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Soil and rock properties

W.A.C. Bennett Dam,


BC Hydro
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1) Basic testing methods


2) Soil properties and their estimation
3) Problem-oriented classification of soils

Consolidation Apparatus (oedometer)

ELE catalogue

Oedometers

ELE catalogue

Unconfined compression test on clay


(undrained, uniaxial)

ELE catalogue

Triaxial test on soil

ELE catalogue

Direct shear
(shear box) test
on soil

ELE catalogue

Field test: Standard Penetration Test (STP)


Drop hammers:
Old U.K. Doughnut Trip
ER=50
ER=45
ER=60

ASTM D1586

Standard split spoon


sampler (open) 18 (30.5 cm long)
Test:

Corrections:
1) Energy ratio:

N 60 =

ER
N
60

2) Overburden depth

N1 =

1 .7 N
0 .7 + v '

Effective vertical
pressure (tons/ft2)

1) Place sampler to the


bottom
2) Drive 18, count blows
for every 6
3) Recover sample. N
value = number of
blows for the last 12

Precautions:
1) Clean hole
2) Sampler below end
of casing
3) Cobbles
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Field test: Borehole vane

(undrained shear strength)

Procedure:
1) Place vane to the bottom
2) Insert into clay
3) Rotate, measure peak torque
4) Turn several times, measure
remoulded torque
5) Calculate strength

Correction:

1.0
0.6

Bjerrums correction
PEAK

20%

P.I.

Precautions:
REMOULDED

ASTM D2573

1) Clean hole
2) Sampler below end
of casing
3) No rod friction

100%

Plasticity
Index

Soil properties relevant to slope stability:


1)

Drained shear strength:


- friction angle, true cohesion
- curved strength envelope

2)

Undrained shear strength:


- apparent cohesion

3)

Shear failure behaviour:


- contractive, dilative, collapsive
- pore pressure response, stress path

4) Time-dependent changes:
- softening
5)

Mechanical changes:
-pre-shearing, residual strength

6)

Moisture-dependency:
- loss of strength on wetting
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Basic soil strength model:


Mohr-Coulomb (drained) peak shear strength :

S = c'+ ( u) tan '


Where:

(-u) = effective stress


c = drained cohesion
= drained friction angle
Strength envelope
unstable

S
stable

(-u)

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Types of cohesion:
1) Electrostatic forces (in stiff overconsolidated clays): 5-24 kPa
May be lost through weathering

S
c
pre-consolidation
stress, p0

(-u)

12

Types of cohesion:
2) Cementing by Fe2O3, CaCO3, NaCl etc.: up to 500kPa

May be lost through


solution

3) Root cohesion: 2-20kPa

Lateral (high)

May be lost
through
logging or fire

Basal (low)

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3) Apparent cohesion in unsaturated soil:

As soil dries out, water menisci


form at grain contacts. These
are under negative capillary
pressure. When capillary
forces are netted over a unit
area, we refer to matric
suction stress, which creates
interparticle forcesapparent
cohesion

200

Problem: cohesion will


disappear on wetting

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(Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)

5) Apparent cohesion due to pore-pressure response during


relatively fast (undrained) loading
total stress

Direct Shear Test

normal stress
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Apparent cohesion:
total stress

pore-pressure, u

normal stress
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Apparent cohesion:
Increased total normal stress

increased total
stress

normal stress
17

Apparent cohesion:
Undrained
loading=u

increased total
stress

increased porepressure, u+u

+
u+u

normal stress
18

Apparent cohesion:
Decreased total normal stress

decreased total
stress

normal stress
19

Apparent cohesion:
decreased total
stress

Undrained
loading=u

decreased porepressure, u-u

- u-u

normal stress
20

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Apparent cohesion
(Undrained shear strength):
Clay will have a constant short-term strength
(Undrained Shear Strength, Su)
May be lost through time (delayed failure)

= 0
condition

Su

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Softening:

short term
S

long term

(-u)

c
22

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Friction angle:
LOOSE

DENSE

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Friction angle:
LOOSE (contractant soil)

DENSE
(dilatant soil)
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12

Friction angle:
Dilatancy angle
negative

' = basic +

LOOSE (contractant soil)

Dilatancy angle
positive

DENSE
(dilatant soil)
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Dependence of friction angle on density in sands:

Relative
density from
SPT test:
N

Dr

0-4

0-15

4-10

15-35

10-30

35-65

30-50

65-85

>50

>85

NAVFAC, 1971
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Dependence of friction angle on plasticity in clays:

40

sin

30
20

Plasticity Index (%)


Lambe and Whitman (1979)

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Pore-pressure response:
LOOSE

DENSE

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Pore-pressure response:
Pore space decreased

LOOSE (contractant soil)

Pore space increased

DENSE
(dilatant soil)
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Results of
a typical
triaxial test
on soil

CONTRACTANT

DILATANT

Axial strain %

Terzaghi and Peck, 1967

Axial strain %

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Soil structure collapse

Loose
packing

Soil collapse: sudden change from


loose to dense packing, volume
change. If soil is saturated, volume
change cannot occur and porepressure increases, reducing
effective stress (liquefaction)

Dense
packing

What causes collapse:

H
GT
EN
R
ST

V
EN

PSE
LLA
CO FACE
R
SU

E
OP
EL

CYCLIC LOADING

STATIC OVERSTRESS

(Mc Roberts and Sladen, 1990)

1) loose, saturated soil (N<8)


2) Static overstress (caused by
added loading, or increase in
pore pressure)
3) Earthquake shaking (cyclic
loading)\
Effect more dramatic,
if accompanied by cohesion loss
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Turnagain Hts. Slide, Anchorage, Alaska


1964 earthquake, Mag. 8.4

(Seed and Wilson, 1967)

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Remolding of highly-sensitive (quick) clays


Usually leached clays of marine origin, may be
overconsolidated and low plasticity

peak

remoulded

33

Pre-shearing:
Shear
Stress

Displacement

peak strength
residual friction
angle r

S
no cohesion
(-u)

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Pre-Shearing
The friction angle of clay decreases from peak to
residual value due to particle alignment, when
sheared.

Shear stress

Peak strength
Residual (ultimate) strength

Displacement

35
Friction
angle
(degrees)
20

Shear Stress

15
10

Peak

5
Residual

Normal stress
(Kenney, 1967)

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Reasons for pre-shearing of clay surfaces

1) Tectonics: flexural slip


(in sedimentary rocks)

2) Glacier drag
(lacustrine clays, shales)

3) Relict landslides

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Loss of soil strength, summary


a) Long-term strength loss, leading to delayed failure:
Process:

Time frame

Materials

Increase of pore-pressure through drainage

Weeks to
years

clay, silt

Softening of fissured clay, loss of cohesion

Decades

Stiff, fissured clay

Reduction in friction angle through shearing


(progressive failure)

Variable

Stiff clays

b) Sudden strength loss, leading to extremely rapid failure


Process:

Materials

Sudden remoulding

Extra-sensitive (quick) clay

Static or earthquake liquefaction

Loose, saturated sand, silt

Loss of apparent cohesion on wetting

Unsaturated silt

Loss of true cohesion due to overstress

Weakly cemented sand, silt


37

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

special properties

Soils

Natural

Processed

Coarse

Dense

Loose

Fine

Structured

Saturated

Contractant

Unstructured

Compacted Fills

Structured

Unsaturated

Dilatant

Unstructured

Unstructured

Coarse

Fine

Mine Waste

Coarse

Fine

Structured

Structured

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19

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

Soils
Natural

Processed

-We have no control


> less reliable

-Can control properties


and placement
> more reliable

39

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

Soils

Natural

Coarse

Processed

Fine

sand, gravel,
boulders

>50% silt and clay

- rapid drainage

-slow drainage
-cohesive

Compacted Fills

Mine Waste

-select material
-designed placement
-controlled properties

-uncompacted
-random material
-poor foundations

> reliable

> unreliable

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20

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

Soils
Processed
Compacted Fills
Coarse
Design
problems:
-compaction
-stable drainage
(filters)

Mine Waste
Fine

Coarse

Design
problems:
-deformability
-shear strength
-internal erosion
(filters)

Fine

Waste pile
problems:
-loose, possibly
collapsive (flow
slides)
-poor
foundations
-complex
drainage

Tailings dyke
problems:
-loose, possibly
collapsive
(liquefaction)
-internal erosion
-poor drainage
(overtopping)

41

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

Soils
Natural
Coarse
Dense
Rd>35%
N>10-20
- Few problems
- erodible?

Loose
- May be collapsive
in undrained failure
(liquefaction)
if saturated
(submarine flow
slides?)
-erodible?

Structured
-Cemented
-Weak cement may
sustain loose
structure!
- may be collapsive
- erodible?

42

21

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

Soils
Natural
Fine
Unsaturated
Unstructured

Structured

-Apparent cohesion
-Non-linear strength
envelope, dependent on
moisture content
-Stability strongly
dependent on infiltration

-May be cemented,
fissured (secondary
permeability) or collapsive.
>very low reliability

>low reliability
43

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

Soils
Natural
Fine
Saturated
Contractant
Unstructured

-Insensitive soft
clays
-Textbook
materials:
-Problem:
accurate
measurement of
undrained shear
strength
-Watch for loose
sand lenses!

Dilatant
Structured

Unstructured

-Sensitive clays
-Collapsive (flow
slides)
-Quick clays

-Intact stiff clays


-Cohesive tills
-Few problems
-(rare)
-But: Watch for
pre-sheared
horizons and
progressive
failure

Structured

-Fissured stiff clays


-Cohesion and
friction loss due to:
-Softening
-Pre-shearing
-Progressive failure
Also: secondary
permeability

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22

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

collapsive behaviour?

Soils

Natural

Processed

Coarse

Dense

Loose

Fine

Cemented

Saturated

Contractant

Insensitive

Compacted Fills

Unsaturated

Dilatant

Sensitive

Massive

Unstructured

Coarse

Mine Waste

Fine

Coarse

Fine

Fissured
Cemented

Fissured

45

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

long term strength loss?

Soils

Natural

Processed

Coarse

Dense

Loose

Compacted Fills

Fine

Cemented

Saturated

Contractant

Insensitive

Sensitive

Unsaturated

Dilatant

Massive

Unstructured

Coarse

Fine

Mine Waste

Coarse

Fine

Fissured
Cemented

Fissured

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23

A problem-oriented classification of soils.


Morgenstern, 1985

dependence on moisture changes?

Soils

Natural

Processed

Coarse

Dense

Loose

Fine

Cemented

Saturated

Contractant

Insensitive

Compacted Fills

Sensitive

Unsaturated

Dilatant

Massive

Unstructured

Coarse

Fine

Mine Waste

Coarse

Fine

Fissured
Cemented

Fissured

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