Communication

Communication is the process of sharing information.

In a simplistic form information is sent from a sender or encoder to a receiver or
decoder.
In a more complex form feedback links a sender to a receiver. This requires a
symbolic activity, sometimes via a language.
Communication as a named and unified discipline has a history of contestation that
goes back to the Socratic dialogues, in many ways making it the first and most
contestatory of all early sciences and philosophies.
Seeking to define "communication" as a static word or unified discipline may not be
as important as understanding communication as a family of resemblances with a
plurality of definitions as Ludwig Wittgenstein had put forth.
Some definitions are broad, recognizing that animals can communicate with each
other as well as human beings, and some are narrower, only including human
beings within the parameters of human symbolic interaction.
Nonetheless, communication is usually described along three major dimensions:
content,
form, and
destination.

With the presence of "communication noise" these three components of

communication

often

become

skewed

and

inaccurate.

Between

parties,

communication content includes acts that declare knowledge and experiences, give
advice and commands, and ask questions.
These acts may take many forms, including gestures (nonverbal communication, sign
language and body language), writing, or verbal speaking. The form depends on the
symbol systems used.
Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a
destination.
The target can be oneself, another person (in interpersonal communication), or
another entity (such as a corporation or group).
There are many theories of communication, and a commonly held assumption is that
communication must be directed towards another person or entity.
This essentially ignores intrapersonal communication (note intra-, not inter-) via
diaries or self-talk.
Interpersonal conversation can occur in dyads and groups of various sizes, and the
size of the group impacts the nature of the talk.
Small-group communication takes place in settings of between three and 12
individuals, and differs from large group interaction in companies or communities.
This form of communication formed by a dyad and larger is sometimes referred to as
the psychological model of communication where a message is sent by a sender
through channel to a receiver.
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At the largest level, mass communication describes messages sent to huge numbers of
individuals through mass media, although there is debate if this is an interpersonal
conversation.

Communication media

The following model of communication has been criticized and revised.

The beginning of human communication through artificial channels, i.e. not
vocalization or gestures, goes back to ancient cave paintings, drawn maps, and
writing.
Our indebtedness to the Ancient Romans in the field of communication does not end
with the Latin root "communicare".
They devised what might be described as the first real mail or postal system in order
to centralize control of the empire from Rome.
This allowed for personal letters and for Rome to gather knowledge about events in
its many widespread provinces.
In the last century, a revolution in telecommunications has greatly altered
communication by providing new media for long distance communication.
The first transatlantic two-way radio broadcast occurred on July 25, 1920 and led to
common communication via analogue and digital media:
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Analog telecommunications include traditional Telephony, radio, and TV broadcasts.

Digital telecommunications allow for computer-mediated communication, telegraphy,
and computer networks.
Communications media impact more than the reach of messages. They impact
content and customs; for example, Thomas Edison had to discover that hello was the
least ambiguous greeting by voice over a distance; previous greetings such as hail
tended to be garbled in the transmission.
Similarly, the terseness of e-mail and chat rooms produced the need for the emoticon.
Modern communication media now allow for intense long-distance exchanges
between larger numbers of people (many-to-many communication via e-mail,
Internet forums).
On the other hand, many traditional broadcast media and mass media favor one-tomany communication (television, cinema, radio, newspaper, magazines).
The adoption of a dominant communication medium is important enough that
historians have folded civilization into "ages" according to the medium most widely
used.
A book titled "Five Epochs of Civilization" by William McGaughey (Thistlerose,
2000) divides history into the following stages:
Ideographic writing produced the first civilization;
alphabetic writing, the second;
printing, the third;

 electronic recording and broadcasting, the fourth; and

computer communication, the fifth.
While it could be argued that these "Epochs" are just a historian's construction, digital
and computer communication shows concrete evidence of changing the way humans
organize.
The latest trend in communication, termed smart mobbing, involves ad-hoc
organization through mobile devices, allowing for effective many-to-many
communication and social networking.

Communication barriers

The following factors can impede human communication:

Not understanding the language
Verbal and non-verbal messages are in a different language. This includes not
understanding the jargon or idioms used by another sub-culture or group.
Not understanding the context
Not knowing the history of the occasion, relationship, or culture.
Obfuscation
Intentionally delivering an obscure or confusing message.
Distraction

Inadequate attention to processing a message. This is not limited to live conversations

or broadcasts. Any person may improperly process any message if they do not focus
adequately.
This is why an interactive form of communication, one with lots of questions and
answers for clarity, would be best so it is easier to stay involved in the message and to
have less miscommunication.;
Improper feedback and clarification:
In asynchronous communication, neglecting to give immediate feedback may lead to
larger misunderstandings.
Questions and acknowledgment such as ("what?") or ("I see") are typical feedback
mechanisms.
Lack of time
There is not enough time to communicate with everyone.
Physics
Physical barriers to the transmission of messages, such as background noise, facing
the wrong way, talking too softly, and physical distance.
Medical issues
Hearing loss and various brain conditions can hamper communication.
Beliefs
World-views may discourage one person from listening to another.
Emotions
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Fear and anxiety associated with communication is known by some Psychologists as

communication apprehension.
Besides apprehension, communication can be impaired via processes such as
bypassing, indiscrimination, and polarization.

Other examples of communication

Silence
Almost all communication involves periods of silence or an equivalent (e.g. spaces in
written communication). However, computer or electronic communication is less
reliant on such delimiters.
In certain contexts, silence can convey its own meaning, e.g. reverence, indifference,
emotional coldness, rudeness, thoughtfulness, humility, aggressiveness, etc.
Artificial
Jungle drums
Smoke signals
Morse code
Semaphore (A visual system for sending information by means of two flags
that are held one in each hand, using an alphabetic code based on the position
of the signaler's arms.)
Voyager Golden Record (sent on Voyager 1 into interstellar space)
Photography
Art (including Theatre)

Biological
Written and spoken language
Hand signals
Body language
Territorial marking (animals such as dogs - stay away from my territory)(and
when you place a back pack in a desk in a class room or a purse on, the place
you want to sit in at church or putting a name plate on the door of your office)
Pheromones communicate (amongst other things) (e.g. "I'm ready to mate") - a
well known example is moth traps, which contain pheromones to attract moths.
Touch

Language
A language is a system of arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures or written
symbols which communicate thoughts or feelings.
Human spoken and written languages can be described as a system of symbols
(sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are
manipulated. The word "language" is also used to refer to common properties of
languages.
Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use
patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others
around them. There are thousands of human languages, and these seem to share
certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions.

There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but Max Weinreich is
credited as saying that a language is a dialect with an army and a navy.
Humans and computer programs have also constructed other languages, including
constructed languages such as Esperanto, Ido, Interlingua, Klingon, programming
languages, and various mathematical formalisms. These languages are not necessarily
restricted to the properties shared by human languages.

Mass media
Mass media is a term used to denote, as a class, that section of the media specifically
conceived and designed to reach a very large audience (typically at least as large as
the whole population of a nation state).
It was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nationwide radio networks and of masscirculation newspapers and magazines. The mass-media audience has been viewed by
some commentators as forming a mass society with special characteristics, notably
atomization or lack of social connections, which render it especially susceptible to the
influence of modern mass-media techniques such as advertising and propaganda.

Telecommunication
Telecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of
communication.
Today this process almost always involves the sending of electromagnetic waves by
electronic transmitters but in earlier years it may have involved the use of smoke
signals, drums or semaphores.

Today, telecommunication is widespread and devices that assist the process such as
the television, radio and telephone are common in many parts of the world.
There is also a vast array of networks that connect these devices, including computer
networks, public telephone networks, radio networks and television networks.
Computer communication across the Internet, such as e-mail and instant messaging,
is just one of many examples of telecommunication.

Animal communication
Animal communication is any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect
on the current or future behaviour of another animal.
The

animal

communication,

called

zoosemiotics

(distinguishable

from

anthroposemiotics, the study of human communication) has played an important part

in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and the study of animal cognition.
This is quite evident as humans are able to communicate with animals especially
dolphins and other animals used in circuses however these animals have to learn a
special means of communication.
Animal communication, and indeed the understanding of the animal world in general,
is a rapidly growing field, and even in the 21st century so far, many prior
understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal
emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be
well understood, have been revolutionized.
THE BASIC FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
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NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
If you were applying for a job, you would know almost as soon as you walked in the
door whether you wanted to work for a particular company.
Even if you spent the first five minutes sitting in a reception area, you would see and
hear things that would tell you an enormous amount about the corporate culture.
The most basic form of communication is nonverbal.
Anthropologists theorize that long before human beings used words to talk things
over, our ancestors communicated with one another by using their bodies.
They gritted their teeth to show anger; they smiled and touched one another to
indicate affection.
Although we have come a long way since those primitive times, we still use
nonverbal cues to express superiority, dependence, dislike, respect, love, and other
feelings.
Nonverbal communication differs from verbal communication in fundamental ways.
For one thing, it is less structured, which makes it more difficult to study. A person
can pick up a book on nonverbal language and master the vocabulary of gestures,
expressions, and inflections that are common in our culture.
We dont really know how people learn nonverbal behaviour. No one teaches a baby
to cry or smile, yet these forms of self-expression are almost universal.

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Other types of nonverbal communication, such as the meaning of colours and certain
gestures, vary from culture to culture.
Nonverbal communication also differs from verbal communication in terms of intent
and spontaneity. We generally plan our words. When we say anything we have a
conscious purpose. We think about the message, if only for a moment.
But when we communicate nonverbally, we sometimes do so unconsciously. Without
our consent, our emotions are written all over our faces.
Why nonverbal communication is important
Although nonverbal communication is often unplanned, it has more impact than
verbal communication.
Nonverbal cues are especially important in conveying feelings, accounting for 93
percent of the emotional meaning that is exchanged in any interaction.
In fact, nonverbal communication is so powerful that it actually releases moodaltering chemicals in the sender as well as in the receiver.
One reason for the power of nonverbal communication is its reliability. Most
people can deceive us much more easily with words than they can with their bodies.
Words are relatively easy to control; body language, facial expressions, and vocal
characteristics are not.
By paying attention to these nonverbal cues, we can detect deception or affirm a
speakers honesty. Not surprisingly, we have more faith in nonverbal cues than we do
in verbal messages.

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If a person says one thing but transmits a conflicting message nonverbally, we almost
invariably believe the nonverbal signal.
If you can read other peoples nonverbal messages correctly, you can interpret their
underlying attitudes and intentions and respond appropriately. Successful people
generally share this ability.
A recent study involved 1,000 school children who were tested on their ability to
determine whether people were happy, sad, angry, and so forth on the basis of their
expressions.
The students who scored lowest on the test were among the least popular children in
their class and were also less successful academically, even though they were just as
intelligent as their peers.
Their inability to read other peoples reactions prevented them from adjusting their
behaviour to improve their relationships.
Nonverbal communication is important for another reason: it can be efficient from
both the senders and the receivers standpoint. You can transmit a nonverbal message
without even thinking about it, and your audience can register the meaning
unconsciously.
At the same time, when you have a conscious purpose, you can often achieve it more
economically with a gesture than you can with words. A wave of the hand, a pat on
the back, a wink all area streamlined expressions of thought.
The varieties of nonverbal communication

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According to one estimate, there are over 700,000 forms of nonverbal

communication. These forms can be grouped into general categories: facial
expressions and eye behaviour , gestures and postures, vocal characteristics, personal
appearance, touching behaviour, and use of time and space.
Researchers have drawn some interesting conclusions about the meaning of certain
nonverbal signals. But remember that the meaning of nonverbal communication is in
the observer, who both reads specific signals and interprets them in the context of the
particular situation.
Facial expressions and eye behaviour
The face is the primary site for the expression of certain nonverbal expression of
emotion, revealing both the type and the intensity of a persons feelings. A persons
eyes are especially effective as a tool of communication. They can be used to indicate
attention and interest, to influence others, to regulate interaction, and to establish
dominance. Although the eyes and the face are usually a reliable source of meaning;
people sometimes manipulate their expressions to stimulate an emotion they do not
feel or to mask their true feelings.
Gestures and postures
By moving their bodies, people can express both specific and general messages, some
of which are voluntary and some of which are involuntary.
Many gestures have a specific and intentional meaning; other types of body
movement are unintentional and express a more general message.
These unconscious signals reveal whether a person feels confident or nervous or
hostile, assertive or passive, powerful or powerless.
Vocal characteristics

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Like body language, a persons voice carries both intentional and unintentional
messages. On a conscious level, we can use our voices to create various impressions.
However, your vocal characteristics also reveal many things that you are unaware of.
The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace, and all the little
ums and ahs that creep into your speech say a lot about who you are, your
relationship with the audience, and the emotions underlying your words.
Personal appearance
An individuals appearance helps establish his or her social identity. People respond
to us on the basis of our physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others
see us, these expectations are often a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Our grooming, our clothing, our accessories, our style all modify our appearance.
If your goal is to make a good impression, adopt the style of the people you want to
impress.
In most businesses, a professional image is appropriate. But some companies or
industries are more casual.
Touching behaviour
Touch is an important vehicle for conveying warmth, comfort, and reassurance. Even
the most casual contact can create positive feelings.
Perhaps because it implies intimacy, touching behaviour is governed by relatively
strict customs that establish who can touch whom, and how, in various circumstances.

15

The accepted norms vary, depending on the gender, age, relative status, and cultural
background of the individuals involved.
In business situations, touching suggests dominance, and so a higher-status person is
more likely to touch a lower-status person than the other way around.
Use of time and space
Like touch, time and space can be used to assert authority. In many cultures, people
demonstrate their importance by making other people wait; they show respect by
being on time.
However, attitudes toward punctuality are cultural. In North America, being on time
is a mark of good manners; in other places, it is more polite to be somewhat late.
People can also assert their status by occupying the best space. In US companies, the
chief executive usually has the corner office and the prettiest view.
Apart from serving as a symbol of status, space determines how comfortable people
feel talking with each other. When people stand too close or too far away, we feel ill
at ease. The comfort zone varies from culture to culture.
Spatial zones are different for women and men. Women initially approach more
closely, prefer side-by-side conversations, allow other women to be closer than men,
men have more face-to-face conversations, tend to stand closer to women than
women feel comfortable etc
Intimate
Personal
Social
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Public Distance

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Although you can express many things nonverbally, there are limits to what you can
communicate without the help of language. If you want to discuss past events, ideas,
or abstractions, you need words symbols that stand for thoughts arranged in
meaningful patterns.
In the English language, we have a growing pool of words, currently about 750,000,
although most of us recognize only about 20,000 of them.
To create a thought with these words, we arrange them according to the rules of
grammar, putting the various parts of speech in the proper sequence.
We then transmit the message in spoken or written form, anticipating that someone
will hear or read what we have to say.
Oral versus written communication channels

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As the above picture illustrates, business people tend to prefer oral communication
channels to written ones.
Its generally quicker and more convenient to talk to somebody than to write a memo
or letter.
Furthermore, when youre speaking or listening, you can pick up added meaning
from nonverbal cues and benefit from immediate feedback. On the other hand,
relying too heavily on oral communication can cause problems in a company.
Reception versus transmission
The above picture illustrates another interesting fact: people spend more time
receiving information than transmitting it. Listening and reading are every bit as
important as speaking and writing.
Unfortunately, most of us are not very good listeners. Immediately after hearing a
ten-minute speech, we typically remember only half of what was said. A few days
later, weve forgotten three-quarters of the message.

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Worse, we often miss the subtle, underlying meaning entirely. To some extend, our
listening problems stem from our education, or lack of it. We spend years learning to
express our ideas, but few of us ever take a course in listening.
At the same time, our reading skills often leave a good deal to be desired.
Recent studies indicate that approximately 20 percent of the adults in the United
States are functionally illiterate; 14 percent cannot fill out a check properly; 38
percent have trouble reading the help wanted ads in newspapers; and 26 percent cant
figure out the deductions listed on their paychecks.
Even those who read adequately often do not know how to read effectively. They
have trouble extracting the important points from a document, so they cannot make
the most of the information contained in the document.
Although listening and reading obviously differ, both require a similar approach. The
first step is to register the information, which means that you must tune out
distractions and focus your attention. You must then interpret and evaluate the
information, respond in some fashion, and file away the data for future reference.
The most important part of this process is interpretation and evaluation, which is no
easy matter. While absorbing the material, you must decide what is important and
what isnt.
One approach is to look for the main ideas and the most important supporting details,
rather than trying to remember everything you read or hear. If you can discern the
structure of the material, you can also understand the relationship among the ideas.
If you are listening as opposed to reading, you have the advantage of being able to
ask questions and interact with the speaker.

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Ten tips for communicating successfully with a global audience

In your job you may have occasion to communicate with people in other countries or
from other cultures. Whether you are buying, selling, consulting, or simply trying to
obtaining information, you will need to get across ideas to an audience you are not
used to dealing with.
Just as you need to understand the characteristics of your audience when you
communicate with others from your own country, you need to understand something
about the culture, business customs, and communication styles of foreign audiences.
Here are ten tips to assist you in your intercultural communications:
Be clear and simple. Whether communicating orally or in writing, avoid long,
complex sentences, highly technical language, jargon, and colloquialisms.
Dont be condescending, but do use simpler words when they are available
(pay rather than compensate, soon rather than momentarily).
Dont assume that someone you hear speaking English will understand you. If
you talk too fast, slur your words, have an accent, or use slang, even a
foreigner who seems to speak impeccable English will have a hard time
following you. An added problem is that many English-speaking foreigners are
too polite to let you know they havent understood.
Learn the business customs and terminology of those youll be communicating
with. Most countries, for example, use the metric system, unlike the system
measurement used in the United States. And many countries use the
day/month/year system for dating opposed to the U.S. system of

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month/day/year. A meeting arranged in one of these countries on 7.5.05 is

scheduled for May not for July.
Use written messages whenever possible. Foreigners read English more easily
than they understand spoken English. If you communicate by phone, follow up
with a confirmation in writing to guard against miscommunication.
Dont be in a hurry to get to the point. Europeans, Africans, and Arabs, in
particular, are put off by the straight-to-the-point style of North American
business communication. They prefer a more roundabout approach. The
French, for example, like to have time to digest information and ideas and tend
to look on a letter as only one in a series.
Dont ask questions that require a yes or no answer. Whereas North Americans
tend to say yes when they mean yes and no when they mean no, thats simply
not the case in most other cultures. In Asian countries, for example, it is
considered impolite to say no, so Asians may answer affirmatively if only to
mean Yes, I heard you. (The Japanese have more than a dozen ways to avoid
saying no.) Europeans, on the other hand, may initially react negatively to any
question, but they actually mean maybe or it depends. In many countries,
the answer you get is what the person thinks you want to hear.
Learn about the countrys body language. Gestures have various meanings in
different places. In Romania, turning the head from side to side means yes; in
Japan, looking someone in the eye is considered judgmental or hostile; and in
Ghana, thumbs up is a rude gesture. To avoid giving offence, keep your hands
quiet.

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 Control your style of expression. The North American style of expressing

emotions is considered impulsive and wild by Asians but restrained and cold
by Latin Americans. You need to be aware of how your habits of emotional
expression will affect people in a particular culture.
Dont interrupt periods of silence. Many foreigners are offended by the North
American penchant for jumping in to fill any gaps in a conversation. Speakers
in many cultures enjoy periods of silence and use them to gather their thoughts.
Be patient. Allow the person to formulate what he or she wants to say, and try
not to be helpful by putting words into the other persons mouth.
Use an interpreter or a translator. Whenever possible, have your messages
translated into the other persons language. A translated letter is more likely to
be read sooner and by the right person than one in Romanian, and your
message is more likely to be understood as intended. When choosing an
interpreter or translator, be sure to find someone familiar with both cultures
and with the terminology of your business.

The process of communication

Whether you are speaking or writing, listening or reading, communication is more
than a single act. Instead, it is a chain of events that can be broken into five phases, as
follows:
1. The sender has an idea;
2. The idea becomes a message;
3. The message is transmitted;
4. The receiver gets the message;
5. The receiver reacts and sends feedback to the sender.

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Then the process is repeated until both parties have finished expressing themselves.
Communication is effective only when each step is successful.

Special problems of business communication

Although

all

communication

is

subject

to

misunderstandings,

business

communication is particularly difficult. The material is often complex and

controversial, yet both the sender and the receiver may face distractions that divert
their attention. Furthermore, the opportunities for feedback are often limited, making
it difficult to correct misunderstandings.
When the message finally does reach the receiver, he or she may be unable to digest
it in peace. You may have to compete with a variety of interruptions. The phone rings
every five minutes, people intrude, meetings are called, and crises arise. In short, you
rarely have the benefit of the receivers undivided attention. Your message may be
picked up and put down several times.
HOW TO IMPROVE COMMUNICATION
Think about the people you know. Which of them would you call successful
communicators? What do these people have in common? Chances are, the individuals
on your list share five qualities:
Perception. They are able to predict how their message will be received. They
anticipate your reaction and shape the message accordingly. They read your
response correctly and constantly adjust to correct any misunderstanding.

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 Precision. They create a meeting of the minds. When they finish expressing
themselves, you share the same mental picture.
Credibility. They are believable. You have faith in the substance of their
message. You trust their information and their intentions.
Control. They shape your response. Depending on their purpose, they can
make you laugh or cry, calm down, change your mind, or take action.
Congeniality. They maintain friendly, pleasant relations with the audience.
Regardless of whether you agree with them, good communications command
your respect and goodwill. You are willing to work with them again, despite
your differences.

What sets the effective communicators apart is their ability to overcome the main
barriers to communication. They do this by creating their message carefully,
minimizing noise in the transmission process, and facilitating feedback.
Create the Message Carefully
If you want the people in your audience to understand and accept your message, you
have to help. You cannot depend on others to carry the communication ball.

Think about your purpose and your audience

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The first step is to define your goal in communicating. Why are you sending your
message? What do you want your audience to do or know as a consequence?
When you have answered these questions, you can begin to build a message to
achieve your purpose. You must create a bridge of words that leads the audience from
their current position to your point.
Before you can do this, of course, you have to know something about the audiences
current position. What do they know now, and what do they need to know?

If you are addressing strangers, try to find out more about them; if thats impossible,
try to project yourself into their position by using your common sense and
imagination.
Tell the audience what to expect
Once you have defined your readers or listeners information needs, you can launch
them on their journey toward the intended destination. As they travel, you must be
their guide, providing them with a map of the territory they will cover. Tell them at
the outset what they can expect to gain from the trip.
Let them know the purpose of the message; tell them what main points they will
encounter on the way. Even if you do not want to reveal controversial ideas at the
beginning of the message, you can still give receivers a preview of the topics you
plan to cover.

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By telling your audience what to expect, you help them recognize the relationship
among the ideas you hope to convey. When they encounter individual facts and
thoughts, they can then fit them into a rational framework.
By telling the audience how to categorize the information in your message, you
eliminate one of the main barriers to communication: the discrepancy between your
mental filling system and theirs. In addition, you make it easier for the audience to
cope with the distractions that occur in most environments.
Use concrete, specific language
Because business communication often involves difficult, abstract, and even boring
material, you must do something to help your audience understand and remember the
message.
The best way to do this is to balance the general concepts with specific illustrations.
At the beginning, state the overall idea; then develop that idea by using vivid,
concrete examples to help the audience visualize the concept.
The most memorable words are the ones that create a picture in the receivers mind
by describing colours, objects, scents, sounds, tastes. Specific details can also be
vivid.
Stick to the point
You can also help your audience by eliminating any information that doesnt directly
contribute to your purpose. Many business messages contain too much material. The
sender, in hopes of being thorough, tries to explain everything there is to know about
a subject.
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But most receivers dont need everything there is to know about a subject. All they
need are a few pertinent facts, enough information to answer their questions or
facilitate their decisions.

By keeping your messages as lean as possible, you make them easier to absorb. With
few exceptions, one page is better than two, especially in a business environment
where the receiver is bombarded by competing claims for attention. By eliminating
unnecessary ideas, you focus the others persons thoughts on those few points that
really matter.
You have to be careful, however, to develop each main idea adequately. Youre better
off covering three points thoroughly rather than eight points superficially. Dont rush
the audience through a laundry list of vague generalities in the mistaken belief that
you are being brief. If an idea is worth including, its worth explaining.
Connect new information to existing ideas
The mind absorbs information by categorizing it into mental files. If you want the
receiver to understand and remember new ideas, you have to indicate how those ideas
are related to the files that already exist in her or his mind. When the connection with
familiar concepts is lacking, the new material tends to get lost, to become mentally
misplaced, because it doesnt fit into the receivers filing cabinet.
By showing the audience how new ideas relate to familiar ones, you increase the
likelihood that your message will be understood correctly. The audience can say: Oh
yes, I see. We can market the new cosmetics line the way we did nylon stockings.
Were trying to reach the same consumer. The meaning of the new concept is

27

clarified by its relationship on the subject; all she or he has to do is apply it to the new
idea.
Connecting new ideas to existing ones also helps make the new concepts acceptable.
Most of us approach anything unfamiliar with caution. When we discover that its
similar to something familiar, we become more confident. We pick it up and look it
over more carefully and then take it home with us. It becomes part of our collection,
one of many related things.
Emphasize and review key points
Another way to help the audience is to call attention to the most important points of
your message. You can do this with your words, your format, and you body language.
When you come to an important idea, say so. By explicitly stating that an idea is
especially significant, you wake people up; you also make it easier for them to file
the thought in the proper place.
Underscore key points by calling attention to them visually. Use headlines, bold type,
and indented lists to emphasize major ideas. Reinforce the text of your message by
using charts, graphs, maps, diagrams, and illustrations that will help your audience
see the point. If you are delivering the message orally, use your body and voice to
highlight important concepts.
Before you conclude your message, take a moment or two to review the essential
points. Restate the purpose, and show how the main ideas relate to it. This simple
step will help your audience remember the message.
Because business audiences are frequently interrupted, its a good idea to provide
summaries at the end of major sections of a long message as well as the end of a
28

document or presentation. Such summaries not only refresh peoples memories but
also help simplify the overall meaning of complex material.
Minimize noise
Even the most careful constructed message will fail to achieve results if it does not
reach the receiver. To the extend possible, you should try to eliminate potential
sources of interference. The key to getting through to the receiver often lies in the
choice of communication channels and media. Choose the method that will be the
most likely to attract the receivers attention and enable him or her to concentrate on
the message.
If a written document seems the best choice, try to make it physically appealing and
easy to comprehend. Use an attractive, convenient format, and pay attention to such
details as the choice of paper and quality of type. If possible, deliver the document
when you know the reader will have time to study.
If the message calls for an oral delivery channel, try to eliminate environmental
competition. The location should be comfortable and quiet, with adequate lighting,
good acoustics, and few visual distractions. In addition, think about how your own
appearance will affect the audience.
An outfit that screams for attention creates as much noise as a squeaky airconditioning system. Another way to reduce interference, particularly in oral
communication, is to deliver your message directly to the intended audience. The
more people who filter your message, the greater the potential for distortion.

Facilitate feedback
29

In addition to minimizing noise, give the receiver a chance to provide feedback. But
one of the things making business communication difficult is the complexity of the
feedback loop. If youre talking face-to-face with one other person, feedback is
immediate and clear.
But if youre writing a letter, memo, or report that will be read by several people,
feedback will be delayed and mixed. Some of the readers will be enthusiastic or
respond promptly, others will be critical or reluctant to respond. As a consequence,
revising you message to take account of their feedback will be difficult.
When you plan your message, think about the amount of feedback that you want to
encourage. Although feedback is generally useful, it reduces your control over the
communication situation. You need to know whether your message is being
understood and accepted, but you may not want to respond to comments until you
have completed your argument. If you are communicating with a group, you may not
have the time to react to every impression or question.
For this reason, think about how you want to obtain feedback and choose a form of
communication that suits your needs. Some channels and media are more compatible
with feedback than others. For example, if you want to adjust your message quickly,
talk to the receiver face-to-face or by phone. If feedback is less important to you, you
can use a written document or give a prepared speech.
Remember, that in order to get feedback, you have to listen, which is more difficult
than you might think. We tend to let or minds wander and miss important points, or
we jump in too quickly with comments of our own, so the other person doesnt have a
chance to complete a thought.

30

We make the mistake of prejudging other people because we dont like the way they
look or because they represent an opposing group. Often we lack patience,
objectivity, and understanding. We send signals, subconsciously perhaps, that we
dont value the other persons comments.
Regardless of whether the response to your message is written or oral, you have to
encourage people to be open if you want them to tell you what they really think and
feel. You cant say, Please tell me what you think, and then get mad at the first
critical comment. So try not to react defensively. Your goal is to find out whether the
people in your audience have understood and accepted your message.
If you find that they havent, dont lose your temper. After all, the fault is at least
partially yours. Instead of saying the same thing all over again, only louder this time,
try to find the source of misunderstanding. Then revise your message. Sooner or later,
if you keep trying, youll achieve success.

Organizational communication
Organizational communication is the study of the following:
1. how people communicate within an organizational context, or
2. the

influence

of,

or

interaction

with

organizational

structures

in

communicating/organizing.
History and development of the discipline
The discipline of organizational communication has roots in the discipline of rhetoric
and dates from the time of the orators of Ancient Greece and Rome, such as Aristotle,
Cicero and Quintillian.
31

The modern field has a more recent lineage through business information, business
communication, and early mass communication studies published in the 1930s
through the 1950s. Until then, organizational communication as a discipline consisted
of a few professors within speech departments who had a particular interest in
speaking and writing in business settings.
Through the World War II and post-war years, particularly 1942 through about 1949,
studies of effective communication practices in group and organizational settings
became particularly salient.
Great numbers of servicemen (and some service women) underwent communication
training, first in the military, and then in colleges and universities. A concern with
effectiveness in transmitting messages soon broadened into concern with
environmental factors, characteristics of the people involved in the communicative
activity, and differences in utility of different transmission media.
Several seminal publications stand out as works broadening the scope and
recognizing the importance of communication in the organizing process, and in using
the term "organizational communication".
Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon wrote in 1945 about "organization communications
systems", saying "communication is absolutely essential to organizations."
In 1951 Bavelas and Barrett wrote An Experimental Approach to Organizational
Communication in which they stated that communication "is the essence of organized
activity".

32

In 1953 the economist Kenneth Boulding wrote The Organizational Revolution: A

Study in the Ethics of Economic Organization.
While this work directly addressed the economic issues facing organizations, in it he
questions the ethical and moral issues underlying their power, and maintains that an
"organization consists of a system of communication."
In 1954, Chris Argyris published Personality and Organization.
This careful and research-based book attacked many things, but singled out
"organizational communication" for special attention.
Assumptions underlying early organizational communication

Some of the main assumptions underlying much of the early organizational

communication research were:

Humans act rationally. Sane people behave in rational ways, they generally
have access to all of the information needed to make rational decisions they
could articulate, and therefore will make rational decisions, unless there is
some breakdown in the communication process.

Formal logic and empirically verifiable data ought to be the foundation upon
which any theory should rest. All we really need to understand communication
in organizations is (a) observable and replicable behaviors that can be
transformed into variables by some form of measurement, and (b) formally
replicable syllogisms that can extend theory from observed data to other
groups and settings

Communication is primarily a mechanical process, in which a message is

constructed and encoded by a sender, transmitted through some channel, then
33

received and decoded by a receiver. Distortion, represented as any differences

between the original and the received messages, can and ought to be identified
and reduced or eliminated.

Organizations are mechanical things, in which the parts (including employees

functioning in defined roles) are interchangeable. What works in one
organization will work in another similar organization. Individual differences
can be minimized or even eliminated with careful management techniques.

Organizations function as a container within which communication takes place.

Any differences in form or function of communication between that occurring
in an organization and in another setting can be identified and studied as
factors affecting the communicative activity.

Herbert Simon introduced the concept of bounded rationality which challenged

assumptions about the perfect rationality of communication participants.
He maintained that people making decisions in organizations seldom had complete
information, and that even if more information was available, they tended to pick the
first acceptable option, rather than exploring further to pick the optimal solution.
Through the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s the field expanded greatly in parallel with
several other academic disciplines, looking at communication as more than an
intentional act designed to transfer an idea.
Research expanded beyond the issue of "how to make people understand what I am
saying" to tackle questions such as "how does the act of communicating change, or
even define, who I am?", "why do organizations that seem to be saying similar things

34

achieve very different results?" and "to what extent are my relationships with others
affected by our various organizational contexts?"

Components of Organizational communication

Organizational communication can include:
Flow of Communication, e.g.,

formal, informal

internal, external

upward, downward, horizontal

networks

Induction, e.g.,

new hire orientation

policies & procedures

employee benefits

Channels, e.g.,

electronic media such as e-mail, intranet, internet

teleconference

print media such as memos, bulletin boards, newsletters etc.

face-to-face

Meetings, e.g.,

briefings

staff meetings

project meetings
35

town hall meetings

Interviews, e.g.,

Selection

Performance

Career

More recently, the field of organizational communication has moved from acceptance
of mechanistic models (e.g., information moving from a sender to a receiver) to a
study of the persistent, hegemonic and taken-for-granted ways in which we not only
use communication to accomplish certain tasks within organizational settings (e.g.,
public speaking) but also how the organizations in which we participate affect us.
These approaches include "postmodern", "critical", "participatory", "feminist",
"power/political", "organic", etc. and draw from disciplines as wide-ranging as
sociology,

philosophy,

"industrial/organizational

theology,
psychology"),

psychology
business,

(see,
business

in

particular,

administration,

institutional management, medicine (health communication), neurology (neural nets),

semiotics, anthropology, international relations, and music.
Thus the field has expanded or moved to study phenomena such as:
Constitution, e.g.,

how communicative behaviors construct or modify organizing processes or

products

how the organizations within which we interact affect our communicative

behaviors

structures other than organizations which might be constituted through our

communicative activity (e.g., markets, cooperatives, tribes, political parties,
social movements)
36

Narrative, e.g.,

how do group members employ narrative to acculturate/initiate/indoctrinate

new members?

do organizational stories act on different levels? Are different narratives

purposively invoked to achieve specific outcomes, or are there specific roles of
"organizational storyteller"? If so, are stories told by the storyteller received
differently than those told by others in the organization?

Identity, e.g.,

who do we see ourselves to be, in terms of our organizational affiliations?

how do communicative behaviors or occurrences in one or more of the

organizations in which we participate effect changes in us?

do people who define themselves by their work-organizational membership

communicate differently within the organizational setting than people who
define themselves more by an avocational group?

Interrelatedness of organizational experiences, e.g.,

how do our communicative interactions in one organizational setting affect our

communicative actions in other organizational settings?

how do the phenomenological experiences of participants in a particular

organizational setting effect changes in other areas of their lives?

when the organizational status of a member is significantly changed (e.g., by

promotion or expulsion) how are other organizational memberships affected?

Power e.g.,

how does the use of particular communicative practices within an

organizational setting reinforce or alter the various interrelated power
relationships within the setting?
37

do taken-for-granted organizational practices work to fortify the dominant

hegemonic narrative? Do individuals resist/confront these practices, through
what actions/agencies, and to what effects?

do status changes in an organization (e.g., promotions, demotions,

restructuring, financial/social strata changes) change communicative behavior?
Are there criteria employed by organizational members to differentiate
between "legitimate" (i.e., endorsed by the formal organizational structure) and
"illegitimate" (i.e., opposed by or unknown to the formal power structure)? Are
there "pretenders" or "usurpers" who employ these communicative behaviors?
When are they successful?

THE EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK

Just as information flows up, down, and across the organization, it flows in and out as
well.
Companies constantly exchange messages with customers, vendors, distributors,
competitors, investors, journalists, and government and community representatives.
Much of this communication occurs informally, and some is carefully orchestrated.
INFORMAL CONTACTS WITH OUTSIDERS
As a member of an organization, you are automatically an informal conduit for
communicating with the outside world.
In the course of your daily activities, you unconsciously absorb bits and pieces of
information that add to the collective knowledge pool of your company.
38

During a trip to the shopping mall, you notice how a competitors products are
selling; as you read the paper, you pick up economic and business news that relates to
your work; when you have a problem at the office, you ask your family or friends for
advice.
Whats more, every time you speak for or about your company, you send a message.
In fact, if you have a public-contact job, you dont even have to say anything. All you
have to do is smile.
Many outsiders may form their impressions of your organization based on the subtle,
unconscious clues you transmit through your tone of voice, facial expression, and
general appearance.
Top managers rely heavily on informal contacts with outsiders to exchange
information that might be useful to their companies.
Although much of the networking involves interaction with fellow executives, plenty
of high-level managers recognize the value of keeping in touch with the real world.
FORMAL CONTACTS WITH OUTSIDERS
Even though much of the communication that occurs with outsiders is casual and
relatively unplanned, most organizations attempt to control the information they
convey to customers, investors, and the general public.
Two functional units are particularly important in managing the flow of external
messages: the marketing department and the public relations department.

39

The role of marketing and public relations

As a consumer, you are often on the receiving end of marketing messages: face-toface or telephone, conversations with salespeople, direct-mail solicitations, TV and
radio commercials, newspapers and magazine ads, product brochures, and mail-order
catalogues.
Although these messages are highly visible, they represent just the tip of the iceberg
when it comes to marketing communication.
In addition to advertising and selling products, the typical marketing department is
also responsible for product development, physical distribution, market research, and
customer service, all of which involve both the transmission and reception of
information.
Public relations is closely related to marketing and is often confused with it, but the
focus of the two functions differs.
Marketing has three basic responsibilities: to find out who the customers are and what
they want, to develop products that satisfy those needs, and to get the products into
the customers hands.
The public relations department (also called corporate communication department)
manages the organizations reputation with the various groups, including employees,
customers, investors, government agencies, and the general public.
Professional PR people may have a journalism, as opposed to a marketing,
background. They view their role as disseminating news about the business to the
organizations various audiences.

40

Whereas marketing messages are usually openly sponsored and paid for by the
company, public relations messages are carried by the media if they are considered
newsworthy.
The communication tools used by PR departments include news releases, lobbying
programs, special events, booklets and brochures about the organizations, letters,
annual reports, audiovisual materials, speeches and position papers (a report that
explains or justifies or recommends some particular policy), tours, and internal
publications for employees.
The basic idea behind the marketing concept that you make what you can sell
rather than sell what you make does not mean that your product will sell all by
itself. Even a good, attractively-priced product that clearly satisfies a need has to be
made known to its target. Customers, during the introduction and growth stages of the
standard product life cycle, the producer (or importer, and so on) has to develop
product or brand awareness, i.e. inform potential customers (and distributors, dealers
and retailers) about the products existence, its features, its advantages, and so on.
According to the well-known Four Ps formulation of the marketing mix (product,
place, promotion and price), this is clearly a matter of promotion. Since budgets are
always limited, marketers usually have to decide which tools advertising, public
relations, sales promotion, or personal selling to use, and in what proportion.
Public relations, (often abbreviated to PR), is concerned with maintaining, improving
or protecting the image of a company or product. The most important element of PR
is publicity which (as opposed to advertising) is any mention of companys products
that is not paid for, in any medium : read, viewed or heard by a companys customers
or potential customers, aimed at assisting sales.

41

Many companies attempt to place stories or information in news media to attract

attention to a product or service. Publicity can have a huge impact on public
awareness that could not be achieved by advertising, or at least, not without an
enormous cost. A lot of research has shown that people are more likely to read and
believe publicity than advertising.
Sales promotions such as free samples, coupons, price reductions, competitions, and
so on, are temporary tactics, designed to stimulate either earlier or stronger sales of a
product. Free samples, for example, (combined with extensive advertising), may
generate the initial trial of a new product. But the majority of products available at
any given time are of course in the maturity stage of the life cycle. This may last
many years, until the product begins to be replaced by new ones and enters the
decline stage. During this time, marketers can try out a number of promotional
strategies and tactics. Reduced-price packs in supermarkets, for example, can be used
to attract price-conscious brand-switchers, and, also, to counter a promotion by a
competitor. Stores also often reduce prices of specific item as loss leader, which bring
customers into the shop where they will also buy other goods.
Sales promotions can also be aimed at distributors, dealer and retailers, to encourage
them to stock new items or larger quantities, or to encourage off-season buying, or
the stocking of items related to an existing product. They might equally be designed
to strengthen brand loyalty among retailers, or to gain entry to new markets. Sales
promotions can also be aimed at the sales force, encouraging them to increase their
activities in selling a particular product.
Personal selling is the most expensive promotional tool, and is generally only used
sparingly, e.g. as a complement to advertising. As well as prospecting for customers,
spreading information about a companys products and services, selling these
products and services, and assisting customers with possible technical problems,
42

salespeople have another important function. Since they are often the only person
from a company that customers see, they are an extremely important channel of
information. It has been calculated that the majority of new product ideas come from
customers via sales representatives.
Advertising informs consumers about the existence and benefits of products and
services, and attempts to persuade them to buy them. The best form of advertising is
probably word-of-mouth advertising, which occurs when people tell their friends
about the benefits of products or services that they have purchased. Yet, virtually no
providers of goods or services rely on this alone, but use paid advertising instead.
Indeed, many organizations also use institutional or prestige advertising, which is
designed to build up their reputation rather than to sell particular products.
Although large companies could easily set up their own advertising departments,
write their own advertisements, and buy media space themselves, they tend to use the
services of large advertising agencies. These are likely to have more resources, and
more knowledge about all aspects of advertising and advertising media than a single
company. The most talented advertising people generally prefer to work for agencies
rather then individual companies as this gives them the chance to work on a variety of
advertising accounts (contracts to advertise products or services). It is also easier for
a dissatisfied company to give its account to another agency than it would be to fire
its own advertising staff.
The client company generally gives the advertising agency an agreed budget; a
statement of the objectives of the advertising campaign, known as a brief; and an
overall advertising strategy concerning the message to be communicated to the target
customers. The agency creates advertisements (the word is often abbreviated to
adverts or ads), and develops a media plan specifying which media newspapers,
magazines, radio, television, cinema, posters, mail, etc. will be used and in which
43

proportions. (On television and radio, ads are often known as commercials.) Agencies
often produce alternative ads or commercials that are pre-tested in newspapers,
television stations, etc. in different parts of a country before a final choice is made
prior to a national campaign.
The agencys media planners have to decide what percentage of the target market
they want to reach (how many people will be exposed to the ads) and the number of
times they are likely to see them. Advertising people talk about frequency or OTS
(opportunities to see) and the threshold effect the point at which advertising
becomes effective. The choice of advertising media is generally strongly influenced
by the comparative cost of reaching 1,000 members of the target audience, the cost
per thousand (often abbreviated to CPM, using the Roman numeral for 1,000). The
timing of advertising campaigns depends on factors such as purchasing frequently
and buyer turnover (new buyers entering the market).
How much to spend on advertising is always problematic. Some companies use the
comparative-parity method they simply match their competitors spending, thereby
avoiding advertising wars. Others set their ad budget at a certain percentage of
current sales revenue. But both these methods disregard the fact that increased ad
spending or counter-cyclical advertising can increase current sales. On the other
hand, excessive advertising is counter-productive because after too many exposures
people tend to stop noticing ads, or begin to find them irritating. And once the most
promising prospective customers have been reached, there are diminishing returns,
i.e. an ever-smaller increase in sales in relation to increased advertising spending.
Crisis communication
One of the most visible functions of the PR department is to help management plan
for and respond to crises. A good PR professional constantly scans the business

44

environment looking for potential problems and then alerts management to the
implications and suggests the best course of action.
Disasters of earthquakes proportions fall into the category of public relations
nightmares created by sudden, violent accidents. Plane crashes, oil spills, chemical
leaks, and product defects all belong to this group.
The other type of crisis is the sort that builds slowly and occurs because of a
companys conscious, but ill-founded, decisions.
An inept response to either type of crisis can destroy a companys reputation, drain its
financial strength, erode morale, and invite protracted investigations, heavy fines, and
negative publicity.
Extra readings:
Advertising
Ads seem to be everywhere: filling magazines, on billboards lining the road, and
showing up at regular intervals on television. Their object: to market and sell goods
and services. According to Ad Age, a trade magazine, companies spent close to $80
billion dollars on advertising in 1998.
Careers in advertising can be lucrative. You might go into the business side of
account or account planning; the creative side, where you'll create ads (many people
interested in visual arts, designparticularly graphic designand editorial and
writing careers join ad agencies as creatives) or media planning or production. Some
people interested in advertising may find they prefer public relations, where you'll
have a similar goal, though your means will be quite different.
45

An advertising agency is a marketing consultant. It helps a clienta manufacturer of

consumer products such as Nike, or a service-oriented company such as Charles
Schwab & Co.with its marketing efforts, from strategy to concept to execution.
Strategy involves helping a client make high-level business decisions, such as how to
brand a new line of suntan lotions. The agency takes a client's strategy and turns it
into a specific concept for advertisementssuch as a series of ads featuring extreme
athletes for a soft-drink maker with a strategy of making inroads in the teen market.
Execution is where an agency turns a concept into realitythe production of actual
ads: the print layout, the Web design, the film shoot, or the audio-taping. Execution
also involves placing the adsbuying space in newspapers, on television, or in
subway stations.
Account-driven agencies' ads usually focus on product benefits, while creative
agencies' ads focus on brand image. As a result, account-driven agencies end up with
accounts such as Energizer batteries, for which an "Energizer Bunny" campaign
extolled the product's long life. Creative agencies end up with accounts where
lifestyle or image is more important, such as Old Navy, which uses retro clothing
styles to connect with its teen and twenty-something market.
Advertisers play a role in shaping the ads that shape our culture. The work you do
will be determined partly by the type of agency you're in and your role within it.
You'll work in one of five departmentsaccount management, account planning,
media, production, or creative.
Account management is the clients' primary contact. There you'll juggle a number of
projects, and ensure that they come in on time, on budget, and on strategic target.
46

In account planning, you'll try to understand consumer behaviour and use your
knowledge to devise strategies for clients.
Media decides where to place ads, and in which mediumradio, television, print, or
Webwhen, and for how long.
Production involves physical creation of the ads, either in-house or outsourced. If
you're a creative, you'll be responsible for turning strategies into concepts that can be
made into finished adsfor example, showing well-dressed people driving up to a
discount store to highlight a change in product selection.
Creative departments also create storyboardscartoon-style summaries of what an
ad will contain.
Some larger agencies contain traffic departments to handle the flow of projects
between departments; new-business departments, which keep track of possible new
clients and gather resources in preparation for pitches; and public relations
departments, which direct publicity programs.
To succeed in advertising, you need to be creative, organized, motivated, good with
people, tactful, culturally aware, decisive, resilient, and able to handle deadlines and
stress. You'll also have to be able to work individually and in a team environment,
understand buying and selling patterns, understand and incorporate technology, and
appreciate creativity.
For a career in account planning, you'll also have to be capable of carrying out
qualitative and quantitative research. Good media planners are detail-oriented, good
at math, and have a thorough understanding of marketing. On the creative side,

47

you've got to be able to handle pressure and deal with the frustration of having clients
who may not understand or appreciate your creative vision.
Lucrative = profitabil
Suntan lotion = loiune pentru bronzat
Extol = a preui foarte mult
Juggle = a jongla
Devise = a inventa a plnui / to plan or invent a way of doing something, especially
something complicated and clever
Pitches = to try to make a business agreement, or to sell something by saying how
good it is
Sales pitch = what a person says about a product to persuade people to buy it
Resilient = rezistent
Public Relations
"Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some hire public relations
officers," said the historian, Daniel J. Boorstin. His point? In public relations, your
job is to make your client seem great without anybody knowing you were trying.
Of course, those in PR do more than make their clients seem great. They speak on
behalf of client organizations; help mitigate harmful publicity when, for instance, the
federal government sues a client for, say, antitrust violations; and generally represent
a client to the media in order to get the most favourable publicity possible. You might
think of PR as a specialized area of marketing and akin to advertising, which
incorporates a similar client-oriented structure. And in many sectors it's a fastgrowing field.
PR, which is also known as communications, is all about relating (or communicating)
to the publica relationship generally mediated by the press. Unlike an advertising
48

agency, a PR agency communicates a company's message to the press, rather than

directly to the client's target market. The objective in PR is to use the press to reach
the target market because, when mediated by a supposedly objective third party, the
message will become more powerful.
Because of their role in generating media coverage, PR professionals are sometimes
thought of as disingenuous, deceitful, hucksterish flacks trying simultaneously to pull
the wool over the eyes of their clients and the public at large. That's inaccurate. The
fact is, in today's business world, every company, CEO, celebrity, and association
wants to show the best possible face to the public, and all of them are using public
relations to do so.
PR serves those fighting to legalize medical marijuana, as well as the Internet start-up
seeking funding from investors. Michael Jordan consults with PR pros to figure out
how he can best maintain his image; so does Intel, seeking to maintain its image.
When you read something in the newspaper about the phone company, it's likely that
a PR pro was behind the scenes, either pitching the story or furnishing the reporter
with statistics to write it.
Day to day, PR pros "pitch" story ideas to reporters, trying to elicit coverage of
subjects important to their clients. They also serve as company spokespeople, plan
and hold events intended to generate publicity, and develop strategies that will spark
media interest. An actress's appearance at an awards ceremony wearing nothing but a
potholder, for instance, could be a PR ploy to get her in the papersa wellconsidered one, perhaps, if the woman happens to be Madonna, but less effective if
the woman is Nancy Reagan.
Usually, you'll spend much of your day working with the media. You'll make phone
calls, issue press releases, and plan events. Reporters will complain, perhaps, but in a

49

world glutted with information, they rely on public-relations practitioners for

information they don't have the time or budget to gather themselves.
Those with more experience in PR will write speeches, strategize the best time to
announce a new product, work alongside an advertising agency to position products
in the mind of the public, develop and publish newsletters, and manage crises,
endeavouring to put a positive spin on events for a client organization. And along
with representing the client to the public, PR practitioners will represent the public to
the client, helping the client understand what the public wants, needs, and is
concerned about.
Those who do well in PR have strong communication skills, are articulate both with
the written and spoken word, are able to understand a variety of people, are confident,
and quick studiesyou'll need to learn quickly what your clients do in order to
communicate their messages effectively. PR professionals should also be quick
thinkers and persuasive.
While there are some behind-the-scenes opportunities such as research that could
accommodate introverted types, most jobs in the PR field require assertiveness and
an outgoing personality. One insider says that if you know you're shy, PR probably
isn't the best career choice for you. A public relations professional who is afraid of the
public won't be able to represent his or her clients authoritatively.
Mitigate = to make a situation or the effects of something less unpleasant, harmful, or
serious
Antitrust (violations) = which attacks monopolies and encourages competition
Akin to = foarte asemntor cu
Huckster(ish) = someone who uses very strong, direct selling methods, sometimes
dishonest
50

Flack = strong criticism

To pull the wool over the eyes of somebody = to deceive someone by not telling the
truth
Elicit = to succeed in getting information or a reaction from someone, especially
when it is difficult
Spark = a strni interesul cuiva n ceva
Potholder = a piece of thick material used for holding hot cooking pans
Ploy = a clever method of getting an advantage, especially by deceiving someone
Issue = a emite
Glutted = ncrcat, plin de
Practitioners = someone who regularly does a particular activity
Endeavor = a ncerca din greu
Assertive(ness) = behaving in a confident way so that people notice you
Authoritative(ly) = n mod autoritar, plin de ncredere i care impune respect
Outgoing = liking to met and talk to new people
THE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION NETWORK
Although all companies have to communicate in order to function, their approaches
to communication vary. These variations are not surprising when you consider the
vastly different communication requirements that organizations have.
Some companies are better at communicating than others. At top-performing
companies such as Procter & Gamble and IBM, communication is a way of life. At
IBM, for example, big rolls of paper are placed throughout the building so that people
can jot down thoughts during informal discussions.

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Because managers at these companies communicate freely with employees, everyone

develops a clear sense of mission, derived from a constant repetition of the
organizations values. In these firms management is communication.
FORMAL COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Information may travel up, down, and across the formal hierarchy.
Downward information flow
When a manager transmits information to a subordinate, communication is flowing
downward.
The message might take the form of a casual conversation or a formal interview
between a supervisor and an individual employee, or it might be disseminated orally
to a group through a meeting, workshop, or videotape. On other occasions, the
message might be a written memo, training manual, newsletter, bulletin board
announcement, or policy directive.
Most of the information that flows downward is geared toward helping employees do
their jobs.
Typical messages include briefings on the organizations mission and strategies,
instructions on how to perform various jobs, explanations of policies and procedures,
feedback on the employee performance, and motivational pep talks.
Upward information flow

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From the organizations standpoint, upward communication is just as vital as

downward communication. To solve problems and make intelligent decisions,
management must learn whats going on in the organization.
Because they cant be everywhere at once, executives depend on lower-level
employees to furnish them with accurate, timely reports on problems, emerging
trends, opportunities for improvement, grievances, and performances.

The danger, of course, is that employees will report only the good news. People are
afraid to admit their own mistakes or to report data that suggest their boss was wrong.
Companies try to guard against the rose-colored glasses syndrome by creating
reporting systems that require employees to furnish vital information on a routine
basis. Many of these reports have a red flag feature that calls attention to deviations
from planned results.
Other formal methods for channelling information upward include group meetings,
interviews with employees who are leaving the company, and formal procedures for
resolving grievances.
In recent years, many companies have also set up suggestion systems that encourage
employees to submit ideas for improving the business.
Horizontal information flow
In addition to transmitting messages up and down the organization, the formal
communication network also carries messages horizontally from one department to
another.
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For example, the marketing director might write a memo to the production director,
outlining sales forecasts for the coming period.

The amount of horizontal communication that occurs through formal channels

depends on the degree of interdependence among departments. If each department
operates independently, official communication between departments is minimal.
But if the business requires coordinated action by its organizational units, horizontal
communication may be frequent and intense.
The recent trend is toward more cross-functional interaction. Companies that have
already moved in that direction report dramatic increases in productivity, largely
because cooperation between employees from various departments breaks down the
bureaucratic barriers that inhibit innovation and camouflage problems.
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Formal organization charts illustrate how information is supposed to flow. In actual
practice, however, lines and boxes on a piece of paper cannot prevent people from
talking with one another. Every organization has an informal communication network
a grapevine that supplements official channels.
As people go about their work, they have casual conversations with their friends in
the office. They joke and kid around and discuss many things: their apartments,
restaurants, movies, sports, and other people in the company.

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Although many of these conversations deal with personal matters, business is often
discussed as well. In fact, about 80 percent of the information that travels along the
grapevine pertains to business, and 75 to 95 percent of it is accurate.
Furthermore, although employees say they would prefer to get their information from
other sources, they currently rely on the informal network as a main source of
information.
In some companies, the top executives are wary of the informal communication
network, possibly because it threatens their power to control the flow of information.
However, attempts to quash the grapevine generally have the opposite effect.
Informal communication increases when official channels are closed or when the
organization faces periods of change, excitement, or anxiety. Instead of trying to
eliminate the grapevine, sophisticated companies minimize its importance by making
certain that the official words gets out.

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