historic

(h-stork, -str-)
adj.
1. Having importance in or influence on history.
2. Historical.
Usage Note: Historic and historical have similar, though usually distinct, meanings. Hist
oric refers to that which is associated withsignificant events in history: the historic first v
oyage to the moon. Thus, a historic house is likely to be of interest not just because it isr
elatively old, but because an important person lived in it or was otherwise associated wit
h it. In contrast, historical refers moregenerally to that which happened in the past, regar
dless of significance: a minor historical character in the novel, the historicalarchitecture i
n the center of town. These distinctions are not always observed, however, and a histori
c tour of a city might include thesame sights as a historical tour. Therefore, it is importan
t to make sure that the context makes the intended meaning clear.
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright 2011
by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.

historic
(hstrk)
adj
1. famous or likely to become famous in history; significant
2. (Historical Terms) a less common word for historical1, historical2, historical3, histo
rical4, historical5
3. (Linguistics) Also: secondary linguistics (of Latin, Greek, or Sanskrit verb tenses) ref
erring to past time
Usage: A distinction is usually made between historic (important, significant) and histori
cal (pertaining to history): a historic decision; ahistorical perspective
Collins English Dictionary Complete and Unabridged HarperCollins Publishers
1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003

historic

(hstr k, -str-)
adj.
1. well-known or important in history: a historic building.
2. historical.
[160515; < Latin < Greek]
Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd.
Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved.

historic
historical
1. 'historic'
You use historic to say that something was important in history, or that it will be regard
ed as important in the future.
...their historic struggle for emancipation.
...a historic decision.
2. 'historical'
You use historical to say that someone or something really existed or happened in the
past, rather than being invented by a writer.
Which historical figure would be guest of honour at your house-warming party?
Historical novels, plays, and films deal with real or imaginary events in the past.
...Richard of Bordeaux, a historical play by Gordon Daviot.
Historical occurs in the names of some organizations concerned with the subject of hist
ory.
...the German Historical Institute.
However, if you want to say that something relates to the teaching of history, you use hi
story in front of another noun. You do not use'historic' or 'historical'.
...a history book.
...a history lesson.
Collins COBUILD English Usage HarperCollins Publishers 1992, 2004, 2011, 2012

Thesaurus
The first Danish language version of this book, published in 1971, was very much
a protest against the functionalistic principles for planning cities and residential
areas that prevailed during that period. The book carried an appeal to show
concern for the people who were to move about between buildings, and it urged
an understanding of the subtle, almost indefinable - but definite - qualities, which
have always related to the interaction of people in public spaces, and it pointed to
the life between buildings as a dimension of architecture that needs to be
carefully treated. Now 40 years later, many architectural trends and ideologies
have passed by over the years. These intervening years have also shown that
the liveliness and liveability of cities and residential areas continues to be a
important issue. The intensity in which fine public spaces are used at this point in
time, as well as the greatly increased general interest in the quality of cities and
their public spaces emphasises this point. The character of life between buildings
changes with changes in any given social context, but the essential principles
and quality criteria to be employed when working with life between buildings has
proven to be remarkably constant. Though this work over the years has been
updated and revised several times, this version bears little resemblance with the
very early versions, however there was no reason to change the basic message:
Take good care of the life between your buildings.

A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.

For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, thescientific method requires that
one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on
previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available
scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often
used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory.
A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for
further research.[1]
A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in formal logic, to denote
the antecedent of a proposition; thus in the proposition "If P, then Q", P denotes
the hypothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is
the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) What If question.

The adjective hypothetical, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis", or

"being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis", can
refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis".
Contents
[hide]

1 Uses
2 Scientific hypothesis
3 Working hypothesis
4 Hypotheses, concepts and measurement
o 4.1 Statistical hypothesis testing
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

Uses[edit]
In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a summary of the plot of a classical
drama. The English word hypothesis comes from the ancient
Greek (hupothesis), meaning "to put under" or "to suppose".[1]
In Plato's Meno (86e87b), Socrates dissects virtue with a method used by
mathematicians,[2] that of "investigating from a hypothesis."[3] In this sense,
'hypothesis' refers to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that
simplifies cumbersome calculations.[4] Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous
example of this usage in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century:
that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a
hypothesis.[5]
In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea
whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a
hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires
more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due
course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may
grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of
a mathematical model.[6] Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate

them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the

phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal
explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that
every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive
reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting
or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke
statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has
argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a
proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being
shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of
falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability
(e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific
methodinvolves experimentation, to test the ability of some hypothesis to
adequately answer the question under investigation. In contrast, unfettered
observation is not as likely to raise unexplained issues or open questions in
science, as would the formulation of a crucial experiment to test the hypothesis.
A thought experiment might also be used to test the hypothesis as well.
In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of
a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such
cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of
showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it
counts as a "consequence" and the researcher should have already
considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the
predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to be tested
by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might
make the necessary experiments feasible.

Scientific hypothesis[edit]

People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis, often called an

"educated guess"[7][8] because it provides a suggested solution based on the
evidence. However, some scientists reject the term "educated guess" as
incorrect.[9] Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving
the problem.
According to Schick and Vaughn,[10] researchers weighing up alternative
hypotheses may take into consideration:

Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above)

Parsimony (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the

postulation of excessive numbers of entities)

Scope the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of

phenomena

Fruitfulness the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena

in the future

Conservatism the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledgesystems.

Working hypothesis[edit]
Main article: Working hypothesis
A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for
further research[11] in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the
hypothesis ultimately fails.[12] Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is
constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to
the exploratory research purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses
and are often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research.[13][14]
The provisional nature of working hypotheses make them useful as an organizing
device in applied research. Here they act like a useful guide to address problems
that are still in a formative phase. [15]

In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various

approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to
form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each
approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, Karl Popper's colleague
and student, respectively, have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis.

Hypotheses, concepts and measurement[edit]

Concepts in Hempel's deductive-nomological model play a key role in the
development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect
concepts by specifying the expected relationships between propositions. When a
set of hypotheses are grouped together they become a type of conceptual
framework. When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates causality
or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory. According to noted
philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel "An adequate empirical interpretation
turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose
constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to
observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative
hypotheses of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical
data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses
from which they were derived."[16]
Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the relationship between
a conceptual framework and the framework as it is observed and perhaps tested
(interpreted framework). "The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of
observation and is anchored to it by rules of interpretation. These might be
viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the
latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of those
interpretative connections, the network can function as a scientific
theory"[17] Hypotheses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation are
ready to be tested. In "actual scientific practice the process of framing a
theoretical structure and of interpreting it are not always sharply separated, since

the intended interpretation usually guides the construction of the

theoretician."[18] It is, however, "possible and indeed desirable, for the purposes of
logical clarification, to separate the two steps conceptually."[18]

Statistical hypothesis testing[edit]

Main article: Statistical hypothesis testing
When a possible correlation or similar relation between phenomena is
investigated, such as whether a proposed remedy is effective in treating a
disease, the hypothesis that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way
one might examine a proposed new law of nature. In such an investigation, if the
tested remedy shows no effect in a few cases, these do not necessarily falsify
the hypothesis. Instead, statistical tests are used to determine how likely it is that
the overall effect would be observed if the hypothesized relation does not exist. If
that likelihood is sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a relation
may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect may be due to pure chance.
In statistical hypothesis testing, two hypotheses are compared. These are called
the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the
hypothesis that states that there is no relation between the phenomena whose
relation is under investigation, or at least not of the form given by the alternative
hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative
to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of relation. The alternative
hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized
relation; in particular, it can be two-sided (for example: there is some effect, in a
yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation,
positive or negative, is fixed in advance).[19]
Conventional significance levels for testing hypotheses (acceptable probabilities
of wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .01. Whether the null
hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, must be
determined in advance, before the observations are collected or inspected. If

these criteria are determined later, when the data to be tested are already
known, the test is invalid.[20]
The above procedure is actually dependent on the number of the participants
(units or sample size) that is included in the study. For instance, the sample size
may be too small to reject a null hypothesis and, therefore, it is recommended to
specify the sample size from the beginning. It is advisable to define a small,
medium and large effect size for each of a number of important statistical tests
which are used to test the hypotheses.[21]

hypothesis
/hapss/
noun

(pl) -ses (-siz)

1.
a suggested explanation for a group of facts or phenomena, eithe
raccepted as a basis for further verification ( working hypothesi
s) oraccepted as likely to be true Compare theory (sense 5)
2.
an assumption used in an argument without its being endorsed; a
supposition
3.
an unproved theory; a conjecture

Derived Forms

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between

two or more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction

about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, a study
designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test
performance might have a hypothesis that states, "This study is
designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep deprived people will
perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep deprived."

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What Is Science

Psychology

Scientific Method

Science

Experiment
Unless you are creating a study that is exploratory in nature, your
hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during
the course of your experiment or research.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the

hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of
research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When
conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of
different factors to determine which ones might contribute to the
ultimate outcome.
In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an
experiment do not support the original hypothesis. When writing up
these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should
be explored in future studies.

How Do Researchers Come Up With a Hypothesis?

There are many different ways to come up with a hypothesis. In many
cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or
build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown
that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might for
a specific hypothesis that: "People with high stress levels will be more
likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than
are people who have low stress levels."

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In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or
folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk
wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher
might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic
partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

When trying to come up with a good hypothesis for your own
psychology research or experiments, ask yourself the following
questions:

Is your hypothesis based on your research of a topic?

Can your hypothesis be tested?

Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent

variables?
Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time
doing background research on your topic. Once you have completed a
literature review, start thinking of potential questions you still have.
Pay attention to the discussion section in the journal articles you read.
Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

Examples of a Good Hypothesis

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then
{this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe
what will happen to the dependent variableif you make changes to
the independent variable.
The basic format might be:

"If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable},

then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."