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Article history:
Received 13 June 2011
Received in revised form 24 December 2011
Accepted 28 December 2011
Available online 13 February 2012
Keywords:
Arsenic
Stabilization
Encapsulation
Leaching
X-ray absorption
a b s t r a c t
This work reports the results of an investigation on the treatment and encapsulation of arsenic-containing
materials by Portland cement with ferrous sulfate and lime (PFL) and Terra-Bond, a commercially available
patented technology. The arsenic materials included: chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood materials; scorodite-rich mine tailings from the La Trinidad Mine in California; and a soil/smelter dust mixture
from the Anaconda Superfund site spiked with monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) to simulate an organoarsenic soil material. SEM/EDS and XRD spectra of PFL treated samples showed similarity across all three
waste materials while Terra-Bond treated samples showed predominance of elemental sulfur. SEM/EDS of
PFL treated samples showed that calcium was imbedded in the structure while micrographs of Terra-Bond
treated samples showed the appearance of an epoxy material on the surface. The epoxy material appears
to be responsible for encapsulating and reducing the leachability of arsenic. XANES spectra for the PFL treatment of CCA-containing samples showed that arsenic has a predominant pentavalent form (As + 5), and the
PFL treatment process did not alter the arsenic oxidation state. But, distinct differences were observed for
XANES spectra of untreated and PFL treated scorodite-rich mine tailing which changed the arsenic coordination structure from a mixture of As (+ 3/+ 5) to exclusively As (+ 5). Both S/S techniques reduced the
amount of arsenic released in the leaching tests. Most cases show lower amounts of arsenic released from
wastes treated by the Terra-Bond technique when compared to the PFL technique. The pH of the solution
signicantly affected the leachability, with the amount of arsenic released increasing with pH. Sequential extraction results indicate that sodium hydroxide was favorable in releasing arsenic in the mine tailings. This is
due to ligand displacement reactions of hydroxyl ions with arsenic species and high pH conditions that prevent the readsorption of arsenic.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
1. Introduction
Arsenic speciation controls how it interacts with the environment
and how easily it is treated and stabilized. Arsenite and arsenate species
interchange oxidation states depending on redox potential (Eh), pH,
chemical composition of the environment, and the extent of biological
transformations. Arsenite (As +3) compounds are the dominant form
under reducing conditions; while arsenate (As +5) is generally the stable form in oxygenated/oxidizing environments. Understanding the biotic and abiotic processes that affect the partitioning of arsenic between
the mobile (i.e., the aqueous phase and mobile colloids) and the immobile phases (i.e., aquifer solids and immobile colloids) is crucial. Anionic
arsenic compounds adsorb to soils, clays, organic matter, and multiple
metal hydroxide/oxides (e.g., hydroxides of iron, manganese, and aluminum). The extent of adsorption and chelation depends on which
arsenic species are present, the Eh, pH, other chemicals that are present
(e.g., phosphate, sulfate, sulde, carbonate), and the activity of arsenic
biotransformation converting arsenic between arsenate, arsenite,
methylated, and other organoarsenic species.
Arsenic is challenging to treat at many cleanup sites. Arsenic is commonly found at U.S. Superfund National Priorities List (NPL) sites. Arsenic is also naturally present at high concentrations in some
groundwaters in the US (Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002). The EPA has
estimated that there are approximately 800 sites in the U.S. which contain arsenic out of a total of 1753 NPL sites (U.S.EPA, 2011). A variety of
technologies are available to cleanup arsenic-bearing waste or arseniccontaminated soils and sediments. Cleanup methods may include site
isolation, physical separation, bioremediation, washing, heating
methods, electrokinetics, solidication and stabilization (S/S) or in a
few cases in-situ vitrication. Most often, the ultimate, cost effective solution for land remediation involves stabilization and solidication (S/S)
technologies that chemically changes arsenic and encapsulates it to a
less mobile and less toxic species. S/S technologies have an extensively
documented history to reduce the mobility of arsenic in soils and
other solids by using Portland cement, lime, ferrous sulfates and other
binders (Camacho et al., 2009; Dermatas et al., 2004; Fuessle and
Taylor, 2004; Kim et al., 2003; Kundu and Gupta, 2008; Leist et al.,
2003; Mollah et al., 2004; Moon and Dermatas, 2003; Moon et al.,
2010, 2004; Paria and Yuet, 2006; Phenrat et al., 2008; Qiao et al.,
2006; U.S.EPA, 2002; Zhao et al., 2010). Additives and binders act to oxidize As +3 to As +5, which can either form insoluble complexes or become immobilized due to the formation of strongly adsorbed species; or
form insoluble co-precipitates with calcium and/or iron. According to
stoichiometry, 1 mol of arsenic is retained per mole of calcium, however,
a substantial reserve of Ca (OH)2 is desirable because of other
environmentally-conditioned reactions which consume Ca (OH)2 (i.e.
carbonation). Dutre (Dutre and Vandecasteele, 1998) solidied and stabilized waste y ash (containing 23% to 47% wt of arsenic) using cement
and pozzolanic material. The factor that determines this reduction in arsenic concentration is the excess of lime leading to the optimal pH at a
high concentration of Ca 2+ ions in the solution. In another study
(U.S.EPA, 1996), the EPA data indicated that ferrous sulfate with lime
can successfully immobilize arsenic through precipitation of an arseniciron phase. Furthermore, Artiola et al. (1990) showed that ferrous
sulfate could achieve over 95% stabilization of arsenic-contaminated
soils. They speculated that the processes rely upon precipitation of
FeAsO4 as limiting arsenic mobility and also cementation as a physical
encapsulation process limiting arsenic mobility. Artiola speculated that
the mechanism for stabilization of arsenic by iron in solution is chemical
bonding (inner-sphere) between the dissolved iron and the AsO43 rather than anion exchange at surface sites of iron oxides (outer-sphere).
Voigt et al. (1996) was able to show that soil contaminated from industrial arsenic could be successfully treated using Portland cement with
ferrous sulfate and lime (PFL).
After the EPA's extensive screening of available S/S technologies, it
was decided to study two (2) S/S technologies: PFL and Terra-Bond,
a commercially available technology. Terra-Bond utilizes sulfur
chemistry to react with metals to physically encapsulate and form insoluble suldes (Pildysh, 2002). Overall objective of this project was
to examine the molecular structure and arsenic release of TerraBond and compare it to a modied PFL technology. Reasons and
novelty of this project include: 1. To date, there are limited data on
the performance of the Terra-Bond technology to treat arsenictype materials; 2. Little research data can be found concerning the
solid-state speciation of CCA-treated wood, mine tailings, or organoarsenic materials; 3. With the CCA-treated wood phase-out in the
U.S. residential sector in 2004, alternatives to management are limited; 4. Limited data is found on the sequential fractionation of arsenic;
and 5. Sulfur-treated matrices appear to have better characteristics in
strength, durability, and nonleachability than other binder systems,
so from a sustainability perspective, a sulfur-type technology has
the potential to address the reuse of huge amounts of excess sulfur
available from many petroleum reneries. This paper reports on the
assessment of these technologies using untreated and treated
arsenic-bearing materials.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample collection and preparation
Table 1 shows the experimental sample matrix. Three (3) types of
arsenic-contaminated materials were selected: CCA-treated wood
waste, mine tailings from the La Trinidad Mine (referred to as La Trinidad mine tailings), and smelter dust/soil from a Superfund site in Anaconda, Montana. Smelter dust/soil was mixed with monosodium
methyl arsenate (MSMA) to derive an organo-arsenic type sample
for testing (referred to as Montana soil). Each of the three materials
collected were air-dried and sieved through 40 mesh (nominal sieve
opening 0.420 mm) to remove large chunks, pebbles, and woody materials. Samples were prepared by using sample size reduction tools
301
Table 1
Experimental sample matrix of wastes containing arsenic.
Type of arsenic waste
Location/site
Comments
Osmose Wood
Preserving Division,
Grifn, GA
La Trinidad Mine,
North Fork American
River watershed,
California
Contains copper,
chromium, and arsenic
Location: 39.2020432 N
latitude and 120.
4938989 W longitude
North American Datum
(NAD) 27, ~ 4000 ft mean
sea level
MSMA crabgrass killer
(manufacturer/
distributor Green Light,
San Antonio, TX) was
purchased from local
store
a
CCA treated wood waste samples contained selected ner fraction after discarding
larger sieved fractions and woody materials.
b
The smelter dust may contain other metal co-contaminants (cadmium, copper,
lead, zinc, mercury, manganese). However, this study focused on arsenic only.
c
To incorporate the inorganic and organic components of arsenic, the organoarsenic and smelter dust were mixed to obtain one composite waste sample.
302
employed at the mine, which extracted gold and disposed the arsenic,
iron and quartz (SiO2) into a tailings pile. As a result of weathering
and erosion of the tailings pile, iron and arsenic formed scorodite
(FeAsO42H2O). Scorodite can dissolve congruently or incongruently
depending on the pH. Congruent dissolution of scorodite releasing
equimolar concentrations of arsenic and Fe occurs at low pH by the
following reaction:
H2 O:
Coarse
Filler
Material
Arsenic containing
Waste Material
(untreated)
Molten
Sulfur
303
Drying/pre-heating
Surface
Treatment
Compounding
Proprietary
Hydrocarbon
based (Inter-Bond)
Proprietary
Functional Filler
Pellet Forming
(Primary Encapsulation)
Pellet Cooling
Proprietary
Hydrocarbon
based Filler
Pellet Sealing
(Secondary Encapsulation)
Pellet Containment
Fig. 1. Process ow chart for stabilization/encapsulation of arsenic-containing materials by Terra-Bond technology.
304
Table 2
Modied sequential extraction procedure for arsenic-bearing solid phases (Ko et al.,
2003; Pandey et al., 2004; Van Herreweghe et al., 2003).
Fraction Chemical agent added to the solid Duration
sample/residue
Target phase
Fraction
1
Fraction
2
Fraction
3
Fraction
4
Water extractable As
30 ml DI water
12 h
shaking
12 h
shaking
12 h
shaking
15 min
heating
As bound to Al-oxides
As bound to Fe oxides
or hydroxides
Reducible fraction
J De
C
x
where R is the rate of transfer from the mobile to immobile phase and
X is the distance into the solid.
Using Fick's second law of diffusion, a widely accepted general
model was developed by Crane (1980) and further used by Kim and
Batchelor (2001). The data generated from the standard dynamic
leach tests was inputted into this model:
Mt
Mo
4De
L2
0:5
t
0:5
where
Mt
Mo
Mt/Mo
L
De
logb
De
where b = 1 cm 2/s.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Physical and chemical properties
Remaining refractory
As minerals (or
residual fraction)
Table 5
Dimensions of treated samples.
Untreated samples
CCA-treated wood
waste
a
Arsenic
Mercury
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Selenium
Silver
95,900 7000
1.7
338
NDc
54,700
477
6.5
NDe
Weight Dimensions2
(g)
(cm cm)
Sample description
La Trinidad mine
tailings
186,000 7780
177
8
2.9
NDd
2850
29.1
12.9
305
8.85
6.7
La Trinidad
treated)
tailings
(PFL 148.95
145.27
17.54
16
130.63
146.55
17.65
14.83
108.92
327
4.63
(dia.) 9.05 (L)
4.60 (dia.) 9.3
(L)
1.73, 2.1, 2.27,
1.66 (dia.)
1.57, 1.28, 2.06,
1.67 (dia.)
4.78
(dia.) 7.15 (L)
4.8 (dia.) 7.1
(L)
2.49, 2.01, 2.18,
2.58 (dia.)
1.84, 2.46, 2.25,
2.05 (dia.)
4.55
(dia.) 7.59 (L)
4.5 (dia.) 8.3
(L)
2.63, 2.12, 2.51,
2.22 (dia.)
2.37, 2.03, 2.69,
1.99 (dia.)
5.45 (dia.) 6
(L)
5.1 (L)
Surface
area (cm2)
Volume
(cm3)
165.2
152.3
167.6
154.5
11.8
3.8
8.5
2.3
143.2
128.2
143.2
128.4
16.8
6.5
14.5
5.2
140.9
123.3
149.1
131.9
17.6
7.0
16.2
6.1
149.3
139.9
156.1
132.7
1: The dimensions are reported as average and standard deviation values calculated
from four spherical Terra-Bond treated samples and two cylindrical PFL treated samples. One control sample data was reported for control samples.
2: The diameters (cm) were measured for four different orientations of spherical
samples.
related to ettringite, a common product from the hydration of tricalcium aluminate in the presence of sulfate ions in Portland cement.
Though the mechanism of thaumasite formation is not clearly understood, thaumasite forms as a replacement of ettringite at temperatures about 15 C, and can exist as a solid solution series with
ettringite, in which silicon atoms are replaced by aluminum in these
octahedral sites. The anion substitutions are, however, more complex
as the charge has to be reduced to compensate for the lower oxidation
state of Al(III) compared with that of Si(IV). In ettringite, one quarter
of the available anion sites are lled by water molecules; while in
thaumasite, an ordered arrangement of equal number of sulfate and
carbonate ions occupies the anion sites. At each corner of the unit
cell of ettringite, there is a cylindrical column of composition Ca3
Table 4
Physical and chemical properties of untreated and treated samples.
Parameters
Untreated
PFL treated
Terra-Bond treated
CCA wood
treater waste
La Trinidad
mine tailings
Montana soil
(MSMA spiked)
CCA wood
treater waste
La Trinidad
mine tailings
Montana soil
(MSMA spiked)
CCA wood
treater waste
La Trinidad
mine tailings
Montana soil
(MSMA spiked)
95,900
7000
0.67 0.000
36.2 1.55
420.0 10 4
186,000
7780
1.14 0.000
14.7 0.14
55.3 10 4
28,500 1190a
52,200 212
20,500 140
11,200 330
32,900 200
5160 375
0.71 0.000
10.4 0.21
34.8 10 4
0.70 0.005
9.6 0.16
4.6 (dia.) 9
(l)
160,000
5670
1.15 0.021
8.2 0.028
4.8 (dia.) 7.1
(l)
1.08 0.036
14.1 8.2
4.5 (dia.) 7.9
(l)
2.60 0.4
0.34 0.004
1.8d 0.3
2.89 0.3
0.30 0.10
2.2d 0.3
2.48 0.08
0.23 0.016
2.3d 0.3
NA
NA
33 2.2c
21 3.945
52 6.014
NA
NA
NA
NA = not applicable.
a
Sample was determined to contain 2350 mg/kg arsenic present in the native Montana/Anaconda smelter soil (without addition of MSMA).
b
Average and standard deviation values calculated from ve samples.
c
Average and standard deviation values calculated from two samples.
d
The dimensions of the Terra-Bond treated spherical samples were average and standard deviation values from three samples.
306
307
BEI @ 1000X
BEI @ 400X
EPOXY
BEI @ 200X
BEI @ 400X
BEI @ 78X
BEI = 50m
Fig. 2. Scanning electron micrographs of untreated and treated arsenic-containing materials; A untreated CCA-containing wood waste, B PFL treated CCA-containing wood
waste, C Terra-Bond treated CCA-containing wood waste, D PFL treated La Trinidad mine tailings, E Terra-Bond treated La Trinidad mine tailings, F Terra-Bond treated Montana soil. Spot microanalysis was done by EDS.
mine tailings, increasing the pH to 12 signicantly increased the release of arsenic from the untreated materials. In contrast, lower leaching numbers were observed for the untreated CCA and mine tailing
samples at pH 9, respectively, and even less at pH 2. Though mine tailings treated by both the Terrabond and PFL methods behaved similarly, more arsenic was released from CCA-treated wood samples
stabilized using Terrabond than with PFL at pH of 12. With regard
to the Montana soil mixture, it leached a much higher percentage of
arsenic in all cases relative to the CCA and mine tailing material. In
general, the overall quantity of arsenic leached was observed to be
dependent upon both the stabilization technique and pH. The amount
of arsenic released from untreated samples was signicant at all pH
values, approaching quantitative leaching of all arsenic at pH 12.
Comparing across stabilization methods, greater quantities of arsenic
were released from samples stabilized with PFL compared to TerraBond under acidic conditions, at pH 2 and also when extracted
with acetate (pH ~4.9, TCLP). Under alkaline conditions (pH 9 and
308
Fig. 3. Arsenic EXAFS spectra and Fourier transform magnitudes of untreated and treated materials. Model compounds sodium arsenite and arsenate are also shown. Fourier transform magnitudes are on the right. An EXAFS spectrum is used to distinguish the coordination environment of arsenic in each of the materials. Peak positions in FTs are not corrected
for phase shift effects.
Table 6
EXAFS tting results of arsenic samples.
Sample
ArsenicO
ArsenicFe/Cu
CN
R ()
10% 0.02
2
(2)
4.6
1.69
0.0029 1.1
3.29
0.0037
4.3
1.68
0.0027 0.9
3.28
0.0028
4.1
1.69
0.0047 0.7
3.34
0.0061
4.7
1.69
0.0048 1.0
3.21
0.0092
4.3
1.69
0.0027 1.8
3.38
0.0039
CN
R ()
10% 0.02
2
(2)
309
Fig. 4. Arsenic XANES spectra of untreated and treated samples; A XANES spectra for
untreated and PFL treated CCA-containing wood waste; B XANES spectra of
untreated and PFL treated La Trinidad mine tailings; C XANES of untreated and
PFL/Terra-Bond treated Montana soil samples.
modeling program, saturation indices for iron and arsenic bearing minerals were computed for the solution phase species measured for day 2
and day 28 for the untreated Montana soil extractions. These results indicate that the soluble metal concentrations for arsenic and iron at day 2
are over-saturated with respect to iron oxide phases but not scorodite
(an ironarsenate oxide mineral), and precipitation of ferrihydrite
was predicted. This prediction is consistent with the following
310
1000000
La Trinidad MineTailings
100000
100000
Arsenic,mg/kg
Arsenic,mg/kg
10000
Total
1000
TCLP
pH2
100
pH9
10000
Total
TCLP
1000
pH2
pH9
100
pH12
pH12
10
10
1
CCA/Untreated
100000
CCA/PFL
CCA/Terra-Bond
Trinidad/Untreated
Trinidad/PFL Trinidad/Terra-Bond
Arsenic,mg/kg
10000
Total
1000
TCLP
pH2
100
pH9
pH12
10
1
Soil/Untreated
Soil/PFL
Soil/Terra-Bond
Fig. 5. Leach test data-CCA-treated wood, LaTrinidad mine tailings, Montana soil with MSMA spiked-all treated with PFL or Terra-Bond method.
waste, the majority of arsenic was extracted during the acid soluble
or oxidizable fraction. Overall, the water soluble, iron or aluminum
bound, and reducible fractions accounted for the least amount of arsenic extracted in the untreated or treated CCA treater wood waste.
Also, the predominant extraction phase changed, suggesting that
the arsenic form changed depending on the waste treatment, whether it was untreated, Terra-Bond, or PFL. The implication is that the
highly organic nature of the untreated wood sample retains arsenate
through interactions which may be disrupted by hydroxide ion. The
Terra-Bond treated material was remarkably stable across the
Table 7
Arsenic released by sequential extraction.
Units
Total As
content
Water soluble
(F1)
Reducible
(F4)
Acid soluble/
oxidizable (F5)
Residual
(F6)
Sum
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
309
42
30
2313
3186
89
12,750
3414
948
5898
5241
105
8456
37,007
12
7435
10,705
2445
37,161
38.7
59,595 114.2
3629
32.4
3
1143
24
938
15,556
54
170,440
118,800
24,350
17,330
4409
2082
288
4592
3
5991
16,230
3266
194,990 122.6
160,730 103
29,779
90.5
16,320
5769
1923
7110
9090
1323
3735
3003
1095
575
177
196
186
350
97
422
1214
719
28,348
99.5
19,603
95.6
5353 103.7
All data are in units of mg/kg dry weight. Mass normalized data are relative to whole-stabilized waste and are not normalized to the actual mass of the waste material within the
stabilized matrix. Cumulative leaching data which exceed 100% simply reect the combination of multiple analytical error terms inherent within the sum of arsenic leached within
all six fractions.
LI
7.39E06
4.80E07
1.10E07
5.1
6.3
7
CCA
Untreated
Terra-Bond
PFL
6.64E06
3.88E06
3.10E07
5.2
5.4
6.5
1.13E04
1.07E04
5.09E05
4
4.3
initial ve extractions, with the majority leached under extreme acidic and oxidizing conditions, indicating that Terra-Bond is preferable
to PFL for the containment of arsenic.
With the Montana soil, there were approximately 28,000 mg/kg of
total arsenic in the untreated Montana soil, although a majority of this
was added as MSMA. Both untreated and treated samples contained signicant amounts of water soluble arsenic in the untreated sample,
Terra-Bond treated, and PFL treated sample. In the PFL treated sample, the greatest amount of arsenic was extracted with NH4F, which relates to iron or aluminum bound arsenic. It is evident that PFL treatment
promoted formation of iron-bound arsenic, increasing from 25.3% to
46.4%. Recalcitrant forms of arsenic (i.e., organic matter and iron hydroxides bound) were released by NaOH extraction at 15.3%. It is important not to draw too many conclusions regarding the bonding
environment of the treated Montana soils due to the observation that
a majority of the total arsenic was leached following only the third extraction. An interpretation of the high leachability of the arsenic in
this series of samples (treated and untreated) is the addition of the
MSMA amendment which was not chemically bonded or physically encapsulated to a signicant extent by either treatment and, therefore,
does not represent an accurate reection of arsenic-containing waste
materials which are aged in the natural environment.
In all three untreated arsenic contaminated waste materials, the
sequential extractions indicated that leachability depends on the
chemical nature of arsenic present in the material. In CCA-treated
wood waste material, there was a complex mixture of metals xated
on organic matter and soil residues. In La Trinidad mine tailings, the
majority of arsenic was also associated with organic matter and iron
hydroxides. In Montana soils, the majority of arsenic was easily
extracted in the water soluble phase. These results illustrate that different arsenic-containing materials may contain different forms of arsenic, and each specic material requires consideration prior to
selection of the most appropriate S/S technology.
311
the arsenic oxidation state. But, there were distinct differences observed
for XANES spectra of untreated and PFL treated scorodite-rich mine tailing which changed the arsenic coordination structure from a mixture of
As (+3/+5) to exclusively As (+5). These results are consistent with
previous analyses ((Jing et al., 2005; Yoon et al., 2010). Further research
should be expanded to study the speciation of organoarsenical species
in solid phases and elucidate the complexation mechanisms between
them and solid surfaces.
In all three untreated arsenic contaminated waste materials, sequential extraction showed that arsenic species were tightly bound
to the organic matter/Fe hydroxide fraction. In CCA-treated wood
waste samples, there was a complex mixture of metals xated on organic matter and soil residues. In La Trinidad mine tailings, the majority of arsenic was present as the mineral scorodite and also associated
with iron hydroxides. In Montana soils, the majority of arsenic was
easily extracted in the water soluble phase, presumably due to the articial enrichment of arsenic in this sample (in the form of MSMA).
Terra-Bond treated samples of CCA-containing samples and La Trinidad mine tailings passed the TCLP arsenic standard of 5.0 mg/l. The
soil samples (spiked with MSMA) were signicantly reduced in all
samples but did not meet the TCLP. Terra-Bond treated samples released signicantly more mass of arsenic at higher pH (e.g. pH = 12).
Both treatment methods reduced the arsenic released, but the effectiveness of these treatments varied signicantly. Effective diffusivities indicate that the treatments may not be suitable for disposal. But
another researcher (Moon et al., 2010) has shown that quicklime-sulfate method may show good results. More data is needed on other
contaminants present in the untreated materials (e.g. chromium, copper) to provide information on the main controlling species and the
effectiveness of the treatment with other contaminants. This is critical
since a treatment process that shows promise for arsenic may result
in a poor choice for other contaminants. Further research and more
renement of the technology recipes are needed to assure longterm containment of the arsenic.
Acknowledgements
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency through its Ofce of Research and Development funded and managed the research described
here. Part of this research was carried out at the Stanford Synchrotron
Radiation Lightsource (SSRL) a national user facility operated by Stanford University on behalf of the U.S. Department of Energy. I am grateful to Battelle Labs in Columbus, OH for analytical work and Dr. ChiaChen Chen (University of Texas) for assistance with the EXAFS and
XANES work. I am also grateful to Roger Yeardley for graphics assistance and to the anonymous reviewers who improved upon this
work. This research has not been subjected to Agency review and
therefore does not necessarily reect the views of the Agency. Mention of trade names and products should not be interpreted as conveying ofcial EPA approval, endorsement, or recommendation.
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and surcial X-ray absorption ne structure analysis, indicate that the
combination of both the chemical nature and physical encapsulation
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samples showed the appearance of an epoxy material on the surface.
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pentavalent form (As (+5)), and the treatment process did not alter
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