorporating a dial indicator gauge is made to trace
the path of an involute and its stylus is set against an involute, variations in tbe
involute:: form would show as varl2.tions of the dial
reading. The
of
illstrument outlined in Fig. 7.23 suggests itself as
a possible design.
the
straight edge is rolled around the base circle without sllpr.;ing, the
of the
dial g::mge trav(~rses an involute curve gencraTed from that base circle.
tooth
is of correct involute form, the dial gauge
traverse the tooth being
displaced from its original position of zero.
Note that errors arc measured normai to the tooth form, i.e. along the line
of the straight edge.
This lrrstrurnent obiously would not be successful, thc dial g;mge interf~ring
with the next tooth, which is conveniently left off the diagram. However, this is
the principle of most involute form testing devices, the gear being mounted on
a disc whose diameter is accurately the diameter of the theoretical base circle Db.

wm

152

O'Olmm

+12

~285

.C

40

0
+06
+22
+23
+34
+35

+JA'O
+ 145
+ 15,:')

-I- 185

Gear lv!easurement

153

Gear
Do

cos,~

=.rTi',/! cos !P
~fhe I)a.vid Brav/n IG.volute Form iT\;~;ter ~)hO\Nn in
7.241s of this
the styl!].s,
the In. iolutc ferTn, being accurately locat-ed above the
1

l"WeaSUrement

straight edge. The stylus is mounted 011 a small vee/flat ball slide constrained to
move paraJlel to the straight edge. Thus slide movements measured by the dial
gauge are in fact errors in involute form measured along the line of the straight
edge, i.c. normal to the involute form. Motion without slipping is caused by a
lateral movement of the rod at the back of the instrument.

7.14 ALLOV'; ABLE ERRORS IN SPUR GEARS

The aI10wable errors set out in B.s. 436: 1940 are based
given by

all

a tokrancc factor S,

eN + 60)11-'1 ]
1'5= [ -~~~--+1
10
Fig. 7.23.

The only other symbol used which has not been dcalt with is concerned with
accumulated pitch errors, and is: La =leng:th of arc of the pitch circIe on which the
accumulative error exists.

Principle of (c'sting involute form.

Referring to section 7.13, it is seen that

MOT:C,'I G'lJ1ALLEL TO

-------+--...

n,.,
..
L a = N X /-77 radIans x Rp

3TR;.\\GHT EDGE AND

HENe:::

,\IOI~HAl

TO

')

x _77 X

=nJVlu-

DiSC

NM

where n = number of teeth over which error exists

N =llumber of teet]] on gear

l'v! = Module

B.S. 436
tables of allowable errors in tooth thickness, pitch und pfoIi1e
in terms of and La. These tables, in association with the calcuhted values of
S and La, enable the actual tolerances to be calculated.

DiR!;:CT:8N OF ?Ht:SSURE E.'<ERTE~

bY ~;;Ci:L~W CC'INTRCLLED RCLLE$S

154

155

The Ivleasurement of Screw Thi'eads

,
8.1

Il'n'i~O.Dlr:CT10N

EXAMINATION of B.S.
dealing with the tolerances on commercial screw threads,
shows that these tokrances are relatively large. Such thrca.d" are normally
using Limic gang':os as was described in
7. Howev,~r, certain threads
must be hold to much closer tolerances, and this
particularly true of the limit
gauges llsed for screw thread ins'Jection. These threads must be measured, not
to ensure that they arc of a degree of accuracy to
successfully
threads from the bad when used as tools of inspection.
fvleasuren1cnt, ?.s distr.nct frc,ffi
of ,t screw thread can he extremely
There :lre a number of elemems to be measured
as will be shown,
some Hf(~ illt~;:rrelated. A vee-form thread is composed basicalIy of the following

Fig. S.1. Elements of a vee-fonn thread.

Note: Metric and Unified tlw:ads have flat crests and radiused roots.

m-

elen"lcnts.
(a)

or outside diameter.
,'/

(b) Minor or root diameter.

.."

(c) Form, particularly fhnk

Virtual effective diameter.

Pitch.

(8) Simple effective Jiuineter.

These elements are illustrated In Fig. 3.1.
It "viII be noted that the flank angie,
and simple effective diameter are
under the heading virtual effective diameter. Iil
7 it was

that e:\ror~, in pitch and/or

n~[Lj(

angle calJ.scd ~!

'Thus the virtuill efr~cdve di,unetef of a thread is the

e!tective diamett.':f
modilkd by cO',"i<;ctiollS due to pitdl errors and flank angk errors, ,1x,d this virtual
etlective diameter is the most importam
dimension of J. screw thread gauge.

Fig. 8.2. 0-50 mm bench micrometer.

(Courtesy oj the Sigma Instrumen, Co. Ltd.)

Tllis instrument was designed

the National Physical Laboratory to eliminate
the deficienci~~s inherent in the normal hand micrometer. These are
diameter of a screw thread is defined as the diameter Dr an imaginar'j
",,'LU"."',,',C 'which {~oIlta.1ns ail pointll on me crests of the trJead,
It is most ,;oGven.lentIy measured by means cf a berlch micrometer (Fig. 8.2).

(a) Variations in measuring pressure.

(b) Pitch errors in the micrometer thread.

The fixed aJlvi] is repiaced by a fiducial indicator so that all measurements

157

The lit!easurement of Screw Threads

~

2ft Inade at the same pressure) and this indIcator ~!.as ;),
incr~~a"sGs

not

.instr~Ui.lent t:at

the rang;:; of the

for -it
be direct
si:andard. 'rhus YOI'

fnstead it rI1ust

:.TIQ.kes

used

PRSMS BEING USED ON

SCREW TH"EAD AN::! ON
SETTING CYLINDER

and set to a

standard lnay be a gauge

should be used

at the

on tile
consi~~-t8

m:d

th(~t

obtained.

diiICt-;:;J1ce in n.1.t;se
and t1H~ thfe~ld at that

tLucad,.

OJ,'

j,1te

:~he
dirf:~rencc

is ar,Jded to

th~

tVi"(J

l1J~

U"0'.Ut;'U.

diameter of the

dian1cter of the thrf;ad.

::::::calibratcd dialnet~r of

If

cylinder
GyJinder

~,;: ll1icrornetcr

read.tng

Fig. 8.3.

Use of prisms to measure minor diameter.

thread

then

the

1~11<~ Elinc~~ dl~2,1~letcr

rnay {)e

(.1~D.D,,:d

ClS the

It l:::

of :tn

pIOC:~;S;; sjn~ilar

~;:~;.;8.surGd

h~t{d.c:1;=J :~,~'ld

R~'e

uSed to

to thai: us~d Jil S~::Ci:t~Jn

to C~(; ~'cot of th;~ Thl\;ad as

g.3~

st::'O\Vll .:n

It
duced

to

:~hreud.

ali

but

dh~.rne~Gr

~hread

Nm is pro-

C~t:i

pi~ch. Thi~~

vvould (;-;n;] to

rO:'Gt;~

on the pilch, and an

.......

dia1Y~cter

rnD.Grdn~

of

bcn;~'h

.in \Yh.{ch t:tJ:! thr.:;8.o. i3 InOllnteJ.

LnierCIneter 1:;

cGnD1r~til1(;d

b~~tv's'.:!en

Cl;fltrcs Hnd a
to the axis of tile:!

:0 l11.C'Ve Dt

jI.J

and

.on
as .i.n

158

and:

Fig. 8.4. Floating (;UITiage diameter measuring machine.

(Courtesy of the Co~'elltry Gauge & Tool Co. Ltd.)

159

jWe tlO logy for E'lgineers

The AieNJurement of Screw Threads

re,].dings should be to.ken at various -

and tr,j_per.

-.~:.,: -- -

on the thread to determiuA

.d.

"-v

form measurement to be made 011 a screw thr:oad is tt,

'T'l"lcl~
.. l.
"
.'.:'
I
.1
he
,
_ Lv
<Lilt\,
IS (leunel. as L.t10
rnade b~
..
tile tlll'cad flank and a line normal to the thread ax~
threads m<1y
m;;as:w::ci
contact
lI:etnoci of mC:1:mrement is to u:;e
and
the angle of the l:1anlc image on the
a microscope wii:h a g()niomctric head .

but

screeIl, or

.;

"ml
p, " : '

The whole projector may be moved on rails normal to the screen to

the
required degree of enlargement, and the work-stage may be moved relative to the
projection lens for focusing purposes. This focusing motion can be made from the
screen, by an ingenious arrangement of wires and puileys. Thus an extremely
sharp image can be produced at the screen without corrtinual walking from screen
to instrument.
An interesting point about the instrument is that to accommodate screw
thn::ads the work Sla.ge has centres, and can be swung out of normal to the optical
axis.
This is to avoid interference due to the helix angle. If the thread is mounted
with its axis normal to the optical axis the top of the thread, vvhich is projected,
is at an angle to the optical axis due to the thread helix. This is shown exaggerated
in Fig. 8.6 (a).

prohl ')1,'1
'h most. ef"Iec t'we projector
.
this class of work is
l . [.0
fOf
' as It
. was ('~veloned
l
prolcclor
at the" hr"t:o"nl
Dl.IYSlca
. I
-'
r
... ,a.!. .d,~ L
)C

knO\llTI
es
"1" lSLJ.D .~.
I
"'c'..
T .,

1,,1

...

LaooratofY
. I!: co~:sits. of ~ lamp-leo use whose optical outlet contains conLiel1:3er
to be projZ':cted i;; mounted on a sta;;:e ''1i'iC.,,,.~_
glVi.; even. nlur,uoatlOl1. The;
"{he condensers and the
lens which throws an enlarged
~ on the
j
screen as in
3.5.

'"

(a)

PLANE OF
SCREEN .AND LEl'JS

STRA:GHTEDGE Gel f#CHINE

PROJECTED
(b)

LENGTH

--li""o:..c.~~-,,-! PLANE OF
SCREEN AND LENS

Fig. 8.6(a). :}~(lil'r.!i'>n normal to thread axis en uses interference.

through helix
avoids interference but fore . .
(b) Turning
shortens pitch and
profile,

By swinging the thread through its helix angle the thread helix is parallel with
the light rays [Fig, 8.6 (b)}. However, the Hank angle is deiind a~l i}ell1g measured
on a plane section pa:, .Hel to the thread axis. This being so it '::1.l) br~ seen th:lt ];lJe
set-up in Fig. 8.6 {b) 11::.5 3. foreshortening effect and will induce i);Jrrowi l1U of the
thread
as projected on the screen.
This problem can be overcome by swinging the lam[J-llOU':t; illlOP!.", till helix

{60

The Iv! eas~tri!ment of Screw Threads

so that the
rays are not impeded as they pass thJough the
to the
lens.
['i,}l:a tha~ in ellis case the lens ard screen rrre parallel to the
axis and
effect, viltll its
distortion of the flank angles, is
;eliminated.
c111g] I',;

objectlv[~

\_~--,

1,

ANGULAR OCULAR
IN FOC,lI.L PLM'IE
OF OBJECTIVE
LENS

MICROSCOPE AXIS
TILTED THROUGH
HELIX ANGLE

OF lMAGE
Thread flank
Elli.y be mcastm~d
arnieroscope 'Nith a
'1':1113 consists of a clear
screen in t 1;lC focal ptane of the:
datunl lines 'vh.ich can be rotated
360, the
JUr;il!mred dlrcc[ to I" and
estimation to fraction" of a mil1ure.

OF TRUE
PITCH

PU\NE OF seRE':"i
lUI::! L;:'IS PARALLEL
TO THllEr\D AXIS
--.--.--""'~-_. ___ -.-----0."....---

-~----~--

Fig. 8.8.

8,7~ \Vith U,r~'(ld

avoid(;d by tl.:rnrn.1!.

~c.:;:is

and screen
rays t~1.rau,'3[l

Microsc{)pi~ measurement of Hank

anglcs.

The datum lines in the microscope head are set to zero and the. table
rotated until the crests of the thread
image coincide with the horizontal
datum. The table is t!len locked :md
the datum lines in the microscope
eyepiece rotated until they coincide
with the threadfianks. The flank
angles are then read off the eyepiece
scale.
TrLis equipment is normally
among the attachments which may
be set up on a toolmaker's micro. can
scope. The readings and
either be made through the [mcroscope
or viewed 011 a screen
as shO'vn
8.9.
It should be
that the optical axis is not nOnYJal to the thrcfi.d
axis and some
of the:
still OCGurs. However, tius tcchniqui;
is cuite easy to set up and. produccos
res~lts of a reasonably lugh order of
accuracy.
w!richever method is used. errors
on both right- and
:hnk2,
should be determined as each can
cause interference with the mating

tnteIf,~rc!1ce

is
Distortion is

i.G a n1lnuLurn.

o~rh(.:, t(l:"~;l1;.:~ ,~JJJg(~

centres anti illuD1!nnted froTu hc!ov'!~ 'rhe

lhr'::ad in sueh 8. \vr:.,y t!}~\t it can ce f)\::;ivcHed
t.vit!l [he th.rcnd helix and -T'.'oid Interfen;Ih~e of the
~This IS
is

nlouat~d Otl

I1~Gunted ~J bov(~ d~e

~:ltO\V.:l

in

The

,Jl~~12r~l1n

Cf1Jti.':.::S

::tre l1J.ountcd on
by

{:CrC-f(E.:lr:,,~c: dimcn~~ions

cn:;.~ble th(~rn
~I;ii;rGn"l(;ters

ll) be nlov~:d
to 0002 nlra ;lnd on a

i~D!.~-tCy tat)i~.

on

:~n.d

the

Ln !J~ct\.;ren('{;.

$1,"':(GD.g

bar

thxough
Fig. 8.9.

163

The It!easurement 0/ ,','crcw '{//I',:ads

AB

AB

AC= cos 8,'. AC= cos8

But

But AB is half the depth of thread h

h
88
h88
.', ED =2 cos 8'
sm 8=-:-28
sm

3A3

in which 8=nomillal flank angle

88 = flank angle error in radians

h = depth of thread considering the straight portion of the flank only.

Making a similar correction for the opposite flank the expression becomes

oEI/,=--J!--(88 1 + 88;)
sm 2{)

where W and 08 2 are the worst flank angle errors on the r.h. and l.h. flanks in

OEd' INCREASE iN DLII,MET':R OF

NUT :~t:C::'SS,;RY ro A\fOID

J7),
[

mULI~G

HlUWiG

GY
I\

t;JT\

t~UT

I'

t:! \

I~/- \~---f-/_\\---~--\
~,

ZONt:.

II;'~ ,)

l''/~'IJ'''----- ANG~c.:~ANK '0 /

l

FLAN:( AHGLE
ERROf~

'-

~--rl

'/

08

1/

CORrlEO

1-

radians.
Applying this expression to a Whitworth thread form, the value for h may
be determined in terms of pitch, from Fig. 8.11; 8 is known, and 88 1 and 08 2 may
be converted from radians to degrees.

I
'-l

'--~
SCREW

DEPTH

06403 p

Fi~~~ 8.10(0),

Nut of perf;~ct fonn rnating \vith a SCJ:C\,I h;:'..ving

a Ihnk angk e[for 00 on one Hank only.

A[~ enlmgen-icnt

of the relc;!:1nt pact l)f this diagram '~!lablr;s ;jEd to be

It sb.ouid be noted that aDparently
.. "1.,
"l!r'..-: .... '
~.,..~....
'f"
~.
.. td~ ,~H.:l.',l.J.etlal .tnCl'-".;'S~ }S ~'_UEd, but d1JS IS not
SO~ bCc':'11Ise as th(\ dlarnetf~r is 1n.creat:ed an
axial moverneilt ta~;cs ~~'bce if the cpoosile
" 111 i-:oni:act. . .fhd.,<; the apparent
'
~.OJ'
;:tn~(s re~.I1al?
Hle-::'o~lSe 13 h,J'Iedwd tr"e net incr'casc in
e!rectiv~~ dia.n~eter :s SErl_

dd,.~r~"1m(;d.

or ...

"I'

Referring to Fig, 8, to (b):

GO ' ; ! )
J:;f)- = 0.' U
/<-J,,"-,,

, '.

PC',

s:.o.U =

aD

~:;;:---8"

>id

...

II MJ is "mel.U and in Ta.diaus then

Fig,8.11.

Whitworth thread form in which r=O1373p and 8=2T!r.

From Fig. 8.11:

r=O'l373p and it can be seen that

h =O,6403p - 2r + 2BC
BC
and sin 8=-A
B
.'. BC=r sin 8
., h=O'6403p-2r+2rsin

(J

Substituting for rand 8

h =O'6403p - O2746p (1 +0,4617)

=O4924p

165

164

.f:

,...

Jor

The I'lleaSurement of

~nglneers

If this value for h

,.
. ,OeC0J11eS
C1ameter
It

IS

substituted in the expression for change m

'effective
O4924p"

= --:-----(
08 + I) {J.)
Sill 28
1
0

and 00 1 and o{J~ an: in radians and must be

Threads

train between work and tool1ead screw as when producing a metric tluead with
an inch pitch lead screw when no translatory gear is available. JYJore commonly,
it is caused by pitch errors in the lead screw of the lathe or other generating
machine.
If the pitch error per thread is op then at any position aiong the tnread the
cumulative pitch error is nop where n is the number of threads considered. A graph
of cumulative pitch error against length of thread is therefore a straight liue
[:Fig. 8.12 (a)].
0::

can be derived for other thread forms as follows:

cr
a::

B.A.. thr:Jads (47n 8.;Sd=O{)091p (OOl-f-8t1,J

Unified threads (GOO)
(SOl + 00?)
"'l,"h';c
'~-~,;rls
(l~n0\
l
~4.l
UJl ~'''''j""j.. ...
=0011
(D9 1 1- 88;0
"

'"'

'-J,J

l-

e;:

>

tha.t the values of ;SOl and

agel p is the nominal
of til,; thread

.tL H1U:;t be recalled

in

:r:
u

a~,;

the) flank

errors

Ine:J.3ured.

~I

MAXiMLM

Bf

3 .. j

(a)

by a single

the ratio of linear

corre(;t;

tool its

depends on:

TF'
--~

8.512 Periodic Pitch Error

ot 0~~L,:jn\...,--,
'''1,',-/.'", ..1 (.-,~ ..
.>-leh
,?.fruch ~_. ::' the abov,~)

~l~1.C-.C;',~
(;('.i'~J.w~r10.'11~ "' ... ,.. . .
"
~'*' ~ ,,' _
" : : "tI,:,; 11.

cLeU::rmlned

of

'.;(1-1),

.1\
'::11'Of3 Vl1.t

condi~ionf)

oecurJ

or too

,"

'dH~

type a f

is net satisiied. \Vhat. .

is present the net re~uir is to cause ill<:: tutal

b\:; too

srnaH a~Jd this err-or in 'JVet*aIl

of threud

of tbIcad is

is the error \vhich fnust be d,;;termi:1cd.

ti1,.=;

tOL~l!

'_'L.''''-Llii.'~ fruHl

Fig. 8.12(a). Progressive pitch error. (b) Periodic pitch error.

of the tool and angul:u' velocity of the work

constant.
e:rrJf

CUMUlA,IVE
v -,....,.....,.-.-.-+..,..-'1-'9"'
CRR'~><
,I h -'-'---i
i I I I P'TCH
'
'-,
,.,I"
1O,li21314
THREAD r~UM8ER t.

the l1omln8J vu!ue~

frQrn a d{lturn" at each thread and

This type of error occurs when the tool-work velocity ratio is not constant.
It may be caused by pitch errors in the gears connecting the work and lead screw
or by an axial movement of tl:e lead screw due to worn thrust faces, Such a
movement would be superimposed on the normal tool motion to be reproduced
on the work. It will be appreciated. that errors clue to th'~sc CCl.U3CS will he eydie,
i.e. the pitch will increase to a ma.ximum, reduce through normal to <l minimum
and so on.
,A graph of cumulative piteh error will tl1U~ be of appro~:jrn;lldy sinusoidal
form as in Fig. 8.12 (0), and the maximum cumulative pitch eno "vill be the lotal
error bet,Y;;:en the greatest positive and negative peaks within the length of thread
engaged.

8.513 771reacl Drunkenness

.Pitch

E'~"ror

A drunken thread is a particular case of a periodic pitch error recurring at

intervals of one pitch. This means that the pitch measured parallel to the thrCi'.d
axis will always be correct, and all that is in fact happening is that the thread is

166

167

The kIeasurement of Screw Threads

from the expected reading. This should normally be repeated with the thread
turned through IS0 in case the thread axis does not coincide with tile axis of the
centres on which it is mounted. The mean of the two readings, usually determined
graphically, is then used as the pitch error.

8.53 Effects of l'Hch Errors

If a thread has a pitch error it will only enter a nut of perfect form and pitch if
the nut is made oversize. This is true whether the pitch error is positive or negative,
and thus, whatever pitch error is present in a screw plug gauge, it will reject work
which is nea.r the low limit of size.
Consider a thread having a cumulative pitch error of op over a number of
threads, i.e. its length is np + Sp. If such a screW is engaged with rt nut of perfect
form and pitch they will mate as shown in Fig. 8.14 (a).
l----.---.----.-.. _",--.-.--,~--.--..------,---------i
,

NUT OF

PERFE~T FORM

,_,

S'-Rf:"N ""TH

PITCH ERROR

AND PITCh

}12

INCREASe: IN EFFECT:VE DIA,o

(-\ /

,..',

,--.

:1~~f\:i~
(

c,. -

"I

tEd, OF SCREW
\. Ed OF PERFE::T
w'TH "'Ir--H ERROR
NUT
"
c,

I \

np +

Fig. 8.13. Fiducial

;n(Fc~
H
"t~r
"

llOe(l
".

Fig. 8.14(0).

.'. ,
.
011 l)lcC,l-measunng
machine.

Screw having cumulative pitch error Sp in mesh with a nut of

perfect fonn and pitch.

Consider an enla.rged view of the thread flanks at A as in

8.14 (b).

op

It is seen that
tan 0

2:
Sp

= OEd
where

.. oEa = op cotan e
op is the cumulative pitch error over the length of engagement and OEd is

the equivalent increase in effective diameter

169

168
M

The ",1;1easurement of Screw 171reads

i,,1etrology jar Engineers

The importance of this :s emphasized when a Whitvvorth tb'ead is considered
in which tilC flank angle () is 27Y and coungent 27k" 1,920,

For Whitworth threads

l'920op
For l'vfetric threads oEa= [,732 op

EfFECTIVE
GIAMETEROF
PERFECT NUT

j
Fig. 8. 14(b).

.'
1
'th the cvlinders enrraged in the thread. The
cylinder. A readll1g IS. then. ta ;en ~1 .
,- > ,

f " r ;:cneter of tl1C sctLnt"

difference in the readlllgs 15 tne dltTercn~ Odh'N.een fie uI< Witll the thread.
.
.
d 11"
. n una'r the WIres w en
i
cvl1nder an I ,c mmenSlO.l
"
. h
' F 8 15 and is used in deri\'./ The geometry of this arrangement IS S own IllIg. ',' , "
.
. h . 1 effecllve diameter.
in" the expression reqUlred to calculate t e Simp e
.
'" From the diagram (Fig, 8.15):
'T'

EFFECTIVE
DIAtAETER

fd
, 8.J5.
Fig,

Calculation of simple effective diameter.

Ea=T+2x
BC
In L1 ABC tan 8= All

Enlarged view at A.

The pitsh error is therefore almost doubled when the equivalent increase in
dlcctive diameter is calcnlatcd. A sere'x plug gauge having a cU;-;:'.Jative pitch
error of 0006 mm wiii tbus reject aD work within 0,0[2 mm (approximRtely) of
tile low limit in tlle case of "iVhltworth
and within 001 rnm in the case
of ~Ietric threads.

.'. AB=BC cotan 0

But by definition of the simp1e effective diameter, BC=i pitch
cotan 8

,', AB
In L1 ADE sin

." (1)

DE

.. AE=DE cosec 8
efTr;ctive

diameu~r

of a screw thread may be defined as the diameter

cylinder c(HLxial v;ith the; lhre~d axis 'which cuts the thread so
th8.t the disLulCc between any
of inkrccpts and
lla:1ks is ha.lf the
This is explained more si:mply diagj':cmmatical1y in Fig. 8,15,
lVlcasurement of the simple effective diameter is carried out on the machine
dcscl~J)ed i.n section
the prisms used for Hieasuring lninar dia!ncter being
by steel wir;;s. Of
wl10sc size is chosen so that they 'pitch'
at the effective dia!\~eler. Suell cylinders arc kno~'ilt) ; 'B~st Size'
The

'A'1r:::s llnd c:nablc nOT:ninal ';iD..lues of

cakulF.,ticns. Such cylinders may be

to be used in

from most nn;1llfacti.lrerS of gaugand their size is caIibnltcd~

the minor diameter, a reading is taken with the cylinders, over a setting

170

DE =} diameter of the measuring \vires

But

.. AE
Now

cosec

x=AB AF
and AF=AE -EF

but EF also

.. A 'R=' 2 cosec
AF

e--2d

d.(cosec,R 1)

.. , (2)

171

The ~~{easurement of Screw Threads

Subtracting (2) from (1) to obtain x we get

;,:=~ cotan (j ~ (cosec {)-1)

But E.i = T + 2x and the term 2x is constant for any given thread if the nominal
vulucs of pitch and flank angle an: used, as they may be if the best wire size is used.

determined by measuring over three wires, or a better method by the use of

'Ovee' gauges, as shown in Fig. 8. i 7 which may be sprung over the thread.
FLAI~X

ANGLE

.. P=2x=~cot e -(cosec {}- i)d

'"
T -;- P in 'Nhich T = measured dimension 1Iude,. the wires

cot

e-- (COSGC {} -l)d

p -=llominal pitch

d =wire dilctmeter
8= nominal flank

semi-angle of thread
I
I.,.

5.61

Cakwation of the Best Wire Size

I"iormaity v. hen

for :J.
rather dum
to rtank

Fig, 8,]6.

cy:inders are purchased they

(Hi';

'Best size' cylinder contacting thread at effective'

, diameter.

of the best wire size

th,'~ad.

US(~

Hcwever if they are not available it is b~;st to make them

incC'I':;t:ct wire .:;izes as this may incl.lr largt: diametral errors due

errors.

In Fig lU 6 AS is

wire diameter and BC is

cos 0

AB

pitch.

Be

Be
cos

d
2

Note. $rudy of this simpie diagram may

a simple method of dctcrmin
the simple eiTective cliillTidCr. ThiB must rlDt be used J.S the wire wii! rarely
on the effective diameter. The
will not affect the previous
method
if flnnk
errors Me pres'.;nt, btu will have consid;;rable effect
if [he incorrect simplified medlOcl is used.

INSERT

MEASURE

Keep coil expanded by depressing lever and SCi~ew in

Take reading over coils.

COMPARE

Check reading Wilh Iimi'ts on

data plalQ\.

component. Avoid fdction.

Fig. 8.17. Usc of Ovec spring gauges.
(Courtesy of 1",1 )-Vee Spring Gauges Ltd.)

If the dimension Tl over the wires is determined then:

Ed=T j +P1 =T+P

and T t =oT+2d
If a

172

n1achine is not available the srrnple ctTective di:.H11ctcr rnay be

.'. Pt =P -2d=2 cot () -d (cosec 0-1) -2d

or PI j!. cot B--d (cosec 8+ 1)

The ,Measurement of Screw Threads

Aietmlogy for

OF SCREW RING

!l.3

lL63

Cm:T:!ctlons IiO!:

q are essentiall" the same as for

The problems of measunng screw r,lllgd gbaugle~ .' cessl'hl'll'tyJof the thread form
-er'
It'"
.
re<lS ~
v
t
1(: mac
v'
plug gauges but the dUilCU J IS me ,(;

and Elastic Compression

The expression for simple effective ~iameter derived ill sect.ion ~.6 is based on the
assnn,lpllon that the measurement IS made over a
sectIOn of the thrc' d
! 1
t

I aXlS,
. l.e.
. measurement IS
, over a senes
" of annular groov<l
parade
to tJle
lnre:lc
~.
I"
rr"(US 01"" course IS
. not so an d t,1e
1
"1"

es
01 tilrcal lorm.
Cllcct ot measunng over a helix
is to throw the measuring cylinders out slightly and increase th,) measured value
by
amount C. At the same time measuring pressure aPl'Eed to point contacts
causes elastic defon-nation of the ',vires and the thread flanks and reduces the
measured '1alue by an amount e. The correct value is obtained by applying Corrections of C and -!-e.
Q

and dimensions.
a normal screw pitch measuring machine
The nitch may be measured on
f' t1 s'tvlus ~'ltherjike a boring bar.
'.
1
t t
'1 W "ltlY 0 Ie
' , 1<
. '
~
using a speCIal attac Imen ? a. 0 t;,c d 1 1aking u, plaster cast of the thread,
'f'nean
fI k "nole
mav
on'"
be
mea.~ure
)y
n
~
d
!'
e
d
t not
u. '"
'
'J
c'
d'
f tl-e thread aw ljte ou,
1.
f'l
so tIl"n hah Ihe 1::tmvter 0
>

d - h
whIch must De 01 e.' d
d T"
ay then be proJecte m t e
serewed out or the C'lst may De dlsLOrte. iUS m
0,

_ "

normal way.
.
, l ' d sine: b-tll-cnded stylii. of best wire
The simple effeetive diameter IS mel~sUIeb .ul'~ 's"'et 'to 'a l'11~ster c;nsisting of a
.
1h
acrne ell,
". ,
Size, in a measunng maC,1ll1e,I ('ft - ,e~. m(; t h ""1'1
t 1feadOC'1. e' , t11e Inn ''L'er is built up so that
pair of vee notched arms ana o",lzm b , v
., i value for
the thread to be
the effective diameter of the vees IS the nomm",
'Cd

C+e
The magnitudes of C and e are both normaUy very smalJ, and as they are of
sign their toU.! eft;,et 13 3till less and
may be disregarded. If it is
requlrt;Q to determine their values for the measurement of ref,~rence gauges,
renders are referred to the National Physical Laboratcry Notes on Applied
Science
'Measurement of Screw Threads" obtainable from l:LM. Stationery

'

meas:lred).
'I" "F "EASURING MACHI~IE CARRY:NG
)1
I '"J E
AR f'..) v IV! ~
BALL-ENDED STYLII O:="BEST WIRE S,'

Office.

'VIRTUAL EFFECTIVE DIAMETER

Frvm seGtions 8.4 and 8.5 it is seen that the eWect of piteh and flank angle errors
on a screw
gauge; is to cause a virtual increase in the effective diJ.m<.::ter in the
case of c:'(tcr;,ul sere";;' threads. Tlll,~; the virtual effective diameter lS defined as the
efCcctivc dia;l;,,!;::[ of thi~ smallest D.llt of perfect form and piech wbjch the screw
will enter. This is of COHrS'; the vita! dimension of a screw
and it is
to the simple efTective diameter amounts
on the
obtn.lncd
and flank: an81e errors.
effective diameter -I- KlP (M 1 + 08 J

in V/l}ich

+ 817 cot

con&lant depending on the thread fonn

p =" LhreJ.d pi teh

8=thread flunk angle

op = pitch error over length of engagement

virtmd effective ruarneter

simple

el1(~ctive

diameter +0-0105

+ 58;) + l'9208p

R 18 Setting a measuring machine for, , C~'D

F '"
I".).

,
d N t the vee l<l'''S OIled
di;imcter of an imcrmll t[lIea " 0 e fi t' : to sw'l1"
the fioHting \\'ork ita:;e altov'lUlg t he x -:~~, .~
L 0
taken up by the t111"llu.

virtual effective diarneter=simple effective diameter +0'C098p(&6\ + 88:J + 173

<1ndjOr c l'tfetdc thread
virtual effective diarn~ter

174

etr~ctive

diaIneter + 001

+ 1732 op

half pitch

~l.nll

the attitude

f f - 1 large threads. The ollly way with

These methods may only be used or au y U'l''''~ n"l~ter serev,'
gauges
,,: t
~oeure verv acc
"Lv " , '
very small screw rIng gauges ,s .0 pi.
~ a~d use them to test the gauge au a
whose sizes differ by thc gauge toleranc""
'GO' or 'NOT GO' basis.
. , an d I-fl~'11r,~..."ncrl'"
errors is oPpGsite
, h " t ( effe~r of mtcn
0
It should be noted t at , ae -",
,'d
<,
/"
the ~:mple effective diameter
.
C:'
rors ten to lee "ce .. ,,1

on a screw rIng.gauge i',e. tnes~ er

<;t be subtracted and not added).
and the correctJOl1S for .hese eHors mu~
,
u.A

:hi'ead

simple effective

v'

175

eH

1!

R 9

I
1

of

};ieasurement oj Swiac,: ,.'inish

9.13 Wear
It is a well-known law of physics that friction does not depend on contact area.
However, the rate of wear is dependent on the areas in contact, the larger the
area the lower the load per unit area and hence the lower the rate of wear.

9.2 THE lVtEAN1NG OF SURFACE TEXTURE

Before anything can be measured it is necessary to define what is to be measured ..
In most cases of measurement this is not too ditficult but in the case of surface
\

'
(evcmpment
of modern technoloaies has called not on 1" ~ .',
-v d
".","~,M
b' t !.,
5,,' " ''''; c 'J 01 l,nprv e control
a
working: on"
,
,.1 >d ,:0, at, t lC sU,rfa,ce textur,es, bofh wori(ln(Y and nOll._,
tl'i(
[new :trn 1"lre 1. ' I "
, .",,,, _ _'0
control ()t'

r
,'~'
v , v,,
e lJaSlC e.:tIccts wllich hElve l))',de tIle
.. . ,
tC" Dr p nop Ohf'.l1,
-i
t naml~ 1y, f atlouc
','
..llfe beari!1 a pl'opel't'
d
, "vear.
'"
,~o
/
lCS, an
~'f
HIE

L'

".

'

"']

,,', '

""D,OB 025 OB 25mm .

315

!
",G

texture the definition is aoL:-.o easy.

Consider a cricket fic.k1. The requirements of the surface of the table on which
the wickets
are pitched are that it shall
be fiat and smooth.
Now a field of pasture,
.
,___
.M
.: ~',

>

'f

9.1J

fatigue Vfe

fatigue and
an eqtll va[el~t

at a given itresi-i~s
SeCITIS to SGlrt at n sbar1) corneoccur, such as the root of '1 ~t'-f:1U'
i
1,
~
;;;ven
". _ _ _ "

I;.

,_

..

.i'

pin which carries

finished. The bore of a
in t~lct a gudgeon

,,b'''.''!':'';Y'll

1., _

L ___

L~,.-_J-'-1""':~~AI"'''''J-;'':'-''.-L-~,..'...'~ J.l

mClAeJf~~~
-~--I '-_..._--"

003 025

oa

OSD

2'5 mm

LONG WAVELE'lG,H
CUT-OFF

Fig. 9,1.

Effect of wavelength cut-off on numerical assessment of surface

finish.
(Courtesy of the Rank Taylor-Hobson Division ane! R.E. Reason)

177
176

-,.~

Measurement of Surface Finish

lvietro(ogy for
Note: Rrefix K indicates that a wavelength

may be undulating but quite

say
:3 m from

i.c. it may have a series of waVes aCr

20 cmci"eqJand

C1.1t-o

ff ~ 08 rom has been used.

01

>

\1"
h
....
-ass It
h moug smootl1 it IS ~Qt flat. It
that if the field was
the resultant earth mo+/cments may
. l'
l'
1 C
'l(\
f--~ Would
lll1Clu.atloil ana so it IS v""c;'''''''' WILli urrows .;. ~.cm ueep but only 30 c
fr5mcrcst to cr~st. If the ,vork
the field wlll DOW be /fat but
.
1 I
0 cncKct
. I l
'
0t ", ~ I ~,' I.t
"h'
. S 111
unsUll::w,e
ror
oecau~c It
}I:: ,he; '.k.gu or L, e lrr'~gularities

t:n

c'

.
(l!st~nce or the wavelength.
WOUld proba:Jly make matters Worse
[is the field would Jim!l!y be beth
and rougb, i.e.Ule roughness Would
expended WOUk1 ;lflve been better
a wavy one. However, the
prim is thal the difference between
::md wavineSS is one of wavelenoth
",cher than depth of irreguhlrities and ar some point il must be decided Which
changes 1n elevation consIitutc roughness al.id \vhich constitute '.vaviness.

is the sarne-C1.U that has changed

[r such an experiment '.'las carrj~;d

UsuaIiy waviness is considered an 'error 0[' form due to incorrect g~ometry

surf~!ce and as such is omside the iIdd of surfaCe
texture. Roughness m~'1y be defined as the irreg<lhlriti'!S which an, 0.11 inevitable
:'.:.::l':'~Ec!L~." of the pr0ccss if caiTied out on :.l gcometrtcdly perfeet machlncand
aml measu,'cment of these irr<~guhrities with which this work is

1.000/25

2000/25

01 K)lm CLA

02. K)Jm CLA

of the process producing the

conc,::;rned.

?OOC/25

04 i~]JmCLA

The manner in which the two may be superimposed on a machined part can
th~ requirements of a lathe to produce a truly
cylindrical component. I: is simpiy ncceSS<lry that the tool shall move parallel
Ie lb.::: axis of rotation. COIlSider a lathe in which one centr'~ is higher than the
olher. This would c::wse a bobbin shaped surL1.ce (hyperbolojd ot' re'iOiution) to be
if the tool motion is not controlled ii, a
line a series
c{ shorter Vi~~/es Illt(1 be $upcrin:'PQscd on the
\vave curve) fl!1d over all of this
will b~
th,~ f:ed marks of tl1e tooL
sliil shorter wavelength may be
and the surfhcc thus cOlltains four types of irregularity
causing it not to be a true (~yli nele!'. These are:

b",' illnGtn.tccl

(a) Due to mi:;:lIijnment of centres. '

\
~ vVaviness.

(0) Due te EUll-linear feed motion. J

(c) Due to tool [<::;;d rate.

Due to ',oei chatter.

1, Row:d1l1ess.
I

O'IC of the probkms in measuring surface finish is to

frQrn the
;1fUi ih0 \v('('; this is done :-liQy be undel"stood
to a
c()nskleration of the
Eeld. If Yv"e \'ie\v the field as a 'rVhGte the \vaviness
is
\,Ve lirr.tt our exarninatjon to a 30 ern
of the field
'vrhere nnd1!laticns ha.'t/r; a \,vavclen:rth of 3 1'n \ve should includL in cur sar'l1.ple
little of the undulations and be abl~ to COi1centrat~ on the
Sirnilarly
if Vt~~ !in-lit our examination of H n'~achinGd surfac:3 to a
\viuch 0xcludcs long
then only (he roughness
be included. The nu'..;umw:J wavelength

wm

179

;I:CTS

jV/easurement ofSwface Finish

<"','

co?si?ered .\S known as the cut-off wavelengrh which is standardized in

Brn.am
B.S, 1134 at 025 mm , 0'8 '11m -.u.nnd)'"
nl'l""
t]lat
s~lect"r'
dGreat
.... -'
l!.,
... <
CJ.
...... u
e''''
dent on the surface
checked,
}JenII."
a
surfQce.
contains
no
waviness
then
the
same
Yfl '(Go of SllY"', ,'a Dill'S],'
'
1
"
. ~ '". d",y," I , H W, 1 be
. d
o b'tame' whatever
is sawolcd '18 sl'owu ;n
9 1 f a\ P _ d
.:
~ ~
~;r."l"'''
_ - 4:r
''".. n
j..
'I..~ tile wavIness
n "es 'l" t'l"
lIJ
.
,.reaSC0
1.11(;
num~l",,<,
;"llue
vf
111<"
surfac
to'xt'1I';>
"l"re
'
t
ft'
'.
.
~
u
v~,
',. ~ " " _,',,'
4.).1", en -0' wave
!ength IS rncrcased, as ~hown 111
9.1 (b),
dlld (d) on p, 1'77. - 'ali
repre:iGnt
spGdmcns with varying degrees
chatter'marks.
l'or
, surj~!ces a cut-oir. 0[' saInpling
of 0,8 mm is usual. F
s:wrt
such as piston
025 illUl is more suitable as on such sbort n ?r
t'"e1"(' C,P1'lot b
'TC~("'C'
n "
- J:'~lIts
t \., .;o,:101 cl,e:ent3
apu.rL rJ.'\ general rule for -a surface
by a
pomt tool is
the cut-olT
should exceed th
. e

(c) An amplifying device for magnifying the stylus movements.

(d) A recording device to produce a trace or record of the surface profiie. It

~...,

should, be noted that all such traces are distorted, i.e. the vertical and
horizontal magnifications differ, to enable significant vertical featmes to be
observed on a trace of reasonable length, If a sample length 0[08 mm was
magnified 5000 times the resuIting trace would need to be 4 m long!

",

1'''

."

::.

.....

".-..

.L

(.l,

....

....

.t..

(e) A means of analysing the profile thus obtained. This may be incorporated

in the instrument or done separately. Instruments s2.tisfying these characteristics can be produced with mechanical or electronic systems of
magnification,
#

"

'-'

9.32 The Tomlinson Surface Meter

9.3

FINiSH

T, 1
Ile' "1ctl1("'s 3.'1'11'1'11,)1" f'- ill
'"1
fi' 1 ~
.
.;.
LV,!,
' . c_
'" Ot
easuflllg
L lC . ms 1 or a machined part lnay lJe com, _~"'_ " o,r oy ,dm;ct m~asu:ement., The ~ompv.i'ltive methods arc attempts to
"b""::>,, d,e ,mFace texture oy ooservuuon or ieel of t11e surf3.cc, Thev ~l.re
li1 t!:at
can be
if cOJilpai'ison is not made wi"thV"'''''''~J
,
sliIlllar
The appc::tn:.ace of a surface depends
on
trLe scrat;h.p~tr'~rn, 11: the dire~:tio:l oE'the scratches. and is less influenced by their
,"
,llls IS equ::i.,llY [rue 01 mlcroscopic eXClmil1:~ti(ln as is shown ill Fig. 9.2
\\-'11IUl rCpl\;scrrts mlcroscopic eplan!cments of six different
an1~ t11e[
sllrnlce proCHe as 5110\vn by the rnlcf;.
'
~ ." L. r..
l~ouch is
a better rnethod of
than visual
it can be
and
ShOl:.Id oilly be ruade
proch:ced by similar precesses.
standards are available
by lvlcss[s.
~~{: Co. of
being for dllTcrent machinin~
\Nhilc the l'{orton Grinding Vy~heel Co, produce cylindrical ground

st~Lnd:.lrJ8.

,i"i(e"[
~. ~;~

value

'.0 Lk'

mSL'Ufl1Cllt3

In

nO""SI"'e""'ont
"",~""
' 1opec I to enable a nurrerical
_~;~l
.<.u\.,i.llOUS
jjuVe b cen Q.::lie
011 the surt~lce
and tiles.:: ,:Ire almo;;t all stylu~
"
ImerferoTIltcl'.lc methods are
for reflective surfaces.

_.L .. <.1

p.,~kid

"

9.33

an cases
(,c)

,1,

-(.j,

The Tilylor-HobsOil 'Talysurf'

of tbs type Gan be broken down into the following units:

or shoe

"
~ I
>.
over t'.ne sunace
anu1 wI
O\"f"'"
ij~

"0

dn-;Vll

"

'1

datum.

~'"

,
nf'j1e,'al
<.:;;;'"' -

and yerri-

180

This instrument uses mechano-opticaI magnification methods and was designed

by Dr. Tomlinson of the JS'ational Physical Laboratory, its essentials being shown
in Fig. 9.3.
The shoe is attached to the body of the instrument, its
being adjustable to enable the diamond sho'wn to be positioned conveniently. The stylus is
restrained from all motion except a vertical i)ne by a leaf
and a coil
the tension in the coil spring P causes a similar tension in the leaf spring.
forces hold a cross roller in position between the stylus and a pair of parallel fixed
rollers as shown in the
view. Attached to the cross roller is a light spring
steel arm carrying at its
a diamond which bears against a smoked glass screen.
In operation the body of the instrument is drawn slowly across the surface f:Jy
a screw turned at 1 rev/min by a synchronous motor, the glass remaining stationary. Irregularities in the surface cause a vertical movement of the stylus which
causes the cross roller to pivot about point A and thus produce a magnified
motion of the diamond on the ann. This motion, coupled WiTh the hor.izontal
movement, produces a trace on the glass magnified in the vertical direction at
x 100, there being no horizontal magnification.
The smokedglass is tr::msferred to an optical projector and magnified further
at x 50 giving an overall vertical magnification of x 5000 and a horizontal magnification of x 50. The trace may be taken off by hand or by photogmphic methods
and analysed.

The Talysurf is an electronic instrument whose function can be broken down in a

similar manner to the Tomlinson .instrument and differing muiniy in the method
of magnification. It gives the same information much morc rapidly and probably
more accurately. Jt can be, and is, used on the facwry l100r or in the laboratory,
The Tom1inson instrument is essentially for use it;, the laboratory.

181

JYctrology for Engbu;ers

ivfeasurement of Surface Finish

FiLTERED

WAVEFOR~l

V\/\/VVV\/V

~/===/-1
///:./~:j>/l

METER

l~l[t

~-=i---,J, ~ Li~R

t0."/
l

PR~05CWT~O_R ~

_ _ ____ .J

---'>
HORIZON Tr\l ~fIOTION

OF Ir;STRUi--IDn BODY

A ('J\/\ n
A v f\/\ ,.'
/,-,
vvrv
v

CARRIER

DEMODULATED AND SMOOTI1ED

MODULATED CARRIER

Si'-1O,'\ED GLASS
DIAMOND-TIPPED

Fig, 9.4. Schematic layout of the Taylor-Hobson 'Talysurf'.

(Courtesy of the Rank Taylor-Hobson Division alld R.E. Reason)

srn_us

9.4 ANALYSIS OF SURFACE TRACES

A numerical assessment may be assigned to a surface to indicate fts
of
smoothness (or roughness), in a number of ways. DitTcrent countries use different
techniques, for instance Great Britain, many Common'Ne2.lth countries, and the
U.S,A.
1955), use an average height; Sweden and many continental
can countries llse the neak to valley
while other countries use a root
mean square value;,

Fig. 9.3. Tcmli!1son Sur;~ce Meter.

" The

as on the

consists of a

and shoe

";Vll,~h arc: drawn across the surface under rest by an electric Inotor and

cn

/
an armature
about the
stampings around e.2ch
outer pole
. p'
:l.C. current as ll1 19.9.4.
;\, t,le arm:lture
about
M it causes the air grtps to "af'! and thus
modulates
the
ampiitude
of
lh,;
'i C C"~~<>ll' j'10H'1'j'''~l'n tl"'"
J
...
_ . . .
".....
..,.;,1."-.....
L......
i \ S tlle::;;e
Ic>rm p:.ut c:t' ~,~,)fjdge,circu\t the output ccnsists of the ml~ciu;ation
Thi~ is
fed to an am pl;ner anu c:wscd to oper1tr.; ;J. Dell recorder to pr()dllCt~ a permanent
!1nd to a me~cr to
a num.cr~cal assessment direct.
IT;c l~)en rccord'~r 7~, ',)1"

t' t t'
.
d
v. "
HI !1~L iet: trace is pro llced \L ca;'bon-backed
a {)ointc" who!;c
arcs
the paper. This
R much .finer line
ink
due to
In

tillS
CC;:':tf0

case the arm

the
piece of a stack of E
oft \vhich is a coil
an

I..

J.

t V !. .:..,

....

9.41 Peak to Valley Height

The name
to vallev heiRht would indic:.Lte a reLnivc;y simple method of
bm if jnterpret~d in'its wider sense it means thaL tbe pe:lk and
used would almost cenainly be exceptional and Ihe value obtained would not
a
assessment of the surface;
overcome this the P-V hei!!:ht is defined as the distance between a
of
lines running para.He! 10 the gcne~al 'lay' of the trace
so tbat that
length lying wit!Ull the peaks at the
is 5~";; of the trace
the valleys at the bottom is 10 ~,~ of :hc trace length. Tl"is is r.~'~'~'o"ny,,,,
in Fig. 9.5.

.132

183

for Engineers

---j

lvIeasutcmcilt of Sur/ace Finish

.-

'II

9.43

7 7\\--------- ./--1\l
II

,J\

!-..,\ I~r-.
I

-<1

1--.

..........!

-I'

'\1\,
. ]\
!\

Pz

-1
."'---

i'-

--..: '1 ~___-

JI

--l 1-'J:.V

Fig. 9.5,

,.
/

"'i

0-1 L

Graphical represenmdon of peak ,to valley height.

T!lis measure was standard until 1955 l' n thp USA af'er ",'[ll'ch' 'h-' dand:lrd
0..
was
..

-.

. ""

hV"'U,""" to Fig.

1.."

I-

.,. +hn

2ft
n
To determine a C.L.A. value by the erection of ordinates would be a laborious
process, and if an unfortunate ordinate spacing was chosen a sigpificant point on
the surface could be missed.
However, if an irregular area is divided
its length then the 'value obt3.ined
is thc average
of the area. Such an area can be measured using a planimeter,
thus"considcring an infinite number of ordinates, and every p0int on the surface
is considered.
to Fig. 9.7 it is seen that

\.>

to an, (J.'leragc nelght (see sectIon 9.43). It is defined as the square root
~f (he mean 01 the squares of the ordinate:> of the surt~Lce mer;.sUIed
a mean'

+ .. , +.111.

C.L.A.

Ime.

Consider

9.6,

h,'/4'

I...~-----~----L-------O-O'iL

The C.L.A.
is the standard adopted in Great Britain, and since 1955, the
U.S:A. It is defined as the average height from a mean line of all ordinates of the
surface, !"";U.lI.m;;,~"

C.L.A.

--J

v)

Centre Line Average i\-lethod

2A
L

9.6.

=--

/\.

r~
I

-;--- ~\ r-"'!!
I

I
~
Fig. 9.6.

Graphical reprcsellt~tion of h"m ..

ordinates

aI'''!

erected at 1, 2, 3, 4, .. , n, whe.se

are

Fig. 9.7.

Graphical representation of CoL.A.

The value thus obtained is the average

of the trace. To obtain the
C.L.A. value of the surface it is necessary to divide this vaiue by the vertical
magnification of the trace, and multiply
10 6 to
tile value in micro-inches.

by

1:A

10 6 p.in

.'. C.L.A. =~L x --:--:---magn.

where 2A =sum of areas above and bcloVllhc mean iil1C
in inches

[84

l'lieilology for Engineers

ivfeasurement of Sw/ace Finish

L = length of trace in inches
,::..'.4
103

or in metric units, CoL.A.

x ___,.-___,c_ __
lTICign.
where 17A = SlIm of areas in mm 2
L

length of trace in mm

'lkforc rilaking such ~l measurement it is necessary to position the meal I' ,

,-I
--,
l""t
l ' l' ~ o
1 lUe
l.tlC aleas aUoYc mlG DelOW tan: eq'la _to WIt 1m ;) /~. ThiS can be done by;

. th
so
. at

(a)

by eye.

(0)

toLl! areas abov';: and beiow the t;stimated line.

i.e. the correction distance for the trace centre line is hj4 downwards (as
shown by the minus sign). This brings it to ~ from the peaks, which would be
correct.
TIus process is geometrically correct for a regular profile of this type, and is
approximately correct for an irregular profile of the iype encountered in a surface
recording.
The technique described above is that required for the Tomlinson instrument.
The Talysmf average meter incorporates an
device which does this
work while the probe is being drawn over the surFace.

.
the position all amoun t equal to ;:he difference in areas divided
tile trace length.
i.e~ (~oricction

9.5 THE INTERFEI';;'ENCE M1CROSCO?

EA (below)

..- 'r

,R_efeI~ncc

This
triangular

referring to a hypothetical surface havinll

as shown in Fig. 9.S.
"~

.~

to Chapter 2 shows that if an optical flat is placed at a SU1"U

a fiaJ refl~t.!l1g-'~iirTac~e, and the system is viewed'jii:;lparallel beam
chromatic light, interference fringes will be seen acros:; the surface. The.

over

of mono-

~:lr'y",t1u:e_

VEE GROOVE

'---'--r1{5

'

I-....----::,,;----i-~

------

Let an estimated centre line be drawn a distance

from the peaks.

Area above - Are::, bdow

hb 9hb

It
4

,/

"~l

-l]

~k'-,

the SUEl ofthi.: ar:;as above estImated line=,A 1 +.13

2 h b 1 hb
442
;\nd the ~unl of the; areas beIovl estirnated 1tne =

Correction

.--7

~~----------.~~

Tb~n

LJ

INTERFERE'NeE FRI~IGES
ON SURFI'.CE

Fig. 9.9. Interference fringes across a fiat surface having a shallow vee
groove along its Jength.

" of the surface and if the ,~~~C:~O'::!~b'._.~..

of these fringes is a measure of the flCitness
of the-fight us.::d is knowil then tbe'iiatness can be determined to a
accuracy,
~
..
-Consider the effect of viewing a" smfuce cont<ijning a
groove of depth
.QJ ,urn, under;111 optIcal flat in light of wavelength of 0.) ,urn. '::,'hO' in~egulJujj:y,i.n
the fringe pattern would indicate the depth of the groove as showninf-ig. 9.9:"
.---'

-~'-..;--

]36
187

:-~~':".'":"'''-~ bel we~;n the fringes

cl1~~~? h\ distance between the
optical llat of h'1:1(a. "L"~=C"'=::;' ,,/2.

d A
.. Depth of groove =- >, 2;"
s
and in this c.<~~~~depth "i= O ! ,urn
.1."=0-5 p.m
d 0-5
.. 01 =-~<
s 2

,-. ~=oE;il:
S
,_) = 0-4
__ _
(b)

(a)

the total
. it fonows that the
i.n terms of the half
/ fringe
indicates"
the light bi;;lng used.
. 'oJ
'.
ci as in f,'jg. 9.10 has a !~ene]'a~ fringe spaclng
A surnlce appcarin
- ,-----;;::;
-.:::. of a'with a
~cratch indicated by fringe irregularities of hdgllt h. "-~-'

"-'

~,~--

Fig. 9.11.

Microintcrferograms of (a) the surface of a steel bali; (0) a scratch on a flat surface approximately "io or 025 jAm deep.
(Courtesy of Hilger & Watts Ltd.)

".'.-

(,)

'

Vt1\
1~\1IMt~v1vl1'''OO
L- f~~~t~-T---1J
I\

Fig. 9.12(a). Trace of surf&.ce. C.L.A. reading = 3 -65 fLm.

in a l1nt

micminl<'!rf~rogram

" lnercj'ore

b ;(?
A

. 1..,
The; depth of the scratches is
a _ I"om wnere.\ IS Le
;"j',f
j ,,;;;,;,,<>,

"Stv-j
Lo,,- "":""'

"',

th 0 f

Wil'iClCllg.

}/~

,.

'rl.l.is work cannot lie done with the normal opical fiat_set-lUJ.? bnt It requires
an"l e LL) (he onticd flat.
veri iin') fringes, and a micro-

resolvmg.

"to enu hIe' tt1Crn to be ~een~ Such a SY.::tCill l;nables

systems to b c m r i ' a c e s of
indicating the roundness of the bails,

II

pattern ;.;hOtving a scratch

of such
a surf:lce~ appt;:!.rs in Fig. 9.1 I (a).

~urf,Kc."An

~r--T-'I'

IK

I i q\ I~ \~ tOOO
j N ~I
~--Ti-- -I' H- I) ' ]

balls, the roundness

surface irregularities
f'"

Fig. 9.12(b),

Trace of replica of surface. C.L.A. reading = 345 I,m.

188

j.,

189

the Interference
An intcrfenm~e microscope
&
mcorporatinl1
wor'< is inade by
records to be Il1ade~
tel:'feror~nlf(lf: pro'(iu~~d
afe shown in Fig. 9.11 (a) ilnd (b).

T'JJCA METHODS
v.,;hcri~

the slJrfac(:

te~(!ur~

CHA

10

,,
of a corn,oonent is required
and
not reiIectiv~
a trace by

is

}\ kit Jf this type

(b) arc traces of GTe ,:;Eme
respecti vel}'.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
THE previous chapters in this
the fQct that althcugh
accuracy is of
importance to
accuracy is unattainable.
Even gauge bloc.:ks of the highest order of accuracy have manufa<.:turing loiew!lces
which are as small as a few millionths of an inch. These tolcrances,wilose
tude depends on the function of a component, arc necessary to allow for the
jnhf;rent vf,riability of the production process.
Consider a simple operation" such-as a
lalhe set t.')
cif
bar stock. WitrUfl limits, the lengths parted
will
the same, but
around the length at which the machine is set will occur. These V2.riations fQ"ty be
due to a number of caUSe5 anyone of which will be of "
but if nil
Ciluses tend to produce a size increase then a piece of maximum
will be
produced .. Silniiarly, if all causes tend towards Q decrease a piece of minimum
length will occur, and if all causes work
each other their eiTccts wi!l be
cancelled and a piece close to the set size wili
cut off.
These random variations are due
non-assignable causes. It is the
of a system of process control to distinguish between these and
canses such as the machine setting 'cliimglI1g, a grinding w11l::e1
machiac failure occurring. These "ssignabLe faults must bc deter:Led and corrected
before defective pieces are produced.
Apart from component production, faults can occur during
and a
large manufacturer buying in
or sub-assemblies must comrol the quality of
the goods he is buying. This aiso can be n.chieved by the intelligent. application of
statistical methods.
Thh chapter will therefore consider the ways in which. statistics can be used
to perform these functions in ::tn economical manner.
it should be borne
in rriin{f that there is no substitute for 100 % inspection, a:ld even
Imman
nature being what it is, faulty parts may be accepted by the inspector.

10,2 PROCESS VARIABILITY

It has been pointed out in section 10.1 that aU manufacturing processes, and
indeed many natural ones, are subject to random variations. Tills may be shown

190

191

l}i?lr:)/ogy jor Engineers

Statistical Quality Control

-experiment whkh consists

simply qf measurir.g about 200 rDart,-,".!:n
~ d
~.-~
t;cn[rlLng'",ut:1:!Lo''l:!e:;. !f slllmlc Darts such as aO\'iCl._l-'nms,
11)[o<:iuced by ,,,'n"+""'l":;
__
" .........
t:..:IS
their diameters should be recOl"deu to the nearest Q'COl mm.
that their di,ameters "h01l1d
notd. It would
a
and would 'vicId little usefuL
~_
most'crJ'nYilll~~:t way' t~record this information is to set np a 'tally
chart', aD in
! O~ I * The dian~eters of about ten d~:.elmn_~ shotdd be H1easured
with ,I, micrometer and their mean size found. A comparator
of
ma(1n;~ca'~~'
~
~ ~ bill!

"I

tion can no\y be set to this

1.

siZt~

__

and as each

l",v

IS passed under the

.,- lTll'al1 'JIze

"
+ or - frOal [018
IS .
no ,1"~hvy a

42

measurlnO'

'
marK
on t hIe chart"

made to the nearest O'GO I mIT! unit.

'

"\

FREQUENCY

5~1

hJI-HH

Ij

3l

+.

UNiTS ~ lItl !t/" ;.ilt litt

rllH"

o-JHir
I

OOOlmm UNITS

0-001 rnm

18

!!rff }til fill- ill

i+# 'fi-Hlif l

35

\,

oj-

"

5 SIZE
DEVIATION

Fig. 10.2. Frequency polygon of results in Fig. 10.1.

lifr iii,. ,Ht Hit WdmHllI If

iB}

'l}~ 1f!'r Wf f!1t Hit-

35

('r!'/ ,;+1/ HI,

15

2-, <HI- lEI

<] 001

mrr.

UNITS

Jl' 1'1
<;

STANDAHD

DEVIATION

5.j

'It

'TGtAL

Fit:. 10.1.

FREQt.:ENCY

Tally churt.

shews some of the "har:lctcri~tics of ~he process variabilto ~')ca1:0 as" a ".
() f Irequency against
Dolv.~~orl. is S~10Vj n in I~ig. 10.2.
"F.,:.c;:~'~'t'a-~l'O"l of:J
"""fJ_ln",-,'-'-o.""
1 f c~ln
these
t...l

is 1../ery

si~nih1r

25 '

.-

tn the nOf111Ul or G'1.u.:isian

13-5

U1
Z

<l:

::;:

5-7
04
309 (f

....

and the

the

.
~

SIZE DEVIATION

Fig. 10.3. Normal distribution curve fitted to results from

Fig. 10.1.

192
!

'

7l{ otr

J,v..." ....... ,

o!oa-y
fio!'
/0

Statistical Quality Control

wgrk will normally be .produced. H

.compcc.'lents of'limiting size range, A beOttW.I t
' "deVlallcn
.','
. .f
'c
er
f1:UICC
S :.l11Clarct
\V ,f11C
. l 'IS .1..
LHe d'lSlilnce ;P)lll
t'h.,e
!~viS Ot~ th
'"I"
f'
'[loru1al curve to the point \vhere
curvature changes frOITl cronvex to concay~.
The law of this curve is _"

eve;', a batd: of Darts

r:>.

.L"'i ..~' ....y

OF

in which JI' and ,; arc the mathematical constants; .:1: is the me;'.n
x is the
size of the indhljJluai
:'.y is the
\vith vvhich a
,.x ('c~uro'
v~:~
:;', and (1{S'
the stanchc,rd deviation.
of i.his WIve which are important in qualit/control, the
mo:,/:
being the Ltct tha,t 998~/~ of the ar:.:!a--12:llder the curve
/ ' 1
1
T
<'
. }
'vVqJCfl represents
;;OLl1C SC~LlC tnc tor;}l nUlnoer or parts
!1eS INithin
the range of 3'G9,'~~ rron:. the il1eal\ i.e. all but 1 in 1000 at each tail.
of St:;! 2000 p:.lrts is taken, and the standa.fcl c{(:viation calcu- '
Thus) if a
lated, it can be
that ,1;:;
QS the n1nc~1.i.ne
in contiol, no change
cD-king
Hl
or precess
praduced except 2, one at
each extreme, \-vili !ie within 'Clc 3090- from the mean SIze,
t

6-001
6002
6-003

1
2

6-004

4
5
6
7
IS
9
10

6005
6006
6007

6008
6,009
6010

Totals:

an

Fxx

-5

-4
-3
-2

24
60

35
42

l75

252
252

144
54

"

20

166

988

25
16

9
4

-1

0
1
4
9
16

+1

+2
+3

I
I
I

F(x-x)2

I
\

8
15

36
18
6

25
48
72

60
35
0
36
72

54
32
434

_.

Fig. lOA. Tabular calculation of standard deviation based on lrequency drstnbullon m fig. 10. L

Mean size

X=

The stand~,rd devia((Gil may be ddined "s the root mean square of the individual
deviat1cn fr~)rn the mf.;an :;ll:G of thG group and .is
by the expression~

EFx
.EF

988 5-95 (0'001 mm units)

166

. _ ;\,=02506 in
(7=

in which F is ihc
"fIle )TIcst c~"'>~'.tvc!lient. ",'lay to c(1.1,~u!ate (J
a tabalar TI1cthDd as shovvn
in scc'~i()n 1O.4~ th~ v:.~ILi(:s of)~ ar:.d {;taken fronl the
chart in
10~ l.
L'~\.ssun1e th~lt
~onlpl:rator \vas set 'whil gauge blocks \vhose size ,vas
6005 !nrG. ~rh~ cQinrnn~; in the t~~blc tire as fOtloVlS:

is

CO[Wrm ]

b:..!'Her

Collimn :f shows the deviation of e:ich size group from the mean, i.e. (x

vutu~

t.'i gi'l..:t1 by

(f

x).

Column 5 sho'ws the square of the figurf:s in collrmn 4, i.e. (x - x)2.

Column 6 shows the product of frequency (column 2) and deviation squared
(column 5), i.e. F(x .\:)2.

vritb.j:] c:i.ch si:~>~ group~

of frcq ucaDY and si:t:c.

From the lotDJ2 of co\mnns 2 ::md 3 the mean size,

1,6 11 (0-001 mm units)

. _ a=O0016 mm

5ho\'15 n E:>~ of the size groups used in which, for simplicity, the last

Co/umn 3 sl!ty..y:; ;:- x x, t h,~

*A

u=.J1434
166

:t-, is computed.

Then (J is obtained by civieiing the tot,ll of column 2 into (he total of column 6
and finding the square root.
In this process the standard deviation =00016 mm ~
then mocess variability = 309(1'= (3'09 x QOv16 mm)
.
1
= O'0049 rum (to nearest 00001 mm)

where n IS the nlHnbcr 0f parts i(l th.e group.

195

194
7S

jlyJetrology j;)";, EJlgint!er,}

Statistical Quality Control

i. f,'.
~

;?

c'J

Therefore, at one machine setttng, the sizeQI(Jduceci is unli1<cly to vary from

the: net size by more than 0'0049 mm. If a work tolerance of ::::0005 HIm '<vas
given then therr:: woniel. be a prQoability of some scrap being produced as SOOI1 as
the setting changed, i.e. if the grinding wheel or tool started to wear.

-r
I

(a) The mean size of the work produced may change, i.e. the setting has
moved, e.g. tool wear has occurred.
(b) The proc::ss variability may change, i.e. the size range of work produced
'has changed. This is usually due to something more fundamental in the
machine.
'!J
,,~ "':''''l i ,.
,.J~./I:)...

......1

will be producedunless corrective action is taken.

Theeffecis of
two changes are showil in'-Figs.TO.6 and 10.7 in which,
initia.lly, the work was within
limits.
In either case

1022

If a
parts was take':} and
of, say, 5 parts,
then the [rverage size of the sub-groups could b~
:~hought will
show that these average sizes would b,: grouped more closely around the mean
than "mula the sizes of the indi"j,dvai items. Typical frequency distributions for
the averag(l Slzes and the individuuL; arc shown in Fig. 10.5.

-.~~:-.:-

f-

_---SCRAP
UPPER WORK liMiT

!~

---~--'---r

+
I

I
__k:::
__ _

__,~ _ _ ~~GJt'A_L____ ,

OJ

~ ~~.

U1

.---!\

MEAN SiZE

r-Fig. 10.6.

LOWER
---,--,--<>-

TiME

Effect of mean size

during a proc<,:ss.

rU"'-,::: SCRAP

~_-1\ER we",

Fig. iO.5. Comparison of di;,tributiou curves for indi'lidu;ll items

and group 'l'Ierages based on results ffOm Fig. 10.1.

If "' ~ is standard dc:viation for group means and

indivicL!als in rhe
then It can be sho\<vn that:
(f

ab

(j

is standard deviatlon for

WORK
TOLERANCE

__ :..

~.AN

LIM"

SIZE

SiZE

where n is the number cfi~ems in the group

1___ .

Tilis point is most .import[UAt in [he application of these principles to control

~-:~-.~
......,

LOWER WORK LIMIT

SCRAP

TIME

Fig. 10.7. Effect of a,change in proccss variability.

;.:;r;: .~

..::~:

occur either ~ingly' or together, the final outcome will be the

same":':::defective work which mayor rnav not be reclaimable and ~vhich, if mixed
with goocf\~~&, will require 100% insci?!_i~: to ~eJ,ect-:--\' : "
~.
-----;--- v~./~:;;~
,1 )J(

"-if these effects

If a

mach;nl~

is set to produce work

Cal'1 occur. --rhese are:

196

to

a given

t1VO

changes in product quality

1.

iii

197

Thus contro.lt [":~"l""-'

ts
' d
~_
aJl~ reqUlre
churt.>;. ~U1d for
t h e process

Statistical Quality Control

Therefore if the process remains in control (statistically) the points ploned
J091.l'b
'
for the sample averages should always be within =;.- of the reqwred mean

,n

m~

However, the process can drift from this mean setting an amount Q before
scrap is produced, Q depending on the difference between the process variability
and the work toierance.
Thus the maximum distance a sample average should be away from the mean
-===~_r11io (W

'1

parts
l'I"'r'

~iz; ~nd""~!,;];' tl;~C<5(;tti!:~;;

appea.f~

size is

T'

average a

I He

(Q + 3'09a

).

As soon as a point occurs outside these iimits it should

be investigated, as the deviation is greater than that occurring due to random,

__ ._C~';;'.~.:.:~

or non-assign8.hle, crruses.

t<)9 rifL

The control chart for averages is drawn as shown in Fig. 10.9.

'"this can be seen frou1

.llH1Ho:,

1.0.3, vlhich
for individual items

UPPER 'NCRK liMIT

i l l ! P?(R COI)"OL

UHIT

SIZE 2

: (,..,

3'OSd.
~

tAL

:::

,.,
SIZE'

!
I

~.

INSPEC,ION iNTERVALS

Fig, 10.9.

(Q

L9'NI;R CPNTROL LIMIT

LOWER WORK U"ilT

Control chart for average size of samples -x chart.

Q before

averages curve

Immediately the points plotted show a definite c1rift to one side or the other
of the mean
the process should be treated as suspect. Before the trend reaches
the control limits it can be stopped and the process reset. Note that ir. a process
where the drift is lBEaHy in one direction, as Oil. a grinding operation where wheel
wear occurs, the res~c(ing can be purposely towards the other controilimit, thus
ensuring larger rUllS between reseUing.

198

199

Sratislicai Quality Conlroi

iVetrology for Engineers

]03[1

C:;"
-.r.
,filmp!!jzed
iv!ethod of Setting Control Limits

appropriate sample size to see whether the process is of low, medium or high

l;mit~

rel"'l've t, .t,
~L , () ,~.,e mer.J.J1 Size
. would
- lOtH , orev,ously
c1esr-'!. d .
I' ureA ' i "
.
,
. .., (uC lllvolving
.)
".u. <~owever
It
0"0 Ii;
.
a

' the position of the control

'l;)pC'lr to oe
' 3. 1"
,v
!8.DOnOllS DrOCeSS if the m"')..,od'

','"

1 . J t'
f .
'
"aCll a , JOll d
0 tile standard
t1
"

.-

deVl'lt;oIO

I;

2 cd to Jllustrate the fundumen~als vf the "j'" ~11. ,~,ne stanuar

l.lc ~";al1zed that
lIOn ;s III ,act a p'c"sure (1f"
1

"

,,11S . 1: tc

q':i-f;

ri

,L.
,
tne range 011:' \vork sizes whic71
v. "111 ~ ,
'l ,_eV1U"
gl\Cn l!rocess :It one
h
'
.
11, 0'_ oroduecrJ .
,,'
. -:.
ulUS ~ lere snoll)J be no ' 'c " " ,
,,~.
etwIII a
scundard
dGVtatlon "crl t].= ci e'
.
mt: IddtlOnshlp
h
.. -t 'T
'
, - Jc
Iv 0.Z fdng'; 111 t,ie sampl~s
", 1
v,
een
ella 1" LhIS IS so, ?,nd it Freatly ,'ilnpJ;.cnes /1 _ ,v.
"nd plotted on the
''/V'
' . ""
~L_"
Ie WOll', 111
. '
" ne~ a cha1't :, m operation the [llspe ' ,
a conlrol chart.
u~ "I" , I
c,or
a"d
. its
~l1Vt'f'1
. , b'-' " ~c. S110U ct carry out his calculation on a
., p IottlDg
dot,an oda scrap of paper. if this is d ' r]
.
data sheet
settl~g
up {he chart.
ODe. l<,:;n the same data sheet can be used i~
..:

....

v.

!'"

rT"

.)

~'

" . fo set
up the chart the inspection
1'1,vql
' ' , IE'-fLy
,"
1"
'
aeclded
U')Ol1 ~ no till'., f.
~ ,
ana t.1~, sample Size shOl'ld b
'.
'
,<.",
:; OLnI or msncctlOn i'arrii,d
t'
'.
.
e
~Xlstl!lg
method. Having noted t'l"" "'7~ [ - : , : ~l1," m !/,:Sf)Cwtlon with the
,~,
t
~
Lv SLxS 0
,ne llld"/'du"'"
t'
or computes the aV~1'8g'" 01",1" "'f l'
"
- d
1.., lil lIe sample the
h'...;;pec
1"'"
.... .~d" L~
He
''1n "loc [I' ,
/
we (,merellce DetWf'>c'n
" . '.
u"
l' >'
v" tn'
~_\.,;,> m~";~
"l'"",Alll.1Um an d
mllUP"q'~
s
.
I .J.e.samp e ranoe
b , .......
a lx;riod
of
time
a
IIUJ!l bel' of values 0" S"1"I"P)" ".~'" Izes m tIle !,ample. Thus over
'11
.l u .
<;; [nfl''" de'10t~rl by'
.

relative precision.
If low, the process is unsatisfactory and likely to produce a proportion of
defective work, i.e. Q is negative.
If medium, the process is satisfactory and, if well controlled, will produce no
defectiyes. In this case Q is zero and the process will require frequent adjustment
to main rain satisfactory control. The contr01 and warning limits can be set by
multiplying wby the appropriate values of the constant A' in Tabie 2 on page 202,
If the process is one of high relative precision a drift can be allowed to take
place before the setting is adjusted, i.e. Q is positive. In this case the control chart
limits arc found by multiplying IV by the appropriate constants in Table S, In
this case, to alloW for the process to drift, the limits are set in /rom the work limits

by an amount A"w.

Thus in aU cases the control chart limits are set by multiplying the mean
sample range wby constants provided in tables in B.S. 2564,

'

",Ie {lver[l('fe vahle of

'"

';;

.Il~

If c

,,'.'

b'~,

"

x,,

lV,

anges IS [lOW computed,

Mean sampk runge

are avaIlable

"

It was shown in section 10.3 that, as well as a control chart for averages, a range
chart to control the process variability is required. The control limits for the range

='= Ew
ns

1
'
,Yncr,e
tis 15 the number of 5amp1es taken
.
It has been shown that a mCaS'!fC> of o~, "'~, ., 'l'. .
DOll, but to con1rol th" "-oc r , ' ' , ! ,,?~~S mnaOblty IS the standard devia_ "'LI.... IJl
t..:,..ss
.~s
tonda ~h
control Ghart. It follows
thflt'
,,1"'0 . . '

,0
tne
,dn
.
1 i:", I.1J.LJ v 1$ a corl"r':f'''''+1on hel'~':'p,>,,",-,'1
h sample range
t e standard deviation l' e
~ . ~ "'' ' ' ' ' ,-' 1.'(~ c,.A"u tHe
sarllple range
,

chart are set in a similar manner to those for the average chart, i.e. constants
have been arrived at which, when multiplied by the mean sample range, iV,
the positions of the upper and lower limits for the range chart. These constants are shown in Table 3 of B.S. 2564 overleaf.

..

a=CiV

(Text cont.

and

[{.F.!.

it

OJ!

page 204),

\vork tolerance

Having G:l1catuted '.ue

,1R ..P,.,
'f Table 4- on 'l'Ja')e
-b

200

10.32 C:mrroi'Charts for Range

T::ik~~i1

20~):~
i,' ~V"!'ll'~cd

A"J
..... r.fol- l.~ ~ l "

. t t'h e
agal!1S

from B.S. 2564.

201
o

lYletro!ogy Jar Engineers

TABLE 4

E.:'(tracts fron1 B.S. 256'::.: 1965 are

by
Stamhtrds
2 Park St., L.:mdr}i1 W.l, from whom
standard may bf:: obtained. These tables are numbered as in

ClassHkaHon of Process Variability RelatiYc to Specification Tolerance

.?f the

British
the complete
"
I
ongmal.

Relative precision index_ CR.P.I.) specification tolerancejaverage range,

Note: This table should not be used if the range is out of control.

JI

i
Class

Low relative
precision

lvfedium relative
precision

High relative
precision

i
I

Sample size

(x)

To obtain limits multiply by the

yalue of A' 0.035 and A' 0.001
then add to and subtract from the gross aVerage value or agreed oDjective (X).

R.P.I.

R.P.I.

less than 6-0

less than 40
less than 30
less than 25

40 to 50
30 to 40
25 to 35

3
Sample size

Foy
inner lindts
C
A \'

123
067
048

0'38

032

5 and 6

.1..' U.001

0.025

3
4

For
outer li.rnits
194

105

(}75
059
.
0,)0

60 t.o 70

Unsatisfactory. *
Rejections
inevitable.

State of
production.

R.P.!.
greater
greater
greater
greater

than
than
than
than

70
50
40
3'5

Satisfactory, if
averages are
within control

SatisfactoI)', if
averages ari;

limits.

limits.

within modified

$ Not n",,""r.~~,rUy. if the specification permits a small proportion of (he product to bo outside the
limit. In such C:Jscs the limiting values for low relative procision can be Og of those given above .

TABLE 5
(x)

High precision class

T/\.}3LE 3
Control CaD.rt Llmi.ts fur

(w)

To obt<lin limits 1I1ll1tiply ,t' by the;

value of D', To estimate
standard dcyiation, 0', divide lv
the appropriate value of d n.

f sa~'l'lei
Slze
n

2
3

4
":J
6

i
I

-I
For lower litnits*

D' 0,001

D'1).025

000

OO"}
0-18
029

004
010
(H6
{}21

Fo;' upper limits

For standard

Number in

deL:iation

sample

D' 0.975
!

,-. !

1) l).n99

193

41:2
299
258

181

236

172

222

23l

217

:.l.n!

not generaHy used.

eli!

2
3
4
5
6

113

169
206
233
253

For tnner
modified
limits
A." Q-025

0'3'7
0'42

The lo\ver "iimits

To obtain the limits, mUltiply wby the appropriate values of A" 0-025 and
A" 0.001> then aod to the lower drawing limit and subtract from the upper drawing
limit.

,,
:

151 (0'83)1'
116 (0-71)
102 (065)
0-95 (0-62)
090 (0'60)

!
!

For outer
modified

limits
l\." 0.001

080 (0'12)!'

0-77
075
073
071

(0'32)
(0'J8)
(0,41)
(0,42)

For altemative'*

Inodi{ied limits
b1J1er
,f.

I
I

i
I
I

Ou.ter

!I

r\ 0.025

AM 0-001

2-32
170

161
1-31

146
1-34

112

126

108

1-19

\Vhen the inner and outer limits are close together, one of them can be
omitted. (Sec also Part One, Section B4 c, page 24.)

* To provide higher assurance against

manufacturing rejects.
The aitemative ligures in brackets may be llsed when the buik is permitted to contain a small
proportion of rejects and the R.P.L exceeds the value given in Column 2, Table 4.

202
203

llieirofugy for Engineers

Statisfin:! Qua lit) , ('ulltrof
A lower control ~imit for range may seem,:l~ anomaly: and in many cases' ..
not used. However, It should be remembereu tHat StatIstICally the range 'lilt IS
',"
tIeIcontro
l l "llTI!ts ane1 'f
. goes l'
1,
j
"
Wldllil
[, It
ugJler
or .ower
It
IS due to an ass'WI be
cuuse. If a pO.int on a range." chart falls outside the upper control Limit the ptgna~te
, 1"
.
.
d . If. it pomt
. ra
~ 11'ct
'
roc"ss
?ilOU
u be stoppe d an d tIlV(:st;gate
,8 outS! e the lower control
r .
it .means that for some reason the !)roccss variability has
and 1he p unIt
"
" .
. '
,u
rocess
has llnproved. It the cause can be lound it may be posslbIe to incorporat th

" " .
'1

h
e e
U11provemem
III tuture S1ll1har operatlOns and t e overall quaLity improved.

:n-us sl:m::-Hlry s,hvws, step ?y ste~, the setting up of a cox:trot chart, and shOuld
De read w1th reference to FIg, 10.10 and
10.11 on facmg peges 206 and 207
The data used is that from the taily chart in
toJ and the data sheet,
10.10'
may be used for both
up and ruuning a system of control charts.
'
It is recommended that the data sheet be printed on the back of the control
chart, which should be of squared paper. They can then be kept in a transparent
envelope at the machine [n front of the operator, and filed when completed.

by the customer by a sampling system which is based on the process producing

an average of 2 ~~ defectives. It is desirable to ensure that on average the process
is not producing an excess of 2 %defectives. Other cases an: those where completeness of the product rather r11an dimensional accuracy is required, e.g. the completeness of a plastic moulding or diecasting.
In instances such as these, a control chart for the fraction of a sampic which
is defective is desirable. These are fraction defective control charts in which the
control limit is set at a value, for a given process average percent defective, above
which the fraction defective in the sample, expressed as a percentage, will rise
due only to an assignable cause. Variations in percent defective in the sample
below this level are to be expected and may be considered due to non-assignabie
causes.
If a process is running at an average of G %good part sand B ~~, i . e. (1 - G %)
defectives, and samples of n parts are taken. the number of defectives in the sample
wilI vary around B% of fl, which will be the 'expected' number of defectives in the
sample. The distribution of the variation of the number of defectives is described
very closely by the Poisson Probability Distribution, which is discussed in section

10.62.
Let x=expected number of defectives in the sampJe

Step 1. Decide O1f the sample size n and the frequency of inspection, These
sho~ld. be chos~n to give a to~aJ of 10-20~{ ~f toml productiun. A good sampJe
SIze 1:, f, but 5 13 more converuent for computmg averages.

Step 2. Take samples at the decided frequency and record their sizes on the
data sheet.
3. For '~ach,samp!e calculate sampie werage and sample range w.
SEep 4. 'When enough pans (80-JOO) have been inspected nud recorded calcu~
late the mean sample runge w.

Step 5. Calculate

Relativ'~
n

IJ I

where n = sample size

Each ternl afthe expansion of e-"'e X is the probability of 0 defectives, 1 defective,

ties. Consider a process running at 25 %defectives, a sample size of 150 being used.

x=2'5% of 150=375
and e-"'=0'0235 (from tables of e- X )

'work tolerance

x chart using Table :1 or Table 5 (B.S. 2564), depending

Step 7. Set control limits for range chan

constant:; from Table 3.

Til'~re are mallY ca;:es in inClllstrj where the il5C ,)1' cCl;,,:rol charts is Jcsirable, but
is not
in the fOtTn ,)hO'-NU in section 1O.3~ Such C~t.,~e3 are tllose v/here
i;onno] of a n:lurrGt~"cturin,~ proCeSS by controlJiJ;" a fe'.\' dimensions is ,lOt con"
vel1ient. Consider a produc(iun lIne producing an assembly which is to be checked

204

ofn

2 defectives, 3 defectives, etc., appearing in the sampJe. The warning and control
limits are set at 1/20th and 1/200tll pro babiIirics respectively, and we therefore ,vish
to find the nllmber of defectives that will appear in the sample with these probabili-

'Precision Index.

f~ . .

Step 6. Find limits for

on R.P.I.

=E%

=00235 +0088 +0163 +0,206 +0194 +0145 +0091 +

0-049 + 0028 + 00095 + 00035

It can be St~en that the 7th term, representing the probability of 6 defectives
appearing in the sampie. is 0'091, and the 8th tenn (nrobabiIity of7 defectives) is
0049. It follows that the warning limit, set at a probability of 0'05, must be set at
6 defectives, as more than this number can only occur with a probability ofless than
005.
Similarly the i 1tll term shows that 10 defectives wiII occur only with a pro bability of less than 00' 5, and therefore the control limit is set at 9 defectives. These
limits are shown OIl the chart in Fig. 10.12.
Note that thc warning limit has been exceeded at sample number 5 but the
process then improved and no action was taken. This happeneu again al rH.llllk:r 14
c

3:

0::

.C(

c')

r:o-r

Control <;harts for range (IF) and average

~~ED

These charts would nonm.lly be on the back of their data sheet (Fig. 10.10). Note the indication of drift
on the x chart towards tho U.C.L. Rcsettin~ will shortly be necessary.

Fig. 10.11.

LO'S[R UL!iTS
n ,;$ CP<;E

be cxarnin.::d i.n cOl1junction with

Control chan dam sheer.

Th;s sheet is based on the d~ta in th t<i1Iy chart (Fig.

the CO.ltroj chari

Fig. JO.lO.

n::L.'HIVE

\'lJ\RUlil8

i::l
......

..r;'

E"~

V')

~
-..

;;;S

(")

"':!

~:

-.

te)

eJ

11;Jetroiogy for
Statistical
and the process th!;n deteriorated, actIon being taken after number 20 when the
control limit was exceeded.
SampJes ar.o; tak;':11 at
intervals so that a total of about 5-10% of the
total produc:icn is
and the fraction or pe:'cerrtage
in the
sample is platld on the chan. it should be noted that the
size must be
such thac, based on the
average percent defective, it should contain at
kasl Ol1C
i.e.
a P.A. of 2~ % the ';mallest
that should be
used is [00/2'5=40. [I' the
size is increased the system 'beco.l1lcs corres.
pOlldingiy i~ore sensitive. If the control limit is exceeded then it means that the
prodaction
out of control and has exceeded the allowed process

J)ercent
If the normal process average percent defective is unknown it can be calculated by taking a number of samples when the pro("'Css is running normally, and
finding the mean value of the
defectives in the samples.
,,';.~ simplified means
tbe control limit, along with a very full explanation of the operation ,)f such a control system is to be found in B.S. 2564-Control
Charts for Fraction Defectives.

Confrol

Consider a limit gauge being used to check work, the limits of size used for
manuf.:'lcturlng the gauge being well inside the work limits. In effect the work tolerance has been reduced and the gauge wiIi reject a certain amount of
work
at ejt11er extreme of the. tolerance zone. If such a gauge 1S uscd in conjunction
with a fraction defective control cbart then the apparently defective components
are in fact
but provick an artificial basis for running the chart.
These gauge dimensions are normally equal to the limiting dimensions of the
work less 20~~ of the total work tolerance on both the 'GO' and 'NOT GO'
Hence the tolerance used for
purposes is only 60~';; of th(~
tolerance. Such a system need Dot be confined to direct dimensional "'~'~"'.'. "'"
For instance, the calibration limits of a speedometer, the pressure limits of a
pump, or the limiting values of a resisrance, couid ali be compressed and such a
system used.

10.5 SAIViPLING INSPECTIOl'l OF INCOMING GOODS

Most industrial
buy in a considerable proportion of comt)on
and sub-assembli.es
manufacturers. In order to protect
reputation, ~md that of their suppliers, it is necessary to control the quaiity of
these goods.
assessment of large batches of parrs can be carried out by
three methods:

(a) Spot
This consists of inspecting a small sample here and there
and hoping
the results ,lre a reflection of the quality of the batch.
The method is
but risky and furthermore, the risks are llnknown.
(b) 100% inspection. In terms of quality this method, w]:Jch c01lsists of
inspecting every
item, is undoubtedly the best. Due to
opero.tor boredom, and distraction, it iG not 100 % reliable. It is also very
expensive.
,

;)

910.112 13 !'~1516-17 131:3 20 :122:n 24 25

SAIvIPL[ NlJ!,lBER

Fig. 10.12.

Control chart

['Of

fraction defectives.

1;;.41 CDmptessed :Llmit ContrQ] C.harts

As described in se,:rion WA fraction defective ;:;ysrcm is only suitabie where a cert:lin JlliOUm of
work is
a.nd aliowed fa,'. A
modiiication
to [he
aHo\vs it to be used
din1cnsioaal coni".(ol is
~he scrap ratc
very low. This is achieved by the ase

(c) Statistical
This tcchnique requires a sample whose size has been
carefully
to be selected at random from the batch. lfthe
contains less than x defectives, the batch is accepted. ff there are more
than y
the batch is rejected and returned to the
for
100 % inspection.
Sampling
cannot replace 100~~ inspection in many cases, but where
it docs the system is
less expensive. Furthermore, the risks invol<;;~d
are known and can be
for in costing, expected warranty claims, etc.
Such systems are based 011:
(a) The sample
representative of the batch.
(b) A knowlt:dge of the probability of acceptance (or rejection) of a batch
containing a
percentage of defective items.

gauges.

It follows that some knOWledge of simple probability theory is required.

208

..

2()l)

)1;1etrology for Engineers

Statistical Quality Control

An examination of these three cases

PRORA mUTY TILEORY

)0.6

R+B
R2+2RB+B2
R3+3R2B+3RB:l+B 3

Prob~bi~i~:: is

measurd on a scala of 0 to 1. An event that is certain to occur h

:::, prc~a!)I!tlY 0.f L An event that is certain not to occur has a probubilit of as
, ht'C <""" tn ""Id r"'nt
. ~.
r '[
.1

Y O.
"j.,:~,. ..... <LU:. ~ , ~,., '
lave
01 ,~r~Ci a ~lln OIl the football pools
lOf""otten to pu:;t lhe coupon, has a probahll1tv or O. All other Prob:lhTf '
fajl between these extreme:;.
'
c.,A lIes
.Furthl;_~: ~f an ~,!G1Jt. th~l.t occurs can do so in different ways, then the sum of
the probabwt1.t:s ot the ll1dlVidual methods of occurrence is 1.
"-

t.)

.!.

T];~

10.61

silOvYS that they follow the binomial expansion.

This theorem in fact describes very well the probability of an event occurring
In fact if an event can occur in two ways, red or black,
or
wrong,
or acceptable, ,md 1"1 event.s occur, then the successive terms of the
expansion are the probabilities of the different methods of occurrence, i.e.

Binmnbl

(R+B)l!=Rl! +nR(n-l)B
.
IS

..01' cards ;s shup1ccl_ and one c<l:d drawn from the

then the prob.
. red or alaCK IS equal. The
of red is 05 and of blad
'Nnte clown the alternatives. These are:
'

oJ It
05. Let us

R or 13
the individual probahilities

and

'NC

get

05 +05

if two cards a.rc drawn \ve get

DDing the same

RR or RB or DR or S:S

If the individual probabilities of R and

ill the case of the canis 0 -5 and
are
substituted for Rand B in the expansion then the successive terms ,Ll'C the probability of all red; 1
2 black; 3 black cards, etc.
Consider now a bin of components contaiaing R%
work and B% bad
work. If a sample
n components is taken then the
terms of the expansion of (R + B)"
the probabilities of the samplr; containing 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.,
defective parts. For instance, if the work contains iO % defectives and 90 %
acceptable parts, and a sample of 40 is taken w~
(0'90 +0'10),10=(0-90)40 +40.(0-90)39(0'10) +

NO\v RB and BR amount to the same thing so we get

=0.0148 +0065

RR+2BR+ BB
(O5xO-5)+{2<O'5 O5)+05xO'S)
025 +
0-5
+025
=!

_. Tlv;

0-5 3

-j-

0125

(3 x
0375

HBR

+
+

(3

BRH

R3B

-r

0-142 ...

"

=0080
The probability of 2. defectives or less =0015 +0"065 +0142

g:m
BBB

0-5'l) +O-5 a

Q-:}75 +0125

l.'he probability of 3 r~cl cards is 0125 or i in 8

"
"
" :2 red -;:ards at~d 1 black card .is 0-375 or 3 in 3
"
" 2 black cards and 1 reu eard is 0-375 or 3 in 8
"
" all bl8,cl( cQrds in 0'125 or 1 in 8

210

10l:!

c=--_ _ _ _
'

Further to this the probability of 1 defective or less is the :lUm of the first two
terms=0'015 +0065

if three cards are cra-wn the possibililies are:

RRR rzP. B REP... BRR

RRR

____

.. The probability of 0 defectives in the sampli; is 0015

"
" 1 defective " "
" " 0-065
"
" 2 defectives""
" 0142

of both cards
red is 1 in "1 or 025
" both cZlrds
black is 1 in 4 or 025
" red 2nd black cards is 1 in 2 or 0-5

"
"

40 X

~",0'222

1
10.62 The Poisson Prr;oability Distribution
Calculation of prot' bility by the binomial
is obviously laborious. Another
expansion which relates very well to trJs work is given
the expansion of c"'c- x
in which the successive terms are the probabilities of 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., defectives
ill the su,,'1lple, and x is the expected number of defectives in the sample.

211

l11etrology for Engineers

Statistical Qualify ('vmrol

In this case we require the sum of the first two terms for the probability of
acceptance, as the allowable number of defectives in the sample of 1 or ies::;
(i.e. 1 or 0).
i.e. Probability of acceptance =e- X +xe- X

As tabulated values of e- Z are avail<,.b1e in norma!' rr'att.ema+l"~l

'. ' .I.es Iog
"."C 11 '"
,,...a l.aD
tao.cs, etc., the computation is
simple.
'
the previous case of 10% defectives in the batch and a sample size
of tiD we get,
'\.

'1,

1;

.....

...

't.

.i

in which x is the expected number of defectives ill the sarnple

,. x = n x

"

x=lO% 0[40
=4 de!ectives expected in a
4 2e-4 43 e- 4
e-Ze X = e-4 + 4e-4 +

" 3 defectives""

"

of 40

The best way to show the characteristics of the system is to plot a graph of
probability of acceptance against percentage of defectives in the batch. Such a
graph, shown for this sampling system in
10.13, is called the operating
characteristic curw.
The points are best found by tabulating the functions in P =e-:C -i- XC X as
shown below.

Percentage
DefectiFes
in Batch

=0'192

and the probability of 1 defective or [ess=O0I8 +0072

=0090
The probability of 2 ddcctivcs or less
and,so

0013 +0072 +0'144

=0234

F A.."11"~t .. "
f' tf . :JrotJ~
. b'l"
. , this
..
, ,7
'"
:d<d?L .?;tCS~
utws shows .
now.summy
d~stribution is to
{!Ie ,)(~o:TIJal drstnOiltivn m secnon 10.61, the results for the same problem beina
very slnldar, bUi much more e:lsily arrived at
'"

SYSTE[VIS

Assume that a sampling SystCill has been decided llpon in which the following
inst.ructions are given to the inspector:
'From an incoming batch tak.e a random samDle of 40 compOll"nts~
-f~ 1
1 tne sample contains 1 def::ctive part or iess
the batch.
If thD sample contains 2 defectives or more
the batch:
This system is denOted as 40-/~'
l' 'l'
1
'I
"b b'/'
C',
1"
. . ,. ~ .
LO KnOW 1 lc pro a l.lty 01 a oatc 1 oe1l1g accepted (or rejc<.:ted}
If It Gonrams a
percentage of de.fectives. Iil section 10.62 it WQS shol'm that
the probucilities of 0, 1, 2, J, '" n, defectives are the successive terms of tJle
L

ex:prf.~ssi'Jn ~ -- Xe:~.

212

.C

<l

vJ

x
=Bn

0,5

02

10

04

-1'5

06
08

2
3

0:1.

lD.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF-

the batch

where 11 =sample size

i.e. The probability of 0 d~f~cti'~es in the sample =0.013

"
"
"J. o.erectric " " " =0-072
"
"
" 2 defectiYes" "
" = 0 -JA4

"

%def;~ctives in

1'2

082
067
055
0-45
030
0,20
014

,6

5
6

24

0090

2g

0060
0040

7
8

20

J'2

xc-x

e- X

Probability !
of Acceptance
p =c- z + xc-x

0164

0984

0268

0,938

0-33
036
0-36

088
0,81

0168

066
052
0-42
0-306
0228

0128

0168

032
028
0216

I
,
j

Plotting the first column against the last column we get the operating characteristic
curve shown in Fig. 10.13.
It should be noted that this operating characteristic curve does not depend
on the batch size. In fact a given sampling plan will
the same O.C curve for
any batch size as long as the sample does not exceed about 20 ~~ or the batch.
If a larger sample, and acceptance number, is used the plan becomes more
discriminating, i.e. a greater number of good batches are accepted and a greater
number of bad batches rejected. This alone tends to keep the supplier on his toes.
The difference in discrimination is shown in Fig, 10.14 in which O.C. curves are
compared fol' sampling plans for 40]/2 and 180 3 / 1 (i.e. sample size 180. Accept
the batch if the sample contains 3 or less defeclives).

213

..
]I;Ie,troiogy for Engineers

Statistical Quality ControL

NOTE THE VALUES OF P FOR

BATCHES CONTAiNING
05'(. AND 2Y. DEFECTiVES

O'B

01

ro

OJ(J DEf:'ECTIVES IN ThE 3ATCH

Fig. 10.1 J.

Operating char'l(:ter;stic curve for sampling

system.

The tabulation for 1

05
1-0
15

2-0
30

Fig. 10.14.

is given belo-V!.

e-:"

xc-x

0,0
18
27
36

0-407
0165
0-067

0297

oun

0-163
0267
0-245

5A

0-C05

0-097
0-027

0-175
0-073

DOn

0366

Two problems now arise. The above two sampling plans \vere selected arbitrarily but in pro.cdce we requir3 thc most economic
plan. Further, we
need to know what percentage defectives are passed into the stores through a
receiving inspection departmem operating a sampling system.

x2e-:~

10.8 ECONOMIC SAMPLING PLAN

0985
0-869
0709
0503
0236
x 3e"X

these
.,
I
. ,diagr~ms it is se,;J1 that if a batch contains ,~-'/
- , defectives
we::. m (Jot) cases It 11as a prJb~Lbi1ity of 098 of
acceptd. If a 'J"tch ha,>
defectivj~s 'tcll-L-(~j"'. I- Po
I

~t
r
I 'l~
'" S") . . , .
... ~
~
'-tVj/2 glV~S 1. a prOOaJ11t~' 01" ~.}'t 0 ot aCing
2.cG.';';}ted while the 180'1/;
a probabiEty of 0-71 of being
;wci, as the
pcrc;;ntagc
In
batch increases, this divergence in the probability of
acc:cptance grows.
cl

n'.

-It

f'j

Comparison of O.C. curVI;:S for 40, and 1801

sampling systems.

Any sampling system is

with risks. The im.mediate questions arc (a) what
is the worst batch acceptable? known as lot tolerance percent defective (L.T.P.D.)
and (b) what risk can be taken of accepting a worse batch than L.T.P.D. due to
an optimistic sampic? This is known as the consumer's risk.
Any sampling plan cbosen must have an O.C. curve
the
point defined by the consumer's risk on the probability of acceptance axis, and
L.T.P.D. 011 the percentage of defectives in the batch axis. A number of sampling
plans will
a.c. curves passing through this point_ The most econo;:nic plan
is the one which gives the required degree of protection for the least total amOUill
of inspection per batch.
In any system all batches have a sample of size n inspected.
All batches rejected have the remainder (N - n) inspected 100 %.
Now in the long run a process ,"vill produce, when running normally, an

215

.11d'etro!ogy for IilZ,gineers

Statistical Quality Control

average
percent
defectives,
known as the orocess average ~ Tbe rp'oduc"'" t,aKes
.
-1''' 1
_1 n+
","::'),
~
~
a
.IS\{ tllGl.~, '.rillton n.nnmg at proce;;;:; average, a peSSImIstic samule will ~-~'e
acceptable batch,
..
-- ,.JJ ct an
.0.:.

.;:.

..

",".l

..... '"

Th:::n
the.. total inspection per batch J in the ionp'
run, for a. '"iven JI'-l,
.. ~ ...r.,apI'In~
~

"
O . , j
plan IS gwen Dy
~
I =n + (N

n)R where N ,= batch size

size
n
R = prcducer's .risk at P,A.
",it is seen that [ is a fundi?u of batch size and ~ is a function of sample
".
.
,sample ::;lze for a
batch SlZe a curve of the type shown
In .t'lg. 10.b IS obmmed.
This
the most economical sample size for this batch siz-=:.
This
is fairly complex and space limits a mo.re {!lll explanation
'--''''.'''.'"_T the mor,t econoraical plans for L.T,}'.D. and caI1sumer's risks ar~
pubhstlcd by Mt)~srs.
& Romig, pioneers of this type of
in their book
Sampling inspection Tabies pubiished by Wiley, 1959.
_0

~I 1..I.S

10.81 Average Quality Level Passing to Stock

This is known as average outgoing quality level (A.O.Q.L.) and for a given
sampling plan can be easily computed from the O.C. curve.
Consider the sampling plan 180 3/ 'J and aSSUlDe that a 1000 batches of 1000
parts, all batches containing I % defectives, have been inspected, using this plan
Now lOGO butches of 1000 gives I 000 000 components.
From the O.C, curve at I % defectives 869 % of the batches will be accepted.
The remaIning batches, 131 % of 1000 will be rejected. Therefore 131000
parts are rejected.
Now of the 869 oeo parts accepted 1 ~~ are defective. Ther-=:fore defectives in
stock are 3690.
Now if the 131000 rejected items are 100% inspected and each defective part
is replaced by a good item, and then returned, tbe total parts in st::lck are 1 000 oeo
of which 8690 are: defective.
8690
.', Percent,cge dcfl~ctives in stock = 1000060 x 100=0869%
Now 0869 ~,~ = Percentage defectives in batch x Probability of acceptance
., A.O.Q,L. = Percentage defectives in batch

Probability of acceptance

Tabulating the results for the 1803/'1 plan we

Percentage

DeJectil'CS
in Batch

I
Fig_ 10.15.

Fol' ')artklliar

ba~ch

size and

dC,bTfce or protcctiol1 'there is~.l s~lnlnlini! svstem

which -requires tilt:: !C:.lst total inipectio~ pi!r

batch in the long run. In this cas~ it is the
systcru \,,.hfch 2.1ki\vS the tatcb to be accepted
if the sample contains three defectives Of less.

2!6

05
10
}5
20
3,0

Probability

oj

A.O.Q.L.

Acceptance

0985
0-869
0-709

0508
0236

0493
0-869
1064
1,0160
0708

Plotting A.O.Q,L. against percentage defectives in batch, a graph as in Fig. 10.16

is produced.
Thus the worst possible A.O.Q,L. is likely to be approximately 11 % and
it is unlikely that this will be reached, The limit will only occur if all batches come
in at about 17% defectives, which is unlikely, As soon as batches arrive with a
greater or lower percentage defectives, the percentage defectives passing to stock
is reduced, The good batches have few d.::fectives and the system ensures that the
majority of the bad batcheG receive greater attention.
p

217

..,
jVJetro!ogy for Engineers

-; ; :'21

&~

--,:Ii 10

Statistical Quality Control

j .!::i~~~o':"7Q!:':---~
'

:J~

~,~

:J ~
C1 c'>

I
t

oa

Many book:, some extremely lengthy, have been written on the subject of sta.tistical
quality controL This chapter can only condense the essential ingredients into what
is hoped is a digestible form. It is intended to stimulate interest in this subject
which, like those discussed in other chapters, is a tool of1:ho inspector and mctrolo.
gist, the importance and complexity of which is constantly growing.
It is further emphasized that the appilcation of statistics is not the cure to all
industrial ailments; but the procedures, and their results, suggested in this chapter
generally hold good in the long run. One sample does not give detailed information about one batch, but over a period of time a series of samples gives a great
deal of information about a lot of batches.

(') V)

2:0':
8 Vl
':' w
is?::

10.9 CONCLUSiON

>-0

06

I BATCH QUAliTY
GIVING WORST

~~:: /

.q:~

,{.-........,~-

AOQL

05

~--L-,

10

15

20

25

3-0

% DEFf:CTIVES iN IHCLEvllNG BATCHES

Fig. 10.16. Graph of A.O.Q.L. plotted against

percentage of der(~ctives ill the batches.

ThG

sar;:1pling system described in the previous section greatly improves the

cWllomics of
However, it must be realized that inspection of any item
is USU.llly more complex than locking to see if it is the right colour. Complete
inspe(;tion of a sample of 180 unit; represents it lot of work.
Now if [< ':latch is very
or very bad a small
'lfill detect it. TillS
who devised a
of double samp!ing
was recognized by Dodge und
to rduce the total inspection. In this system the inspection illStructioIlS <lre as
follows:
(a) From a. batch seleCt a random sample
(b) If the

?It.

contains }.; defectives or less accept the batch.

couta.ins y ckre::ti.ves or [DOTe reject the batch.

(c) If the
If t~~e s2mple corltains [(lore than x but less than y defectives select a
further
of Ii? co~nponeIlts.

(e) If the total sampk (nl +il z) contains deii;;ctives less than y rrcccpt the
bat~:ll.

(f) If the total

contains y defectives or morc,

the batch.

tables also conW.i.n det.:lih of :his double sampling system,

for further d~tai1s of this type of \vark.

218
219

Determination 0/ the FlalJless of a Plane Surface

TO CH

R 6

O!

lines should be whole multiples of the length of the base of the spirit ~~vel
;eflector s;and, whichever instmment is used, and it is advisable to select 51 e any
diagonai lengths in the ratio of 3 : 4 : 5.

IN Chapter 6 it is demonstrat,:c1 how an auto-collimator, or a spirit level, ma.y be

used to measure the deviation f{om straightness of a machine tool gujde-way.

The same principies may he u:,cd to determine the deviation from a true plane of
surt~tce such as a surface table or m[tchjne rabie.
A flat sun~lce is composed of an i.nfinitely
!Hnnber ofUnes, OT gel1erators,
and for it to be truly Bat the foEowing conditions must be satisfied;

(a) All generators must be straight.

(0) AI1 generators must lie in the same plane.

It should be noted that provided cOl1dition (a) is completely realized then

condition (b) must also hold good. The two conditions are emphasized as it is the
verification of ;ontlition (b) v'lhich is the main problem. AlSO it mu:st be realized
that it is not a 3uIfici<;nt test, ill :he case of a rectangular
to measure the
straightness of generators p.lraUe1 to the
These may cdl bc
but the
surface aCed not be flat.

Consider r, sheet metal box having

of diagonally opposite corners

reduced III
but whose ddc:: <1,'10
If the box Is filled ','lith
of
',vhkh is U.lC1} levelled
Nith a
which is
parallel to one
end, thm all Hnes across the sun:OLCe must be
(they were pTGduced by a
as
Similarly all 11:;11':$ at 90 G to rh,::se generators must b0
the straight edge Ivas coo.trolf,:.:;d by tV!) otiler
lines, thf;se being the edges
of {he box. 7hus ii' such a surface is te:,ted [or flatness
Ilnes paraLlel to it!:
sides it will appear to be flat. That it .is :not is dearly seen from Fig. 1l.1, it being
concave [i.cross one djagon;:d al1d Gonvex across another .
It is
seGn th;;.t iI the surface i3 to be verified as being truly fla.:t
then it is necessary to measure thi':of the dir,gonuls, ill additio11 to the
generatoi's paL'alte! to the sides.
The;;; il1c,\surement of
of alJ of these lilies of test may be carried
011t with ;tn a.uto-collimawT as
described in Chapter 6, but 11Uving made tJlco;e
mC3surelt',ente It IS necessary to ,elate each tine of test co ali of the others, i.e.
w;Iit'ying :onditiol1s (b) with whic;l this appendix is concerned.
Consider the surface shown in plan view cf
U.2 on which the eight main
gellt;ratofs ..Lre set out. These sh.ould. be chosen just rnside th~~ edges of the table
so that the
area, which i:,; prone to
is avoided. The length of tile

on

220

Fig. 11.1. A surface. all of whose gen,:ra1ors parallel to

the sides are straight, but whIch IS nol flat.

The procedure is as follows:

(a) Carry out a normal straightness test on each generator.
(b) Tabulate each set of results only as far as the cumulative error column.

(c) Correct the ellds of AC; AG; and CG; to zero. This gives the 11~ights of
oints A C and G as zero and these thxee pci~ts then c?nstltute ~n
~rbitrary' pJduc relative to which the heights of ali other pomt:; may be
determined.
(d) From (3) the height of 0 is lcno\v~ reI~tive to the ~rb>it:ary P~~c
ACG=OOO. As 0 is the common mid-pomt of AE,.CG, UP, and A~D,
all points on AE axe now fixed. This is. dOD~ by 1eaVI~g A=O and correcting 0 on AE to coincide with the mid-powt 0 on "-..G.
(e) Correct all other points on AE by amount~ proportionare to th.~ mo~e
ment of its mid-point. Note that as E is tWIce as far from A as llle mIdpoint, its correction is double that of 0, the mid-point.
(f) As E is now fixed and C and G are set at zero, it ~s possi?le to put in
eE and GE, proportionally Gorrecting all intermedIate pomts on these
generators.
.
(g) The positions of Hand D, aud Band F, are known so it ~s 110W poss:.ble
to fit in lines HD and BF. This provides G. check ~n prev.lOus evalu~l:on
since the mid-point of these lines should coincide w1t11 the known pOSltlOn
of 0, the mid-point of the surface.
Thus the heig..lJ.t of all points on the surface are known, relative TO an arbitrary
221

Determination of the Flatness of a Plane Surface

plane ACG; but tris may not be the beG! plane and correction must be made for
tili:,.
the method outlined to relate
a. ~)Cr.i0S Gf test tines to each other~
The ::~l-ble bdDW is a sec of cumulative errors for the lines of test designated
in
1(.2 on a surface table.

It is convenient now to consider these lines of test on n. plan view of the surface as in Fig. 11.3 in which lines AC, AG and CG have been corrected to zero
at each end. Thus the plane ACG IS fixed with the points A, C, and G at zero,
~ and points on these three lines are all known relative to this plane.
It is seen that the mid-point is positioned at + 6 units (J.bove the plane, and
the mid-point of line AE must coincide with this position, while point A is known
to be O.

+2

-13

+2

B
+1

-2

"lj
+31

+6

-3

-1

~:1
r

,,2

s-jr-----__+_----l---l--/-c7~c__+---.J------!-__r 0

H+

/'5

+2

Fjg~ 11..2.

Surfac'J table tJ]~rk:ed out vtith the rninimun1

!jI1GS tor a t1atness test.

nunlber

Fig. 11.3. Three corners of a surface adjusted 10 zero

to a
enable the height of the mid-point to be tlxcd
plane through the corners. Tllis enables the height
the
other corner to be determined.

Correction :for line A E

A-E

,G-~E

A--G

o
o

o
o

+2

-4
-7

-1

+l
+2

12
15

-4.-,

-15
"- 13

I)

-2
-6

+5

+1
3
-5

+6

-8

;5

-1-4

--12

+2

-11

.~

-- 1.. J

\)

-12

-21
-24

-2

2
-0

+4

C-E

B-P

Cumulative

0
0
1

0
0
+1

-~- .J

+2
+5
+3
+2

+2
-2

+7
+9

-5

+9

-7

+6
+9
+ 10

Error

'.

0
0
0
-1

J)

-2
4
-8
-17
-l?

Correction

Height Relative
to Plane ACG

+2

+2
+4
+5

+4
+6
+8
+10
+12
+14
+16

+6

+6
+4-

+2
-1

-21

+ 18

24

+20

-4

I,

222

223
;

i.1

44

"AMi

l1;Ietrology for }..ngineers

From the table of cumulative errors the value of theIDidpoint of AE is
seen to ruwe a 'falue of - 4 units. For this to become + 6 units it must be raised
bv + 10 units and thus point E, which is twice as far from
must be raised by
-1~ 20 ILrllts, giving E a final value of ( - 24 20) = .- 4 units. AU other points on
may b<~ drawn
are ccrrected by proportionate amounts, so that a table for
up as sho'~"n belew.
These values may be inserted on the diagram of the surfac:e as in Fig. 11.3.
They are included in Fig. 11.4 along with all <Jther corrected ligures, as the two
separate diagrams may make the position .rather more clear.

Determination of the FiatJle.."s oj a Plane SUiface

Correction for Line C E

Correction for Line G E

Cumulative i Correction Error Ref.

Error
ReI. to ACO to ACG

Cumulative Correction

Error

Error

0
0
1

+2
+5
+3
+2

0
1

0
-1

-2

-3
i
+1
2
-4

-4
-5
6

0
0
+1
3

0
+1
+2
+3
+4
+5
+6
+7
+8

-6
-8
-9
11

-12

0
+1
,,)

"t".J

-2
-3
3
-4
4

Then point F, whose cumulative value, corrected by + 1 unit, becomes - 8

units, must be made to coincide with its known value relative to plane ACG of
2 units, i.e. its -y'aIm; must be increased by + 6 units and intermediat'} values
corrected by a proportional amount.
If a similar process is applied to line BD, as in the tables below, then the
values of the points relative to p:ane ACG may be inserted in Fig. 11.4.
Correction for Line B If

Fig. UA.

Height of all measured points related to

pl;tneACG.

'lll

Correction for Line H D

Cumulative

arbift:l.ry

The l:eight of point E being known as - 4 units, rel:!ive to plane AC.G,

enables the relative heights of 3.11 points on lines CE and Gt: to be nxed relatIVe
to this plane. Considering line CE it is se~n the value of E in the [<,ble of ct;mulative err-ors is .,..2 units. Henc.e to utah: it -4 units it r;:),ust be corrected by the

amount

6 units ar:d all other points corrected by

.
an:ounts.
Similarly on line GE, PGint E has <J. value;: of -12
illthc table of cur:lUlative errors and it must therdote be corrected by + 8 units, and
proportIOnal
amounts on interrnediare points. These t2.bles of
vaines are shown

below.
It. remains now only to fix all points on lines BF and HD relative to the
plane ACG.
Considering: line TIF it is seen that relative to plane ACa. ]Joint B has a
valu.e of +. 1 m:Jt, but the value of poim B in the table oi'r;umu!ative errors is 0,
so that inicial1y all pGints on liF must be increased by + 1 unit.

Error

+1
+1
+2
+3
-I
4

-8

0
+1
+2
+3

+1
+2
+4
+6
+3

0
0
+3
+7
+9
+9
+6
+9
+10

I Initial
i

Cor..

Car-

I rection I rection
+5
+5
+8
+12
+14
+14

+[1
+ 14
+ 15

-2
4
-6
8

-10
-12
-14
16

Error
Rel. .to
ACG

+5
+3
+4
+6
+6
+4
-1
0
1

It should be noted that the mid-points of both of these lines of test coincide
correctly with the valt:e of + 6 units for the mid-point of the surface. TIlis provides a useful check on the calculations up to this point.
It may be thought that this is the end of the matter, but this is not so, because
the plfu'1e ACG was chosen entirely arbitrarily, and the definition of flatness error

224

225

jl;fetrology for Engineers

Determination of the Flatness
states that the departure froXlll Batnes:) i~; t[le iTlinimum
of a pair of
-oarallel
which will just contain :L l
Oll ~bc snrfac:;':.Consider a surface
.
11.5
in \,.;hich three corners lmve heights of zero, relative to
thct fourth corner has ,t value of + 10 units relative to
this
be thought that the departure from flatness is + 10 units, but
if the
is aUowed to tilt ~bout the Clxis XX and tiJe tv'lO Dpposed free comers
it 1S seen that the departure from fiatallowed to become equal as im Fig. 11.5
ness is
+ 5 units.

Plane Surfi2Ce

(c) By inspection select the closest pair of parallel lines which will contain
all of the points. It should be noted that one lIne will have two
on it, and the other line one point.

(d) Draw a ccntre line ZZ between these two and refer all points to tbis line.

o~ v~

~~ OF FSURcACE IN DlREO"ON

"\<KO
~,

O/~

;;;-------------71

',~

'\~

(a)

'NIL~

r'NHICH
.JUST CONT;\iN {,LL
POINTS ON THE SURFACE ARE
SEPARATED BY 5UNIT5

'~

'\
,

ARROp::: OF PARALLEL UNE' (PLANES)

';:::0 FROM ORIGINAL

"

DATUM

(1;)

Fig. 1 J ,5(1/). Initial =;;essment S,10';vS a fbtn~s:; error of .i- I () units at

ant;! corner relative to", an arbii.rary pJ.ane.,
By tilting dlC whcle
surIJ.ce :.tbout axis :;':,";(, the actual error is
to be +.5 units.

It' this

is to

followed for the surface shown in Fig. 11.4, it is

is raised or Jovvered, depend;; on its distance
for th.is fmal correction to detcrmil:c the
'o1anes which will just contain the surpafticularly when it is Fo;llized that the
process :mast be carried out ;let leQs~
on aXf~'; at right
to each other.
- A
of this process has been
using a graphical
b::;]ow, If)re eomider again Fir" 11.5
[.ad mak;; a projection
c!' the smrice
tho line of tilt we sec the sllrf~'lCe as in Fig. 11.6.
It I:> Sf;en that a pair of ~tmrallel lines may be drawn, which
enclose all
pOInts on the
whose
is mClch lc:;8 than + 10 units. In fact, if the
scale is eOilsidered, 1;:; 5 u,...,its us "ias found by tilting.
To
to the points on a surface such as that in
11.4
the procedure is as follo'ils.
(7e

shown in
11.4 <led select two points,
Wh0!,t; vc1.1ues are the masimum positive and
JrJ.xifnn~n
relative to the arbitrary
jn lllis case ACG.
Connect these paints lmd pioject at right acg!es to the !ine ;(,'{ connecting
ably on

theUl.
(b) ~::;et ,-,1'f to 3cale the !ldght of all points rdative co a line YY, parallel to
)~X,

\'vhlch

plane

.:~CG .

o
Fig. 11.6,

+10

The tme flatness error of J. 5 units, obtained by tilting in Fig, 11.5(b), can also be
obtained by projection.

It is important to realize that the tvm paralle1lines represent planes at

angles to the plane of the paper. It may be possible to
them still closer
inclining
as a pair, to one side or the other. This can be done by l'cpeating
the above process, i,e. dra,v anotllcr plan view of the surface inserting the results
from Cd)
and project
at right angles to the line of the
pro
jection.
This procedure has been carried out for the surface referred to previously,
the results being shown in
11. i.
It must be emphasized that this is 110t an exact method. It contains an err01'
due to the differences in scales for lengths and
of the surface. Also more
than two iJrojections may be required but in practice it has been found that the
percentage reduction in the separation of the pa.rallel planes containing the surface, by continued projection, i~ not significant unless the line of the original projection is particularly badiy chosen.
Another method of
out this process is to refer all points to x, y and z
axes, thus fixing them in space. It is then possible to detcm1inc the minimun:
separation of the parallel planes containing the surface by fiEding the best plane

226
227

Metrology fol' .L:';lg.i?leers

FROM Ol<lGiNAl
DATUM

Dt,TUM FOR PROJEC,ION

C. P., 'Notes on Circular Dividing Apparatus' (N.P.L.), H.M.S.O.

BARNARD,

BARRELL, H., 'The Eases of Measurement', Sir Alfred Herbert Paper, 1957,
POINTS CN THE SURF.,\CE
CCN'T;':'i~!ED

BY TWO PLANES

SEPA.,(ATED BY 85 UNITS

NOH;: SEL:::CTEO

Pf{OJECTlC~1

SHOWN. OTHERS
CLARITY

liNES ONLY ARE

lIRE OMITTED FOR

1. Prod. E.
- - 'Engineering Dimensional Metrology' (N.P.L. Symposium), Vo15. I and II,
H.M.S.O.
W. A. J., Workshop Technology, Parts II and III, A.rnold.
J. c., 'The Pneumatic GallgingTechnique in its Application to Dimen~ional
Measurement', J. 1. Prod.
36, No.2, 1957.
HABELL, K. J. and Cox, A., Engineering Opric3, Pitman.

CHAPN.lAN,
EVANS,

HEMSLEY,

S. H., Optical Instruments in Engineering, Paul Elek.

K. J., Engineering kfetrology, MacDonald.

- - 'Developments in Dimensional ACi:uracy', J. I. Prod.
Fig.. II ~7..
at

Deterrnin[. tion Df flatness error by graphical methods.

be nec::::::Sllry to refer ~lH
case i[ 13 nnlikdy as SOIne
spac~d.

project again
are widdy

so that the stan of the

of all points from it is a mini mum.. This is an extcnof the n1f;thod of
;:;quares (1,51) operating in three dimensions. With a
uumoer of points to be considered, a computer is necessary for this
calculation.
Finully it must be realizeJ that 'vhatcver method is Llsed it is a laborious
rnore points '..vould be taken than have been used in the example, a
of the surface
all lines
8.nd cross-checked in
the calculations. The authors feel that without the aid of a computer the effort
.involved
tl1'~'~raphieal rnoshod increases !cast as the number ot'
surveyed
~ion

increclscR.

40, "No.5, 1961.

JUDGE, A. W., Ellgineering Precision }.;[easurements, Chapman & Hall.
KING, G. 1(. and BUTLER, C. T., Principles of Engineering Inspection, CleaverHume.
LOXHAM, J., 'The Control of Quality in Engineering Manufacture', Proc. of Conference on Technology of Engineering Manufacture, 1. :tvlech.
1953.

- - 'An Experiment in the use of a Standard Limit System', Proc. 1. Mech.

156, 1947.
-~

'The Potentialities of Accurate Measurement and Automatic Conlrol

Productio;\ Engineering', J. 1. Prod. E., 39, No. [2, 1960.

MERRITT,

H.

Gears, Pitman.

L. W., 'The Effecti ve Diameter of a Parallel Screw Thread', J. L Prod.

40, No.5, 1961.

NICI(OLS,

PARKINSON,

POLLARD,

A. C., Gears, Gear Production and Afeasuremellt, Pitman.

A. F. C., Kil1ematical Design of COllplfl1gs, Adam Hilger.

- - 'Kinematic Design in Engineering', Prod. 1. Mech. E.,

ROLl',

228

ll1

F. H., Gauges c..ld Fine lvfeasurements, Vols. I and

1933.

n., Macmillan.

- - 'The Development of Engineering Metrology', Sir Alfred Herbert Paper,

I. Prod. E., 1952.
SCHLESINGER,

G., Testing Machine Tools, Machinery Pub. Co.

229

il;-ietrology for
Pra:cticd Engineering lvletro!ogy, Pitman .
K. 'N.
.-~- 'Notes on
Organisation and Dimea:sional Control' (Admiralty),
fLM.S.O.
'Gauge [vTaking and Ivlcasming'
.L.), E.NLS.O.
'Gauging and
Screw Threads' (N.P.L.),H.M.S.O.
d.;'.,,:u;>, 'N., A{ccfu:mism and Kin(!malics r~f
Longmans, Green.
C. J.,
and Future Development', J. 1. Prod.
37, ~'.jo. 7, 1953.
T!Mr~i;O. 6, 'l~~~~nt Development 1n Spm and HdicaI Gears', J. I. Prod. E., 39,

H.
~restfng,

and
Odhams,.
PriSln -::.u:d Lells

R, E1gineering Inspection, }I!easurement, and

ACCURACY;

37

of detennin~tion; 1. 7-9
grades of; 32. 33
Addendum; 131
modification; 135-6, 141, 147
Airy, Sir G. E.; 4
Aligmncnt:
principle of; 35, 64
te!escope; 82
tests; 116-23
installation level; ltG-I?
spindlcl; 118-19
straightnes,; ami flatness; 119-23
Allowance; 9S, 96
Ambient conditions; 3
Angle, involute funcUoll of; 129
Angle dckkor; 79-82, 88
Angular measmcmcnt and circular division; 67-92
circlihr division; 838
optical instt:!ments for; 76-83
precision levd; 756
sine bar; 67-70
squarcness; 88-92
taper gaubrcs; 70-5
Assembly, selective; 94
Auto-collimator; 789, 85, 86-7, 91, 119, 120-3,
i.'l4-5, 220

Automatic I113CilillC control; 65-6

Average Qutgoing qU:1iity level (A.O.Q.L.); 217
Averages, contro: chzlrts for; 198-201 202, 203,
206,207

230

BACK-pressure cornp:lraturs; 55-8, 65

Backlash; 132, 138, 141,142,147,148,149
Dail-hearings; 94
Basecirclc; 128, 129,131,144,146
B(lse pitch; 131, 134, 144, 14950
Base tangent method for tooth thickness; 143-7
Bearing properties, of surface; 176
Bed-Iatbe:
level of; 117
straightne~s of; 119
wind in; 12J
Bench micrometer; 62, 156-8

Binomial probability distribution; 210-1

Bl<lnk diameter; 1312
Bores, large, gauging d; 109-i2
Bores, taper; 73-5
British Standard System (of limits and fits);
97
B.S. 2564; 200, 201,202-3,204
Brookes !eve: campamtor; 435,75

CAUllRATlO>i :

of precision polygon; 85
of slip gauges; 42
Carbon steel. for gauges; i [3-14
Centre line aVerage fCL.A.) valu.;; 1357
Circular division; 67, 83~8
Circular pitch; 131, 133
Clearance; 13!

Cleo.ro-nee fit; 95
Clinometer; 76
Collimariorr; 76, 7S, 79, 82, 119
Colours) wavekngths of; 14
. Combir!ation Dale gl1uges; 79, 80-2
Comparators; 42
Comparators, design of; 43.62
elcctdcal; 60-1
fiuid (!isplaccment; 61-2
hjgh-magnlfi(:,o.tlon; 43-6
rnecilanic<!J; 47-50
mcc;lallic'-l1-optical; 50-4
pneumatio; 55-60
Comprcs~ed limit control charts; 2089
Conlicbllce Emits; 8
Con"tant chGd system; 14(3
Constraint; 39-40
Control charts; 196209
average; 198201, 2Co, 107
compressed limi:: 208-9
d:l,;;' sheet; 206
fruction defective; 2045, 208-9
rangc;201,204.206,207
Control chart limits:
modil1ed, ior sample average; 203
for sampic range; 202
for range; 202

231

lvletrology for .Ell.gineers

ClOmlative pitch error:
in g~3r measurement; 151 .. 3
in sere'..., threads; 165, 167, \6970
ClihilT wavelength; 179, 180
Brown Involute Form Tester; 154
DeJendllrn; 131
D,,'1iatioCi, "tandeml; 1946
riallc,;t indkfltors; 37-3, 118, 125
D.iCd.neter;
eficctive; IIJJ, 104, 156, 170..2
major; 105, 156.3
minor; 105, J 58-60
Dinrneters, gauging of large; t0810
;)iamctral pitch; t 30, lJ2, J:)5, 1<15, f 47
DodgeRomig double snmpiing; 213
Double sampling; 213
Orunkenness of screw threads; I 6>t~3

Index
Flow~ve!ocit:!

poeurna'ic comparators; 58-60

FluiJ displacement cOlnparators; 6O.. {
Fraction dcf.::ctive control charts; 20d~5, 208-9
Freedom, degrees of; 38-41
FreqlJen~y polygon; 192j

DAVID

'Millionth' Comparator; 43,45-6

Elastic deformation; 4
FJc8tricai compa:r4toJ's; 60-\

EfJEN-ROLT

Ciinvar; 113
Emis310n Theory; !3
cr.";)r~; in mcasurc:n..::nt; 1.. 11
'lligmncot; 2
'unbicnt conditi()ns; 3
antlln1elic; 4
(.:~l,:ullnous or cltastrophic; 2
CGm;lOUnd; 6-7
,;osinc= 3
~ia!)tjG deformation; 4
measnring; 6
reading; 2, 5
.sc~L~e: 5
Expansion, coefficient of; 3

gauges; 101-2
tolerances on; 99-100, 104, [05,
Gauge bloc:{s, comparison elf; 41-3
Gauges:
accuracy; 33
materials for; 112-14
smf~tcc finish for; 114
verific:ltl0Tl of; 33-4
GZ.Ugiflg tolerances, standard:>; 93-H4
hole dcpt~l gauges; 108
h~rgc diaxntters; 108-12
limit gauges; 98-103, 104-8
screw thn;ads; 103-5
faylor's theory; 1GO-2, 103
Gtw:;sian distribution; 193
Gear measurement; lJ6-55
addendum modification; 135.6
aHowablc errors; i55
E~n0r(11 tests; 136..49
individual dements; 136,137, 139, 149-55
b'/olm(" [oml; 153-5
pitch; 149-53
rclIers. mCE.surement over; 136, 133-9
roail}:; test~-;; IJG t 137-9
GAP

1,hickness tests; 139-47

ulld"':f(;12l!iDg; !35~6

Gear!ootil vernier; 139, 1+3

Gears:
ue!lmtlOllS "no st.;mdard proportions; 12932
ir.'10111te C:Ut'Ve; .,28
iraoiulC function; 129

n::'(l:mreInent of;
F"'rlG UE life; 176
Fiw, sYSt1;IT1S of; 94-'7
Brifish Standard Systcln; 97

hck Gasi::); 96
(..iewall Systcnl; 97
than hosis; 96
F!~lnk angle:
error; 103, 105
ctft:(:t of error; 16~~~f\ 174, 175
!)lCa~u:t;lllcnt; lCO, 162-4
T-<'l;i~ness testing; 1[9~2J

lnterfi;;-ornt!try in; 13-21

of plane surfaces; 210-8
F;oating \:utTjage diameter rneasllfing ITLlcbine;
158, 159

136~55

noise problem; 127

teeth; (2::-32
types of; i27-3
vei:y.:iry ;:;:;tio; 127, 128
GhiS:}, for ~~~ugt~c; 114
G]"" scales, divided; 83.5

gears; 127, 132-4

tooth thickness; 142, 147
High-n1~<gf1,i'!katio!1 gnugc O~'11!X::.T:ltor$; 43 ..6
Flolc t:'t:.:;l::; system of fits; 95, 96, 97
Hole depth ganges; H;8
}iui".izon ~J.f ~c:Jgth CCTI1[Jaratnr; ~1.-3
}ll1}'gcnsJ Christiun; 13
H)7LlC,\L

Indexing devices:
calibrating of; 85-6
and cumulativ:! pitch errors; 151-2
Inertia; 38
Installation level; 116-17
Instruments, design and opera don of; 34-8
accuracy; 37
alignment; 35-6
inertia of moving parts; 33
sensitivity; 38
variance; 38
Interference:
fit; 95
microscope; 187-90
InterfeT(\m~tcrs; 21-30
N.P,L.; 21-4
Pitter-N.P.L; 24-30
Interferometry; 13, 15-18
in flatness testing; 18-21
Invar; 113
Involute curve: 128
Involute form; 153-5
Involute [\joetton; 129
JOHANSSON 'Mikrokator'; 47-8
l(n.;EMATICS; 34, 38-11

constraint; 39-40
freedom, one dcgree of; 40-1
LIlNGTH bars; 33-4, 62-3

Length standards:
angles derived [relm; 67-70
evolution; 12
light waves as; 13-30
Light, natlU'e of; i3-i4
Light waves as length standards; 13-30
application, field of; 13
flatness tes~inf;; 18-21
interferometry; iJ, 15-13
monochromatic rays; 14-17
nature of light; 13-14
Limit ganges; 98.. j()3, 104-8
heat treatment of; 113
hole depth; 10:;
materials for; 112-14
screw threads; !O3-5
taper; 105-8
Taylor's theory; 100-2, 103
Te.bo; 102-3
Limits and fits, systems of: 94-7
Line of action; 129
Linear measurement; 31-66
comparators, design of; 43-62

gauge blocks, comparison of; 41-3

instruments, design and operation of; 34-3
kinematics; 34, 38-9
length bars; 33-4
macpjne control, automatic; 65-6
machines for, design and operation of; 62-5
slip and block gauges; 31-3
Lobing; 101-2
Lot tolerance percent defeeti"e (L.T.P.D.): 215
Pitch Measuring rnstrument; 150
Machine control, antomatic; 656
Machine tools; tl1-2G
alignment tests; 116-23
squareness; 123.5
Machines, c1csit;n and operation of; 62-5
horizontal length comparators; 62-3
photo-electric microscO;)0; 65
universal; 64
Mechanical cOll1parator!>; 47-50
Mechanical-opti<:al compar"tors; 50..4
l\1ethod of least squares; 9-iO
Metre:
definition of; 12
as length standard; (2
Micrometer; 35, 72, 78, 147
bench; 62, 156-8
photoelectric: 65
Microptic auto-collimator; 7S9
Mkroscopi: flanlc angle measurement: 162-4
Module; DO
Monochromatic rays; 14-17

MAAG

System; 97
l'lewro!1, Sir 1&~'\G; 13
Noise problem. tears and; 127
N.P.L. flatness interferometer; 21-4
N.P.L. projector; 160-2

NEWALL

O.M,T. O~!TIMETER; 52-4

Operatillg characteristic (O.C.) curve; 213-15, 216
Optical cOJ:lJpara~Ols; 78
Optical fiats; 18-24, 137-8
Optical in:;trurr:cnts for ungular weasureme:rt;
76.83
alignment teJescope; 82
angle dckkor; 79-82
microptic auto-coiiimator; 7S-9
Optical square; 92, 124-5
PARALLAX;

50

Parkson Gear Tester; 137, 140

Partial ditTerentiation; 7

233

Index
P:.~S,s.~ vJty;

Screw threads ~

38, 58

to y~\lJey height; 1~.3

prism; 92

I\'rlodic pitch error; 167

Ph.oto{)!cctric: microscope; 65
!.Pt;L

:,~augc; ~C9~lO

Pi.t~;~:,

;Ga,r,

rnea')ureG1cttt ()f;

149-53

Pi(dl c.irdc: 129, 130, 131~:2, 144, 148

\-:,n'or3 in gear Tn.e~1.Sur(~mcnt; LiO. . ]
Pi;:t:'lJ errors'in sCi',:;w:'hr,::-tds; lOJ, 104 IDS? ~66,~70
'Jf; 169-70, 174, 17S
n;,;;3surem.cn~ of; 1[,3-9
of; 166,,8
:lllrr profile :olcr:.H1~0S; 155
PiU';';l~'tP.L. gauge ii';(;;rt'i!r0(1Ict~r; 24 . . 30
r'lan!~ ::urface, u!~tcrmint!tiGn of Ib::ilGSS of; 220... 8
g~.iJ~p.;:::,; 70..2
'r~,~~t)O; 102-3
,-"","." ,".'" 0,1; 931 GO. 104-5, !OS
cOlnparators; 55 .. 60
Y'bi~;':~'/n probability distrib1.ttic-.n; 2! i ,.12
[-'!~~ci:~~r./a hwel; 75~6
l-;!'~c;~iGa poiygon; 85-5
caHDtadfJ_g of; 36~~>
angle; 129~JO) !J2, IJ3, 134, 145
Pt~[;h

1:'l:~',ms:
lr::_~;,::,.:'ure,

minor dlan::et,'!r; 153-9

i (> m~asl.'['~ squ,\ren,s;; 92, 124

2J";b'.l.H;,t~.y

theory; 2!Q-.t2

F,,)csS

Spur (straight tooth) gcars; 127,132

i2IIowab!e errors in; 155

191-6, 2CO, 291, 203

:,t:"";:ld(~ni

deviation;

aHow:4hk~ J~rrcrs; 103~. 105

limit :l'a\lgc~ for; .104-5
reference gauges for; 105
vee-fom1; 156, 157
Screw threads, measurcm;;n! of; 156-75
diameter, ;najor; 156-3
diameter, minor; 1513-60
dl~n1etcr} sirilple effe-etlve; 1704
<iiamelcr, virtual eG~~ctiye; 174
pitch errors; 166-70
!Kr~~V ring gauges; 175
1hr~ad form; 160-6
Selec:live 3s~cmbly; 94
Sen~i tivity; 36, 38
Shnft b;).,sis system of fir:s; 95, 6
~,Sigrnaj ~ornparator; 48 .. 50
Simpk effective diamGter; 156, 170-4
Sic.e bal'; 67..70
Si:le centre; 69-70
Si.ne tables; 69
Size, limits of; 95, 96
Sizing system, automatic; 55-6
Slip ga.uges; 31-3
;;,c;::m.1CY, grJ.t!cs cf; 32, 33, 37
calibn;.tion of; 32~3, 37~ 41 . . 3. 45
'wringing'; 31
Spindle tests; 118.19
Spirit levers; 756

tooth ,[hickness rnertsurcrncnt; I39 ... ~2

0f; 38.. ~2

19'~w5

Sc;unn~res3, :"11e:.lSUrcmcnt

II1ctItcds;

.;ontrnl ch'l.:ct:;; 196,

~06,

'ZD7

l'_".::;d. h;'.:.;e 0xtem:,.1; 110-12'

i<;}~: :,~;,

coc:troi
(E..P.7.~;

200, 20J~ 204

rnca:;l.:ti;i1:cnt _; 190

83-~)O

error) I;orre;.;tion of; 39-90

'Jntical :!lf~thor1s~ 91-2
Seanoard. c.cviation; 8.. 9~ 194, .'202
Statis:,ical quality conti')I; t9l--219
co:lt,ol ell arts ; 196-2Cl9
prrlbbiiity theor;; 21012
iP.~P2CtiO.n;

tes~;;

for;

::::D9... t~)
119~23

i.m:Lrumcnt'); 130.. 1

'If:sts;
~(njar,'~

r'~Gu . ;rm\~::.s;

.1.

~Yl-9

(P... r.iS.) y/aluo; 184

78-lIO

Surhc.: tl;lish; 176-80

bt';:4l'ln.:; prop'.)rti.;;s; 1'16

176

i~i.~!~1lJC Lifv;

fo t'

ga~Jgcs; 11'~

nl~.;::'.ning
::L\~,~p:';~~~Cllnspc:ci,{on; 2D9~19

;~;dJk'8h:l::'r,
S-C:r',~" J:

1).1.' G.; 116

J.l.J

'dG:lr;

Surr;,~cc

Df; 177-30
177

i1n[;':h

n~Ca:)urer(;cnt~

.; 30-90

:int...}r;"l:t'cncc m[crosccpe; 187 ..90

mel:lod,; 180-3
replica; 190

Surface traces, analysis of; 183-7

C.LA. value; 185-7
peak to valley height; 183
R.lVLS. value; 184
Sykes Gear tooth Comparator; 142-3
Systeme International rl'Unilcs ($,L units); 12, 13
chart; 8, 192,204
'Talymin' g;.tuging head; 138
'Talysurf' instrument; 138, 181-3, 187
Taper bores; 73-5
Taper ganges; 70-5
bores; 7},5
measuring machine for; T2
plug; 70-2
ring; 72-3
Taper limit gaug',s; 105-6
Taylor's thear} of glt!ging; 100-2. 103
Taylor-Hobson 'Tal1'5u;1'; 138, 181-3, 187
Te-bo gauge; 102-3
Teeth, gear; 129-32
undercutting in; 135-6
Telescope, alignmEnt; 82
Test bar; 118
Thread drunkenness; 167-8
Thread form, measurement; 160-6
flank angle errors, effect of; 164-6

TALLY

microscopic method; 162-4

projeciion method; 160-2
Thread limit gaut(cs; 105

Thury, M.; 83
Timoshcnko, S,; 4
Tolt:ranec; 95, 96, Sec also gauging tolerances
Tomlinson surface meter; 181, 182, 187
Tooth thickness, measurement of; 132, 1;;9, 147
base tangent method; 143-7
constant chord; 141-3
at pitch linc; i 40-l
TraMil!on lit; 95
, 'Turn round method' of sqlw,cness test; 123

VA1UANCE; 378

Vernier calliper; 35-6. !10, 139

Vernier depth g,l.uge; 139
Virtual effective diameter; 156, 114
WAVE Th'~Ol)'; 1:'-11-

Waviness; 178-8 I
Wcar; 177
aHowanc~; 98~ 105
'Wringing'; 3], 81