Journal of Food Engineering 105 (2011) 599608

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Analysis of chemical and structural changes in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv

Hayward) through the osmotic dehydration
M. Castro-Girldez a, U. Tylewicz b, P.J. Fito a,, M. Dalla Rosa b, P. Fito a
a
b

Instituto Universitario de Ingeniera de Alimentos para el Desarrollo, Universidad Politcnica de Valencia, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
Department of Food Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Piazza Goidanich 60, 47521 Cesena (FC), Italy

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 25 August 2010
Received in revised form 22 March 2011
Accepted 26 March 2011
Available online 31 March 2011
Keywords:
Osmotic dehydration
Thermodynamics
Mass transfer
Enthalpyentropy compensation
Kiwifruit

a b s t r a c t
Osmotic dehydration experiments of kiwifruit (Actinidiadeliciosa cv Hayward) were carried out in order to
apply a nonlinear irreversible thermodynamic model. Samples were immersed into 65% (w/w) sucrose
aqueous solution at 30 C during 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 180, 250, 320, 400, 720, 1440 min. Some
physicalchemical parameters were measured in fresh, treated and reposed (24 h at 30 C) samples. It
was possible to apply the enthalpyentropy compensation coupled to a nonlinear thermodynamic model,
obtaining the apparent bulk modulus and explaining the elastic answer of the tissue throughout the
osmotic process. The osmotic dehydration also produces losses in the native compounds of kiwifruit such
as citric acid and Calcium and Potassium.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Osmotic treatment is a dehydration technique usually used in
fruits and vegetables, which produces a reduction in food water
activity and therefore allows storing the foods for longer periods
improving the stability and quality of products. Osmotic
dehydration consists on the introduction of foods in a low water
activity solution in order to induce water outows and inows of
external solutes (Ferrando and Spiess, 2001). This treatment
depresses the food water activity and improves the biochemical
and microbiological stability. The structure of plant tissue can be
considered as one of the main factors for understanding the
osmotic dehydration process (Mavroudis et al., 1998). Osmotic
dehydration in a biological system involves complex mass transfer
phenomena simultaneously (chemical and also mechanical) producing physical and structural changes. These changes were
described for isolated cells by Segu et al. (2010) and thermodynamically quantied in apple tissue by Castro-Girldez et al.
(2011).
Kiwifruit is a biological system constituted by three distinct
tissue types, namely outer pericarp, inner pericarp and core. The
core is composed by spherical/ellipsoidal cells (0.1 and 0.2
mm diameter), whereas the outer pericarp is composed by large
cells (0.50.8 mm diameter) dispersed in a matrix of smaller cells
(0.10.2 mm diameter) (Hallett et al., 1992). The inner pericarp
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 96 387 9832; fax: +34 96 387 7369.
E-mail address: pedsu@tal.upv.es (P.J. Fito).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.03.029

consists on the locules, which are enclosed within locule walls

(Hallett et al., 1992). Each locule is composed by large radially
elongated thin-walled cells (0.20.4 mm  >1 mm) and seeds,
while the locule wall is a narrow region composed by smaller
thicker walled cells (Hallett et al., 1992). Each of these tissues
has different chemical composition (Ferguson, 1980; MacRae
et al., 1989a), texture properties (MacRae et al., 1989b; Jackson
and Harker, 1997), cell wall composition (Redgwell et al., 1991,
1992) and cell characteristics (Hallett et al., 1992).
Gerschenson et al. (2001) reported that kiwifruit behaves as an
elastic solid with storage moduli dominating the viscoelastic response when it is subjected to an osmotic dehydration process.
In this complex scenario, very little work has been carried out to
analyze the effect of osmotic dehydration on structure and composition of kiwifruit, and to understand the mechanisms that impulse
the mass transfer through this operation.
On the other hand, thermodynamics is one of the approaches
used to understand the properties of foods and to calculate energy
requirements associated with transfer of heat and mass in biological systems (Fasina, 2006). The enthalpyentropy compensation
theory has been reported in many processes (Ziga et al., 2008;
Liu and Guo, 2001). This theory pointed out that variations of dH
are compensated by variations in dS. Thus, representing both energies, a linear relation is obtained (Eq. (1)).

dS a  dH b

where a and b values are constants; a is inversely proportional to

the temperature (Ziga et al., 2008).

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Nomenclature
aj
G
Gj
Jj
Lj
Mr
M
n
P
R
A
S
H
T
t
V
x
z

activity of the chemical specie j ()

Gibbs free energy (J)
partial Gibbs molar free energy of the specie j (J/mol)
molar ux of the specie j (mol/m2s)
phenomenological coefcient of the specie j (mol2/
J s m2)
molecular weight (g/mol)
mass (g)
number of moles (mol)
absolute pressure (atm)
ideal gases universal constant (J/mol K)
surface area (m2)
entropy (J/mol K)
enthalpy (J/mol)
temperature (K)
time (min)
volume (m3)
mass or molar fraction ()
mass or molar fraction of the liquid fraction ()

The objectives of this work are to quantify the effect of the osmotic dehydration treatment in the kiwifruit structure for short
treatment times in a system with a fast mechanical response,
and to develop a methodology for calculating the phenomenological coefcient by applying the compensation theory.
2. Material and methods
Sucrose solution (65% w/w, 30 C), prepared with commercial
sugar and distilled water, was used as osmotic agent. Before the
experiment, kiwifruits (Actinidiadeliciosa cv Hayward) with the
same size and ripeness were bought from a local supermarket
and kept refrigerated until use. The kiwifruits were cut with a calimeter in half slices (1 cm thickness) and the core was eliminated.
There were prepared 47 samples which were immersed in a vessel
containing the osmotic solution with continuous stirring. The relation between the fruit and the solution was of 1:20 (w/w) to avoid
changes in the solution during the process. The system was maintained at 30 C in a constant-temperature chamber. To prevent
evaporation the vessel was covered with a sheet of plastic wrap.
Preliminary kinetic studies were done at the same working conditions in order to select the osmotic dehydration times. These results show that, in the rst minutes of treatment, some structural
changes occur affecting the rest of treatment. Therefore, the selected times for the present study were: 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60,
90, 120, 180, 250, 320, 400, 720, 1440 min. Six samples were used
at each dehydration time.
A ow-diagram of the experimental procedure is presented in
Fig. 1.
Three samples per osmotic treatment time were reposed at
30 C for 24 h, on Decagon containers, closed with paralm, in order to eliminate the concentration proles in samples.
Mass, volume and surface water activity were analyzed for each
fresh, treated and reposed samples. Representative fresh samples
were used to determine the initial moisture, sugar content (Brix),
citric acid content, cation content and Cryo-SEM. Moisture and sugar content (Brix) were measured for each reposed sample. The
other three samples per time were used for the cation analysis, citric acid content and Cryo-SEM.
At each osmotic time, an aliquot of sucrose solution was also taken from the vessel. Water activity and Brix of the solution were
measured at each time.

F
l
F

force (N)
displaced distance (m)
molecular force (N/mol)

Greek alphabet
chemical potential of the specie j (J/mol)
l0j
chemical potential of reference of the specie j (J/mol)
m
specic volume (L/mol)
D
variation of a variable
g
apparent bulk modulus

lj

Subscript
0
24
LP
max
s
w
t

and superscript
initial time
time 24 h after the treatment
liquid phase
maximum
sucrose
water
time (min)

Mass was determined by using a Mettler Toledo Balance

(0.0001) (Mettler-Toledo, Inc., USA).
Volume was determined by analyzing the front and the section
pictures of samples using millimetres paper in the background by
using an imaging analysis with the software Adobe Photoshop
(Adobe Systems Inc., San Jose, CA, USA) in order to get the diameter
and the thickness of the samples.
Surface water activity was measured in the structured samples
with a dew point hygrometer Aqualab series 3 TE (Decagon Devices, Inc., Washington, USA).
Moisture was determined by drying in a vacuum oven at 60 C
till constant weight was reached (AOAC Method 934.06, 2000). Sugar content was determined in a refractometer (ABBE, ATAGO
Model 3-T, Japan). The titrable acidity (referred to citric acid)
was analyzed by using AOAC Method 934.06 (2000).
Analytical determinations described above were obtained by
triplicate.
Cation quantication was carried out by means of an ion chromatograph (Methrom Ion Analysis, Herisau, Switzerland), using an
universal standard column (Metrosep C2150, 4.0  150 mm)
along with an eluent composed of tartaric acid (4.0 mmol/L) and
dipicolinic acid (0.75 mmol/L), equipped with electronic detectors.
In every case, the fruit samples were previously homogenized at
9000 rpm in an ULTRATURRAX T25 for 5 min and centrifuged (J.P.
Selecta S.A., Medifriger-BL, Barcelona, Spain) at 4000 rpm for
20 min. Afterwards, 1 mL of supernatant was diluted with
Milli-Q water in a 50 mL Erlenmeyer ask. The claried extract
was ltered through a 0.45 lm Millipore lter; 15 mL was used
to analyze the cation content. Measurements were taken in
duplicate.

2.1. Low temperature scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM)

A Cryostage CT-1500C unit (Oxford Instruments, Witney, UK),
coupled to a Jeol JSM-5410 scanning electron microscope (Jeol,
Tokyo, Japan), was used. The sample was immersed in slush N2
(210 C) and then quickly transferred to the Cryostage at 1 kPa,
where sample fracture took place. The sublimation (etching) was
carried out at 95 C; the nal point was determined by direct
observation in the microscope, working at 5 kV. Then, once again
in the Cryostage unit, the sample was coated with gold in vacuum

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601

Fig. 1. Diagram of the experimental procedure. Cryo-SEM was made in fresh and treated samples until 60 min of treatment.

(0.2 kPa), applied for 3 min, with an ionization current of 2 mA. The
observation in the scanning electron microscope was carried out at
15 kV, at a working distance of 15 mm and a temperature 6130 C.
3. Results and discussion
The osmotic dehydration operation with 65Brix solution produces compression and relaxation phenomena (Fito and Chiralt,
1997). These mechanisms could be observed by analyzing the mass
and volume variations. Fig. 2 shows the overall mass variation,
water loss and sucrose gain through the osmotic treatment. In

the gure, the decrease in total mass is explained by the high water
losses while the sucrose mass increases during the osmotic treatment. In Fig. 3, the volume variation is observed; it is possible to
appreciate the overall decrease in volume through the osmotic
treatment. The half slice of kiwifruit can be divided in two zones
(see Fig. 4c), zone A represents the external zone composed by
homogeneous reservoir cells explained in the introduction; and
zone B represents the internal part of the tissue, where the reservoir and vascular cells are combined in radial way. These two zones
show different directions in the mechanical tension, during the
contraction and expansion.

Fig. 2. Evolution of overall mass (), water mass (j) and sucrose mass (N) variation through the osmotic treatment.

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Fig. 3. Evolution of the volume variation through the osmotic treatment.

Kiwifruit behaves as a viscoelastic solid and it is possible to

appreciate, at the beginning of the treatment, the important
expansions and contractions of the tissue (Fig. 4a and b). Fig. 5a
shows a Cryo-SEM micrograph of fresh kiwi where the intracellular
and extracellular spaces and membrane/wall system are identied,
showing the extracellular spaces lled of air. In the rst 5 min of
treatment, the fruit suffers an important lost of turgid, and a 25%
of contraction can be appreciated in the overall volume; Fig. 5b

shows the tissue with the extracellular space lled with liquid.
Afterwards, until 15 min of treatment, the fruit suffers expansions,
recovering 93% of the initial volume, recovering the zone A; Fig. 5c
shows the membrane/wall system intact, thus the expansion must
be a response of the tissue to the rst fast contraction. At 20 min of
treatment, the fruit again is contracted strongly (32% of the initial
volume), disappearing again the zone A and contracting the zone B.
After this time, the expansion/contraction phenomena are less
marked and, at long osmotic times, the fruit is completely retracted
(Fig. 4a) and zone B is absolutely contracted. It is important to
highlight that although the fruit suffers important expansions at
the beginning of the treatment, it is dehydrating and losing overall
weight (Fig. 2).
Second expansion occurs at 30 min, as shows Fig. 4b, recovering
no more than 5% of volume; Fig. 6a and b, show Cryo-SEM pictures
of samples treated 30 min and gures c and d show Cryo-SEM pictures of samples treated 45 min. All pictures show an initial plasmolysis so incipient. Therefore the second expansion must be
also an elastic response to the second fast contraction.
The water and solute uxes promoted in the osmotic treatment
can be estimate with the mass variation, the process time and the
variation of the samples surface (Eqs. (2) and (3)):

DM w  M o
Dt  A  Mrw
DM s  M o
Js
Dt  A  Mrs

Jw

2
3

where Jw is the water ux (molw/s m2), Js is the sucrose ux (mols/

s m2) during the treatment, t is the process time, A is the measured

Fig. 4. Kiwifruit deformation through the osmotic dehydration; (a) pictures of fresh and treated kiwifruit at different treatment times; (b) volume variation curve at short
treatment times and (c) detail of the zones of the kiwi tissue with the sense of the deformations.

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603

Fig. 5. Cryo-SEM pictures at different treatment times; (a) fresh kiwi at 350; (b) treated sample at 5 min, at 1000 and (c) treated sample at 15 min, at 200.

surface area of the sample (m2), Mrw is the molecular weight of

water (18 g/mol) and Mrs is the molecular weight of sucrose
(342 g/mol). It is possible to observe in Fig. 7 that both uxes are reduced with treatment time promoted with the decreasing in driving
forces.
Fig. 8 shows a scheme of surface water activity measured in the
fresh, treated and reposed samples; these measurements represent
the water activity of the surface of each sample. After the repose
time, the moisture was analyzed in whole sample. The moisture
of treated samples was estimated by balances. Fig. 8 shows also

the relationship between the moisture in dry basis and the surface
water activity of the treated, reposed samples and data from pure
solutions of water and sucrose (Starzak and Mathlouthi, 2006). In
this gure it is possible to observe that the reposed samples maintain the same relationship surface water activity/moisture as the
pure sucrose solution at different concentrations. Therefore, the
water and sucrose concentrations are homogeneous in the reposed
samples because moisture is an average value of the whole sample
and the water activity is just the surface value. Thus, the concentration proles through the tissue are negligible. The surface water

Fig. 6. Cryo-SEM pictures at different treatment times; (a) treated sample at 30 min, at 1000; (b) treated sample at 30 min, at 500; (c) treated sample at 45 min, at 500
and (d) treated sample at 45 min, at 500.

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Fig. 7. Variation of water (d) and sucrose (s) uxes versus time through the treatment.

activity of treated samples is lower than that of the reposed samples; it denotes concentration proles in the kiwifruit tissue and
an important internal transport is driven; only at the end of the
treatment, the treated and the reposed values concur with the pure
solution values; this fact denotes the disappearance of concentration proles in the tissue.
Fig. 9 shows the water ux and the volume variation during the
24 h of repose time. In the gure, two steps can be observed: the
rst one, composed by the samples treated less than 180 min,

shows uctuant uxes promoted by the shrinkage and swelling

of samples during the repose time (mechanical behaviours); the
second step, composed by the samples with treatment times higher than 180 min, shows a continuous decrease of uxes without
volume variation, suggesting that the engine of the transport during the repose time must be the gravity.
In order to determine the chemical and mechanical changes in
the kiwifruit tissue through the osmotic treatment, it is possible
to apply a thermodynamic analysis in terms of the Gibbs free

Fig. 8. Relationship between the moisture in dry basis and the water activity for samples dehydrated (d), reposed 24 h (s), and sucrose solutions () obtained from Starzak
and Mathlouthi (2006).

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605

Fig. 9. Water ux and volume variation during the repose time.

energy, satisfying the enthalpyentropy compensation. For this

purpose, an interface was dened as the fruit surface in contact
with the osmotic solution (Fig. 10).
Using the relations of Maxwell (Demirel, 2002) (Eqs. (4) and
(5)), Eq. (6) is obtained for nonelectrolytic and isothermal system.

where as is obtained from the bibliography (Lide, 2004), superscript

e represents the external liquid phase (apoplastic way) close to the
interface, and superscript OS represents the sucrose solution.
Therefore, it is possible to dene the entropy variation by water
mol using Eqs. (7) and (8) as follows:

dG dH  TdS  SdT dU PdV VdP  TdS  SdT

X
dG VdP  SdT Fdl ude
ldni
X
ldni
PdV  TdS Fdl

4
5
6

Obtaining the entropy variation as follows:

dS


X
1
PdV  Fdl 
ldni
T

Castro-Girldez et al. (2011) developed a non-equilibrium thermodynamic model for describing the long time osmotic dehydration through the apoplastic ways in apple tissue. The authors
dened the water chemical potential for a non ionic added solute
and an isotherm system, as follows:

dG
aOS
Js
aOS
s


dlext
RTLn we
w mw dP F w dl RT ln e
dnw
as J w
aw

Fig. 10. Kiwifruit tissue scheme with the simplied phases used in the thermodynamic model (adapted from Castro-Girldez et al., 2010).

dS
aOS J
aOS
RT ln se s  RT ln we  Fw dl pw dV
dnw
as J w
aw

Water and sucrose transport with the deformation tissue must

satisfy the entropyenthalpy compensation, therefore the relationship between the entropy and the enthalpy must follow the Eq. (1).
In order to estimate those parameters, it is necessary to develop an
iteration with the free energy, entropy and enthalpy as it is
explained in Fig. 11.
In Fig. 11, the phenomenological coefcient (Lw) is the supposed
variable to iterate and the compensation equation works to estimate the error of the iteration. In the estimation of entropy and enthalpy, the term of expansions (pwdV) is present in both
developments; thus, in the compensation equation the term is cancelled, being the entropy and the enthalpy without this term with
asterisk superscripts (dS and dH, respectively). On the other hand,
the mechanical terms are packed in pressure term (vwdP) and the
elongation term (Fwdl), but the elongation term is important only
at the beginning of the dehydration process, when the turgid loss
mechanisms occur.
After the iteration, the phenomenological coefcient obtained
was Lw = 2.46  105 mol2/J s m2. In fruits, different values of
phenomenological coefcients of water transport through the
protoplast membrane have been published; Ferrando and Spiess
(2002, 2003) showed in osmotic dehydration treatments with
sucrose solution at 30 C, 1  106 mol2/J s m2 for onions, 5.2 
106 mol2/J s m2 for carrots and 6.8  106 mol2/J s m2 for potatoes. Segu et al. (2006) reported the value of 4.5  105 mol2/
J s m2 for apple (var Fuji). Phenomenological coefcient for apoplastic transport in osmotic dehydration treatment with sucrose
solution at 30 C was published by Castro-Girldez et al. (2011)

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Fig. 11. Scheme of the iteration process developed in order to estimate the phenomenological coefcient.

for apple tissue obtaining the value: Lw = 1.095  105 mol2/J s m2. In
animal tissue, phenomenological coefcient was calculated for pork
meat salting process, Lw = 2.7  105 mol2/J s m2 (Castro-Girldez
et al., 2010).
Fig. 12 shows the relationship between the entropy and enthalpy, resulted from the iteration, where the linear adjust of values
between 10 min to the end of treatment shows a good correlation
coefcient (R2 = 0.9941). It is possible to observe that, throughout
the rst 5 min of treatment, the non consideration of the elongation term in the entropy estimation is not negligible. Using Eq.
(1) and the elongation in the entropy estimation (Eq. (9)), the elongation term can be estimated by using next equation:


dS
aOS J
aOS
 RT ln se s  RT ln we 1  a  F w dl
dnw
as J w
aw

10

Fig. 13 shows the elongation term through the dehydration process, where it is possible to observe the high values of this term
during the lost of turgid pressure throughout the rst minutes of
treatment.

Fig. 14 shows the volume variation as a function of pressure

variation throughout the interface estimated as was explained in
Fig. 11. The linear relation obtained allows calculating the apparent
bulk modulus following Eq. (11) (Bourne, 2002).

DP

g  
DV
Vi

11

The apparent bulk modulus obtained (3.9 MPa) reects the elasticity of wall-membrane system of kiwifruit. This value is similar to
the values of different elastic modulus obtained in other fruits:
1.84 MPa for Golden Delicious apples (De Baerdemaeker et al.,
1982), 39 MPa for different varieties of apple (Rosenfeld et al.,
1992), 5 MPa for an unripe green apples to 0.5 MPa for overripe
fruit (De Baerdemaeker et al., 1982; Duprat et al., 1997), 2.5 MPa
for pineapples (Chen and De Baerdemaeker, 1993), 1.9 MPa for
pears (Chen and De Baerdemaeker, 1993).
Osmotic solution only contains water and sucrose, then the
activity gradient of other native substances present in kiwifruit is

Fig. 12. Relationship between the entropy and the enthalpy.

M. Castro-Girldez et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 105 (2011) 599608

Fig. 13. Evolution of the elongation term through the dehydration process.

Fig. 14. Volume variation as a function of pressure variation throughout the interface.

Fig. 15. Variation of citric acid during the treatment.

607

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Fig. 16. Variation of ions K+ and Ca+2 during the treatment.

so high and promotes high losses of this native substances. These

activity terms are coupled to contractions/expansions of the tissue
which provokes changes in kiwifruit composition; Figs. 15 and 16
show the changes in citric acid and in the most important kiwifruit
cations respectively during the osmodehydration treatment. It is
possible to appreciate how these components are reduced during
the treatment.

4. Conclusions
It is possible to apply the enthalpyentropy compensation coupled to a nonlinear thermodynamic model for determining the
water transport through the apoplastic ways in kiwifruit and to describe the behaviours involved in the osmotic dehydration. The
apparition of concentration proles and the structural changes
was also determined. It is also possible to obtain the apparent bulk
modulus by the mechanical terms estimated in the thermodynamic model, explaining the elastic answer of the tissue throughout the osmotic process. The osmotic dehydration also produces
losses in the native compounds of kiwifruit such as citric acid
and Calcium and Potassium.
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