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Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
Chapter 6 - 1
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
Linearelastic
Non-Linearelastic
Chapter 6 - 2
2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
delastic + plastic
3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
dplastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
dplastic
Chapter 6 - 3
Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s:
Shear stress, t:
Ft
Area, Ao
Area, Ao
Ft
Ft
lb f
N
= 2 or
s=
2
in
m
Ao
original area
before loading
Ft
Fs
Fs
Fs
t=
Ao
Ft
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s=
s
Ao
Ac
M
Fs
Ski lift
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
Ao
Fs
t =
Ao
2R
Ao
F
s=
Ao
Note: compressive
structure member
(s < 0 here).
Chapter 6 - 6
Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
Hydrostatic compression:
sq > 0
sz > 0
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
sh< 0
Chapter 6 - 7
Engineering Strain
Tensile strain:
Lateral strain:
d/2
e = d
Lo
wo
Shear strain:
-dL
eL =
wo
Lo
dL /2
q
g = x/y = tan q
x
90 - q
y
90
Strain is always
dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 8
Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine
extensometer
Typical tensile
specimen
specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Chapter 6 - 9
Hooke's Law:
s=Ee
E
e
Linearelastic
F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 10
Poisson's ratio, n
Poisson's ratio, n:
eL
eL
n=e
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless
e
-n
Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal
Chapter 6 - 12
M
G
t=Gg
Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:
V
P = -K
Vo
g
M
P
P
K
V P
Vo
simple
torsion
test
E
K=
3(1 - 2n)
P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
= V
Chapter 6 - 13
E(GPa)
200
100
80
60
40
Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond
Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
CFRE(|| fibers)*
<111>
Si crystal
<100>
A FRE(|| fibers)*
Glass -soda
GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
109 Pa
GFRE*
20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
Graphite
Polyester
PET
PS
PC
CFRE( fibers) *
AFRE( fibers) *
Epoxy only
PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE
Wood(
grain)
Chapter 6 - 14
d = FL o d = -n Fw o
L
EA o
EA o
F
a=
wo
2ML o
r o4 G
M = moment
a = angle of twist
d/2
Ao
dL /2
Simple torsion:
Lo
Lo
2ro
engineering stress, s
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ep
engineering strain, e
plastic strain
Chapter 6 - 16
Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy
sy = yield strength
Note: for 2 inch sample
e = 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
Composites/
fibers
200
Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
100
70
60
50
40
Al (6061) a
30
20
10
Tin (pure)
dry
PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE
LDPE
Hard to measure,
300
700
600
500
400
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
1000
Hard to measure ,
Steel (4140) qt
Room temperature
values
Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
Chapter 6 - 18
Chapter 6 - 19
Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
TS
F = fracture or
ultimate
strength
engineering
stress
sy
Neck acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 20
5000
3000
2000
1000
300
200
100
40
30
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib
Steel (4140) qt
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)
Diamond
Si nitride
Al oxide
Room temperature
values
Si crystal
<100>
Glass-soda
Concrete
Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE
20
Composites/
fibers
Graphite
wood(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
LDPE
10
wood (
fiber)
Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Lf - Lo
x 100
%EL =
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s
larger %EL
Lo
Ao
Af
Lf
%RA =
Ao - Af
x 100
Ao
Chapter 6 - 22
Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress, s
Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region
Ur =
ey
sde
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to
1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 24
syo
Stress
2. Unload
1. Load
3. Reapply
load
Strain
Adapted from Fig. 6.17,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Elastic strain
recovery
Chapter 6 - 25
Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force
measure size
of indent after
removing load
e.g.,
10 mm sphere
D
most
plastics
brasses
Al alloys
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
d
easy to machine
steels
file hard
cutting
tools
nitrided
steels
diamond
increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 26
Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 27
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Chapter 6 - 28
True strain
sT = F Ai
e T = ln i o
s T = s 1 + e
e T = ln 1 + e
Chapter 6 - 29
Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.
large hardening
sy
1
sy
small hardening
e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
sT = K eT
true stress (F/A)
hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 30
Mean
x =
xn
n
Standard Deviation
n
x i - x
s =
n -1
s working =
220 , 000 N
d /4
2
sy
N
1045 plain
carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Lo
F = 220,000N
Chapter 6 - 32
Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Chapter 6 - 33
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter 6 - 34