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Lecture 8. Verbs II
Multi-word lexical verbs
1 Multi-word verbs: structure and meaning
Many multi-word units function like a single verb. These combinations usually
have idiomatic meanings. That is, their meaning cannot be predicted from the
meaning of each individual word.
These multi-word verbs fall into four classes:
phrasal verbs
prepositional verbs
phrasal-prepositional verbs
other multi-word verb constructions.
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an adverbial particle (e.g. carry out,
find out, or pick up). When these adverbial particles are used independently, they have
literal meanings signifying location or direction (e.g. out, in, up, down, on, off). However, in
phrasal verbs they are commonly used with less literal meanings. For example, the
meaning of find out does not include the 'place' meaning of out.
Prepositional verbs consist of a verb followed by a preposition, such as look at,
talk about, listen to.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs contain both an adverbial particle and a
preposition, as in get away with.
Because they are idiomatic in meaning, it is sometimes possible to replace multiword verbs by single-word verbs with a similar meaning:
multi-word verb
carry out
look at
put up with
find out
talk about
make off with
single-word verb
undertake
observe
tolerate
discover
discuss
steal
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B Particle movement
When multi-word combinations have a following noun phrase, tests using
structure are more important than those involving idiomatic meaning. The first important
test is particle movement: that is, whether the adverbial particle can be placed both
before and after the object noun phrase. Transitive phrasal verbs allow particle
movement. In the following examples the object noun phrase is shown in brackets.
I went to Eddie's girl's house to get back [my wool plaid shirt].
I've got to get [this one] back for her mom.
He came back and picked up [the note].
He picked [the phone] up.
When the object of a transitive phrasal verb is a pronoun, the adverbial particle is
almost always after the object:
Yeah I'll pick [them] up.
So I got [it] back.
Particle movement is not possible with prepositional verbs. Instead, the
particle (actually, a preposition) always comes before the noun phrase that is the object:
Well those kids are waiting for their bus. <compare: *Well those kids are waiting
their bus for.>
It was hard to look at him.
Availability depends on their being close to the root.
C Wh-question formation
Wh-question formation is a second important structural test for deciding the
type of multi-word verb. This test is especially useful for distinguishing between a
tra n si ti ve p re p o si tio n al ve rb + o bj e ct an d a fre e co mb in a ti o n o f verb +
adverbial prepositional phrase. In sentences with a prepositional verb, wh-questions
are typically formed with what or who. These questions indicate that the noun phrase
that follows the preposition functions as the object of the prepositional verb:
What are you talking about?
What are you laughing at? <compare the statement: I am talking about /
laughing at something.>
Who are you working with?
Who was he talking to? <compare the statement: I am working with / talking
to somebody.>
In contrast, wh-questions for free combinations can be formed using the
adverbial wh-words where and when. These questions indicate that the
prepositional phrase is an adverbial that follows the verb:
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place:
Where are you walking? <compare the statement: I am walking to that place.>
Where will we meet? <compare the statement: We will meet at that place.>
time:
When are you playing?
<compare the statement: I am playing at that time.>
When are you leaving?
<compare the statement: I am leaving at that time.>
Comparing these features does not always result in clear-cut distinctions
between all multi-word verb combinations. Many combinations can function as more
than one type, depending on the context. Further, some combinations can be
interpreted as belonging to more than one category.
1.2 Multi-word combinations in multiple categories
Sometimes multi-word combinations fit into more than one category. For
example, the combination fit in can be an intransitive phrasal verb (1), or a free
combination of verb + adverbial prepositional phrase (2):
1
He just doesn't fit in.
2
The mushroom was too big to fit [in a special dryer at Purdue University's
plant and fungi collection].
In addition, some combinations have the characteristics of more than one
category even in a single occurrence. For example, consider come back, with the
meaning to 'recover' or 'resume an activity'. This combination might be analyzed as a
free combination because come and back both contribute independently to the
meaning. But the combination could also be regarded as an intransitive phrasal
verb, because the combined meaning of the parts is idiomatic.
3
Everton came back from a goal down to beat Blackburn 2-1.
3 When Jim went to the police station, officers told him to come back another
day.
Sentence 4 might seem more clearly a free combination because the adverb back
has a literal directional meaning, while 3 has a more clearly idiomatic meaning
('recover'). However, 4 also has a meaning that can be represented by a single verb:
return. In this sense, it, too, is idiomatic. In sum, as for many grammatical categories, the
distinction is not always clear-cut.
1.3 Frequency of multi-word verb types
Prepositional verbs are far more common than phrasal verbs or phrasalprepositional verbs. Both phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs are extremely rare
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in academic prose, while in the other registers phrasal verbs are more common than
phrasal-prepositional verbs. Phrasal and phrasal-prepositional verbs are most commonly
used for physical activities, while prepositional verbs cover a wide range of semantic
categories.
2 Phrasal verbs
There are two major subcategories of phrasal verbs: intransitive and transitive.
Intransitive phrasal verbs:
Come on, tell me about Nick.
Hold on! What are you doing there?
I just broke down in tears when I saw the letter.
Transitive phrasal verbs:
Did you point out the faults on it then?
I ventured to bring up the subject of the future.
I want to find out the relative sizes of the most common dinosaurs.
With transitive phrasal verbs the particle can be placed after the direct object.
This is the normal word order when the object is a pronoun:
Terri turned it on.
I just thought I would point it out to you.
The warden said that she would turn the heating on.
In addition, a few phrasal verbs are copular, such as turn out, end up, and wind
up.
2.1 Most common phrasal verbs
A Intransitive phrasal verbs
Conversation and fiction use phrasal verbs much more frequently than news and
academic prose do. This difference is especially noteworthy for intransitive phrasal
verbs. They are extremely common in conversation and fiction, but extremely rare in
news and academic prose. One reason for this difference is that most phrasal verbs
are colloquial in tone.
In fact, the most common intransitive phrasal verbs are activity verbs that are
used as directives. They often occur as imperatives. Since imperative clauses are most
common in conversation and fiction, it is not surprising that these intransitive phrasal
verbs are also most common in those registers:
Shut up! Just forget it.
Go off to bed now.
Stand up straight! People are looking!
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In declarative clauses, the common intransitive phrasal verbs usually have human
subjects (underlined below):
No, he came over to the study.
Crowe sat up and stared at Frederica.
I sat down behind my desk.
The intransitive combination come on in conversation is the most common
phrasal verb in any register. This verb has three major functions:
as an exclamation in a call for action:
Come on, let Andy do it.
as a pre-departure summons to move:
Come on, wed better go.
as the main verb in a clause, meaning 'to start' or 'become activated':
The heating didn't come on this morning.
The intransitive phrasal verb go on is also extremely common. Go on is similar to
come on in having a number of different functions. However, unlike come on, go on is
used often in both written and spoken registers:
as an exclamatory call for action (like come on above):
It's alright, rub it in. Go on!
to express continuation:
I just ignored her and went on. I didn't have time to talk.
As time went on, Liebig developed his thesis.
to mark continuation of some general action (as a transitive verb with a
complement ing- or to-infinitive clause as direct object):
Labour would go on getting the public's support by constructing strong unity of
purpose.
Bjornsson went on to study the newspapers of 11 countries.
to mark an unspecified activity, with a meaning similar to 'happen':
Think what's going on. It's dreadful.
B Transitive phrasal verbs
Transitive phrasal verbs are more evenly spread across written and spoken
registers. For example, verbs such as put on, make up, and find out are relatively common
in both conversation and the written expository registers:
Some people they read the top bit and read the bottom bit, and sort of
make up the bit in the middle.
Because you might find out it works.
Haven't you found that out yet?
For the modern mathematician these numbers would make up an ordered pair.
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In fact, a few transitive phrasal verbs are actually more common in expository
writing than in conversation. These include carry out, take up, take on, set up, and point out:
It is common practice to carry out a series of design point calculations.
The rule also affected Henry Cotton, who took up the post at Royal
Waterloo, Belgium, in 1933.
When the Spanish arm of the operation needed assistance he was asked to take
on a supervisory role.
The EIT was set up last year to help fund university research.
Gushchin (1934) pointed out many of the weaknesses of these attempts.
Finally, the combination turn out is unusual in that it is a common phrasal verb that
can function as a copular verb.
3 Prepositional verbs
All prepositional verbs take a prepositional object, i.e. the noun phrase that
occurs after the preposition. There are two major structural patterns for prepositional
verbs: with a single prepositional object (Pattern 1), and with a direct object and a
prepositional object (Pattern 2):
Pattern 1: NP + V + prep + NP (prepositional objects are underlined)
It just looks like the barrel.
I've never even thought about it.
Pattern 2: NP + V + NP + prep + NP (direct objects and prepositional objects are
underlined):
[Yeah it's really pretty]. It reminds me of some parts of Boston.
He said farewell to us [on this very spot].
But McGaughey bases his prediction on first-hand experience.
The two-object prepositional verb (Pattern 2) is also common with passive verbs.
The noun phrase that corresponds to the direct object is placed in subject
position:
The media is falsely accused of a lot of things. <compare the active voice:
People falsely accuse the media of a lot of things.>
The initiative is based on a Scottish scheme. <compare the active voice:
Someone based the initiative on a Scottish scheme.>
Most prepositional verbs occur with only one pattern. However, some
prepositional verbs occur with both Patterns 1 and 2. These include apply (NP) to,
connect (NP) with, provide (NP) for, ask (NP) for, hear (NP) about, know (NP) about:
apply to with Pattern 1:
The regulations also apply to new buildings.
apply to with Pattern 2:
They were cosmologists wrestling to apply quantum mechanics to Einstein's
general theory of relativity.
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have
many
common
prepositional
verbs
that
are
activity,
communication, or mental verbs. The most common prepositional verb is look at. It is
used in two main ways:
to direct the attention of others:
Look at that great big tree stuck under the bridge!
to describe actions involving sight:
The boys looked at each other tearfully unbelieving.
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4 Phrasal-prepositional verbs
The third major type of multi-word verb shares characteristics of both phrasal
and prepositional verbs. Phrasal-prepositional verbs consist of a lexical verb combined
with both an adverbial particle and a preposition. For example, look forward to has
the lexical verb look, the adverbial particle forward, and the preposition to:
I'm looking forward to the weekend.
This type of verb is similar to a prepositional verb, as the complement of the
preposition (the weekend) functions as the prepositional object of the verb (looking
forward to).
Here are some more examples, with the complement of the preposition
underlined:
Perhaps I can get out of it without having to tell her anything.
I would still end up with a lot of money.
A few phrasal-prepositional verbs can take two objects:
I could hand him over to Sadiq.
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