11/12/2014

ionosphereandmagnetosphere(atmosphericscience)::Diffusion|EncyclopediaBritannica

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Written by

Michael B. McElroy

Ionosphere and magnetosphere

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Written by Michael B. McElroy

DIFFUSION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction

Ions and electrons produced at high altitude are free to

Ionosphere

diffuse downward, guided by Earths magnetic field. The

Magnetosphere

lifetime of O+ is long at high altitudes, where the densities

of O2 and N2 are very small. As ions move downward, the

densities of O2 and N2 increase. Eventually the time constant for reaction of O+ with O2 and

N2 becomes comparable to the time for diffusion, and O+ reacts to produce either O2 + or NO+

before it can move much farther. The O+ density exhibits a maximum in this region. Competition

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between chemistry and transport is responsible for the formation of an electron-density

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in the F2 layer. The
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dominant positive
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ion is O+ . PROJECTS

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The density of O+ decreases with decreasing altitude below the peak, reflecting a balance
between production of O by photoionization and its removal by reactions (1) and (2). The density

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of O+ also decreases above the peak. In this case, removal of photo-ions is regulated by
+

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downward diffusion rather than by chemistry. The distribution of O with altitude above the
peak reflects a balance of forcesa pressure-gradient force that acts to support O+ in

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opposition to gravitational and electrostatic forces that combine to pull O+ down. The
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electrostatic force acts to preserve electrical charge neutrality. In its absence, the concentration

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of ionswhich are much more massive than electronswould tend to fall off more rapidly with

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altitude than electrons. The abundance of electrons would quickly exceed that of ions, and the
upper atmosphere would accumulate negative charge. The electric field redresses the
imbalance by drawing electrons down and providing additional upward support for positively
charged ions. Though O+ has a mass of 16 atomic units, its abundance decreases with altitude as
if it had a mass of only 8 atomic units. (One atomic unit corresponds to the mass of a hydrogen
atom, 1.66 1024 gram.) This discrepancy occurs because the electric field exerts a force that is
equivalent to that exerted by the gravitational force on a body with a mass of eight atomic units.
This electrostatic force is directed upward for ions and downward for electrons, in effect
buoying the ions while encouraging the electrons to sink. The concentration of electrons
therefore falls off with altitude at precisely the same rate as that of O+ , preserving the balance
of positive and negative charge.

PHOTON ABSORPTION
Ionization at any given level depends on three factorsthe availability of photons of a
wavelength capable of effecting ionization, a supply of atoms and molecules necessary to
intercept this radiation, and the efficiency with which the atoms and molecules are able to do
so. The efficiency is relatively large for O, O2 , and N2 from about 10 to 80 nm. This is the portion
of the spectrum responsible for production of electrons and ions in the F1 region. Photons with
wavelengths between 90 and 100 nm are absorbed only by O2 . They therefore penetrate deeper
and are responsible for producing about half the ionization in the E layer. The balance is derived
from so-called soft X-rays (those of longer wavelengths), which are absorbed with relatively
low efficiency in the F region and so are able to penetrate to altitudes of about 120 km (75
miles) when the Sun is high over the region. Hard X-rays (those of shorter wavelengthsthat is,
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11/12/2014

ionosphereandmagnetosphere(atmosphericscience)::Diffusion|EncyclopediaBritannica

below about 5 nm) reach even deeper. This portion of the spectrum accounts for the bulk of the
ionization in the D region, with an additional contribution from wavelengths longer than 102.6
nmmainly from photons in the strong solar emission line at Lyman at a wavelength of 121.7
nm. (The Lyman series is a related sequence of wavelengths that describe electromagnetic
energy given off by energized atoms in the ultraviolet region.) Lyman emissions are weakly
absorbed by the major components of the atmosphereO, O2 , and N2 but they are absorbed
readily by NO and have sufficient energy to ionize this relatively unstable compound. Despite
the low abundance of NO, the high flux of solar radiation at Lyman is able to provide a
significant source of ionization for the D region near 90 km (55 miles).
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