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Chapter 6:

Mechanical Properties
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6 - 1

Elastic Deformation
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

Linearelastic

Elastic means reversible!

Non-Linearelastic

Chapter 6 - 2

Plastic Deformation (Metals)


1. Initial

2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
delastic + plastic

3. Unload
planes
still
sheared
dplastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!

linear
elastic

linear
elastic

dplastic

Chapter 6 - 3

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s:

Shear stress, t:

Ft

Area, Ao

Area, Ao

Ft
Ft
lb f
N
= 2 or
s=
2
in
m
Ao
original area
before loading

Ft

Fs
Fs

Fs
t=
Ao

Ft

Stress has units:


N/m2 or lbf /in2
Chapter 6 - 4

Common States of Stress


Simple tension: cable

A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)

F
s=
s
Ao

Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft

Ac
M

Fs

Ski lift

(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Ao

Fs
t =
Ao
2R

Note: t = M/AcR here.


Chapter 6 - 5

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)


Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM


(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches


National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Ao

Note: compressive
structure member
(s < 0 here).

Chapter 6 - 6

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)


Bi-axial tension:

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Hydrostatic compression:

Fish under water

sq > 0

sz > 0

(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

sh< 0
Chapter 6 - 7

Engineering Strain
Tensile strain:

Lateral strain:
d/2

e = d
Lo

wo

Shear strain:

-dL
eL =
wo

Lo

dL /2

q
g = x/y = tan q

x
90 - q

y
90

Strain is always
dimensionless.

Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 8

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test
machine

extensometer

Typical tensile
specimen

specimen

Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)

Chapter 6 - 9

Linear Elastic Properties


Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:

s=Ee

E
e
Linearelastic

F
simple
tension
test
Chapter 6 - 10

Poisson's ratio, n
Poisson's ratio, n:

eL

eL
n=e
metals: n ~ 0.33
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
n: dimensionless

e
-n

n > 0.50 density increases


n < 0.50 density decreases
(voids form)
Chapter 6 - 11

Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 12

Other Elastic Properties


Elastic Shear
modulus, G:

M
G

t=Gg
Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:

V
P = -K
Vo

g
M
P

P
K

V P
Vo

Special relations for isotropic materials:


E
G=
2(1 + n)

simple
torsion
test

E
K=
3(1 - 2n)

P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
= V

Chapter 6 - 13

Youngs Moduli: Comparison


Metals
Alloys
1200
1000
800
600
400

E(GPa)

200
100
80
60
40

Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond

Tungsten
Molybdenum
Steel, Ni
Tantalum
Platinum
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium,
Tin

Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

Carbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*

<111>

Si crystal

Aramid fibers only

<100>

A FRE(|| fibers)*

Glass -soda

Glass fibers only

GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete

109 Pa

GFRE*

20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*

Graphite

Polyester
PET
PS
PC

CFRE( fibers) *
AFRE( fibers) *

Epoxy only

Based on data in Table B.2,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.

PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE

Wood(

grain)

Chapter 6 - 14

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships


Simple tension:

d = FL o d = -n Fw o
L
EA o
EA o
F

a=

wo

2ML o
r o4 G
M = moment
a = angle of twist

d/2

Ao

dL /2

Simple torsion:

Lo

Lo
2ro

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all


contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6 - 15

Plastic (Permanent) Deformation


(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:


Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress

engineering stress, s

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep

engineering strain, e
plastic strain

Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 16

Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s

sy

sy = yield strength
Note: for 2 inch sample
e = 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e

ep = 0.002

Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 6 - 17

Yield Strength : Comparison


Metals/
Alloys
2000

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

Composites/
fibers

200

Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr

100
70
60
50
40

Al (6061) a

30
20

10

Tin (pure)

dry

PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE

LDPE

Hard to measure,

300

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since


in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700
600
500
400

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

1000

Hard to measure ,

Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Steel (4140) qt

Room temperature
values
Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

Chapter 6 - 18

VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

Chapter 6 - 19

Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

TS

F = fracture or
ultimate
strength

engineering
stress

sy

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator

strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6 - 20

Tensile Strength: Comparison


Metals/
Alloys

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

5000
3000
2000

1000

300
200
100
40
30

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib
Steel (4140) qt
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a

AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)

Diamond
Si nitride
Al oxide

Room temperature
values

Si crystal
<100>

Glass-soda
Concrete

Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE

20

Composites/
fibers

Graphite

wood(|| fiber)
GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)

LDPE

10

wood (

fiber)

Based on data in Table B.4,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
Chapter 6 - 21

Ductility
Plastic tensile strain at failure:

Lf - Lo
x 100
%EL =
Lo

smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s

larger %EL

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

Another ductility measure:

%RA =

Ao - Af
x 100
Ao
Chapter 6 - 22

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress, s

small toughness (ceramics)


large toughness (metals)

very small toughness


(unreinforced polymers)

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e


Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
Chapter 6 - 23

Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region

Ur =

ey

sde

If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 24

Elastic Strain Recovery


sy i

syo
Stress

2. Unload

1. Load

3. Reapply
load

Strain
Adapted from Fig. 6.17,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Elastic strain
recovery
Chapter 6 - 25

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force

measure size
of indent after
removing load

e.g.,
10 mm sphere

D
most
plastics

brasses
Al alloys

Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.

d
easy to machine
steels
file hard

cutting
tools

nitrided
steels

diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 6 - 26

Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 27

Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 - 28

True Stress & Strain


Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
True stress

True strain

sT = F Ai

e T = ln i o

s T = s 1 + e
e T = ln 1 + e

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,


Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 6 - 29

Hardening
An increase in sy due to plastic deformation.

large hardening

sy
1
sy

small hardening

e
Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

sT = K eT
true stress (F/A)

hardening exponent:
n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6 - 30

Variability in Material Properties


Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics
n

Mean

x =

xn
n

Standard Deviation

n
x i - x
s =
n -1

where n is the number of data points


Chapter 6 - 31

Design or Safety Factors


Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N
Often N is
between
sy
s working =
1.2 and 4
N

Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does


not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.

s working =
220 , 000 N

d /4
2

sy
N

1045 plain
carbon steel:
sy = 310 MPa
TS = 565 MPa

d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

Lo

F = 220,000N
Chapter 6 - 32

Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 6 - 33

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 6 - 34

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