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Common Black Hawk in Ecuador

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Distributional records and potential threats to the Common

(Mangrove) Black Hawk (Buteogallus anthracinus subtilis) in
southwestern Ecuador
REGISTROS DE DISTRIBUCION Y AMENAZAS POTENCIALES DEL GAVILN NEGRO DE MANGLAR EN EL SUROESTE DE
ECUADOR

Juan Jos Alava1,6, Miguel Saavedra2, Xavier Arosemena3, Madeleine Calle4, Carlos Vinueza5, Pedro J.
Jimnez6, Ral Carvajal7 & F. Hernn Vargas8
1

School of Resource & Environmental Management, Faculty of Environment, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University
Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada.
E-mail: jalavasa@sfu.ca
2

Jos de Antepara 4306 y Maracaibo Guayaquil, Ecuador.

Consultora Amazilia S.A., Guayaquil, Ecuador.

932 SW 8th lane Gainesville, FL 32601, USA.

Tumbesian Birding, Sauces 2, Mz 52-F Villa 13, Guayaquil, Ecuador.

Fundacion Ecuatoriana para el Estudio de Mamferos Marinos (FEMM), Guayaquil, Ecuador.

Gobierno Provincial del Guayas, Direccin Coordinadora de Medio Ambiente y Agua, Jefatura de Biodiversidad y reas
Protegidas, Illingworth 108 y Malecn, Guayaquil, Ecuador.
8

The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID 83709, USA.

Abstract
We studied the distribution of the Common (Mangrove) Black Hawk Buteogallus anthracinus subtilis in southwestern
Ecuador in January 2002 and from 2005 to 2007. We recorded 10 adults and three juveniles in four coastal mangrove
areas with different levels of habitat fragmentation, and where red mangrove (Rhyzophora spp.) was the dominant tree
species. One of the juveniles was approximately a 30 day old individual at one of the surveyed areas (Manglecito Island,
the El Morro Mangroves Wildlife Refuge). Shrimp farming and commercial banana cultivation were identified as the
major conservation threats for this population in the long term. Between 1969 and 1999, mangrove deforestation due to
shrimp aquaculture and other demographic activities (i.e. agriculture, urban sprawl, timber for coal production) reduced
about 25% of the total potential mangrove habitat for this species. Pesticides used in banana plantations close to
mangroves might be affecting this species and other raptors in southwestern Ecuador.
Keywords: anthropogenic impact, Gulf of Guayaquil, mangrove forest, pollution, tropical raptors.
Resumen.
En enero de 2002 y durante el perodo 2005-2007, estudiamos la distribucin de Gaviln Negro de Manglar (Buteogallus
anthracinus subtilis) en el suroeste del Ecuador. Registramos la presencia de 10 adultos y tres juveniles en cuatro lugares
costeros con predominancia del manglar rojo (Rhyzophora spp.) y con diversos grados de fragmentacin del hbitat.
Solamente en uno (Isla Manglecito, Refugio de Vida Silvestre Manglares el Morro) de los cuatro lugares encontramos un
juvenil de aproximadamente 30 das de edad. Identificamos a las camaroneras y bananeras como las potenciales causas
principales de la declinacin de esta poblacin a largo plazo. Entre 1969 y 1999, la deforestacin asociada a las
camaroneras y a otras actividades antropognicas redujeron en ms del 25% el rea de manglares disponible para la
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Alava et al.
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especie. Sugerimos que los pesticidas usados en las bananeras, contiguas a manglares, pueden estar afectando a sta y
otras especies de rapaces en el suroeste de Ecuador.
Palabras claves: bosque de manglar, impacto antropognico, Golfo de Guayaquil, polucin, rapaces tropicales.

Introduction

he Common (Mangrove) Black Hawk (Buteogallus

anthracinus subtilis) is distributed along the Pacific
coast from Mexico to extreme northwestern Peru (Blake
1977, Hilty & Brown 1986, Thiollay 1994, Clark 2007),
however, it is probably one of the rarest tropical raptors
in Ecuador (Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). The species is
mainly restricted to mangroves along the southwest coast
of Ecuador in the estuary of the Guayaquil Gulf Basin,
including the Guayas River and mangrove coastal areas
of the El Oro province southwards to the border of Peru
(Ridgely & Greenfield 2001). Definitive evidence about
the species presence in northwestern Ecuador is still
unclear, and it may occur in Manab and Esmeraldas
provinces as well (Hilgert & Benavides 2002). For
instance, an individual was recently observed at Changal
in the San Lorenzo mangrove forests, located northern
Esmeraldas province, which might confirm the presence
of this raptor in the area (Solano-Ugalde et al. 2009).
Yet, pictures, video documentation or call recordings are
still required to further support the isolated finding in
Esmeraldas.
The Guayaquil gulf estuary contains approximately
81% of the total area of Ecuadorian mangroves,
encompassing about 121,000 hectares (CLIRSEN 2007),
and is suitable habitat for vast populations of different
species of herons and egrets, and other species of birds
strongly associated with this type of habitat, including
the Red-lored Amazon Amazona autumnalis lilacina
(Alava et al. 2005, Carvajal et al. 2005, Berg & Angel
2006, Carvajal & Alava 2007). It has been suggested that
deforestation and fragmentation in mangrove habitats
have affected the local and nesting population of Roseate
Spoonbills (Platalea ajaja) (Alava 2005), as well as the
declining population of the Brown Wood-Rail (Aramides
wolfi), which is endangered and less tolerant to habitat
deterioration in Ecuador (Alava et al. 2007). Several
species of parrots use these mangroves (i.e. Santay
Island-National Recreation Area and Reserva de
Produccin de Fauna Manglares el Salado) for foraging
and resting, including endemic and threatened species at
the national level such as the Pacific Parrotlet (Forpus
coelestis), the vulnerable Red-masked Parakeet
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(Arantinga erythrogenys), the vulnerable Grey-cheeked

Parakeet (Brotogeris pyrrhopterus) and the endangered
Red-lored Amazon (Amazona autumnalis) (Delgado et
al. 2000, Jaramillo et al. 2002, Berg & Angel 2006,
Carvajal et al. 2006). Mangroves are important foraging,
roosting and breeding habitat for the Common
(Mangrove) Black Hawk. Our study summarizes recent
observations and provides information on distribution
and conservation status of this rare raptor inhabiting one
of the most threatened coastal ecosystems in Ecuador.

Methods
Surveys of mangrove were conducted at four sites in
southwestern Ecuador during 2002 and 2005-2007 (Fig.
1). Observations were opportunistically made on land
between 07:00 h am and 17:00 h, and each one lasted
from15-20 min using 7 x 50 mm and 10 x 42 mm
binoculars. We observed birds and other wildlife for a
total of 450 hours in 50 days during the surveyed years,
and most (60%) of the observations took place during
the wet season (December to April). We consider this
taxa as a subspecies B. anthracinus subtilis, following
Blake (1977), Ridgely & Greenfield (2001), and Clark
(2007). We also reviewed the literature to identify
potential threats to the Mangrove Black Hawk. We used
mainly data from CLIRSEN (2007) to estimate
deforestation rates of mangroves and from INEC (2007,
2009) to estimate areas of banana plantations at the El
Oro Province. Here we describe the habitat features of
the four study areas where the accounts and distribution
surveys were conducted (Fig. 1).
Study areas
Reserva de Produccin de Fauna Manglares el
Salado-RPFMS. The RPFMS is a wildlife refuge
confining 9,748 ha of remnant mangroves in southeast
Guayaquil City (210'S, 7956'W), Guayas Province.
About 3% of the total area of this reserve is occupied by
shrimp farms (<200 ha), of which 100 ha have been
abandoned. Three thermoelectric facilities, a water pump
station and sewers also occur within its boundaries.
Small-scale clearing of mangrove trees (i.e. timber
extraction for coal production) occurs at specific

Alava et al.
Common Black Hawk in Ecuador

20

locations, while pollution from solid wastes and water

contamination are environmental issues of concern being
close to human urbanization and industrial parks
(Carvajal et al. 2006). Artisanal fisheries are subsistence
activities practiced by communities residing within the
RPFMS. Although the RPFMS has a moderate level of
fragmentation in some locations, and severe in others,
some pristine mangroves in isolated patches are still well
conserved and act as biological corridors and provide
suitable habitat for local populations of waterbirds (e.g.,
heron nesting sites) and mammals (e.g., South American
raccoons and opossums). Mangroves around this area,

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including the Puerto Hondo Mangroves Sanctuary, are

roosting habitat for about 214 individuals of the Redlored Amazon (A. autumnalis lilacina) (Berg & Angel
2006). Six species of mangrove trees recorded for
Ecuador are found in this reserve: two species of Red
Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle; Rhizophora racemosa),
hybrid Red Mangrove Rhizhopora harrisonii), Black
Mangrove (Avicennia germinans), White Mangrove
(Laguncularia racemosa) and Button Mangrove
(Conocarpus erectus) (Carvajal et al. 2006, R. Carvajal
pers. com.).

Santay Island
(Ramsar site)

Reserva de Produci n
Faunstica Manglares El
Salado (RPFMS) (El Salado
Mangrove Wildlife
Production Reserve)

Pacific Ocean
Guayas Province
2.5
Refugio de Vida Silvestre
Manglares El Morro (El Morro
Mangroves Wildlife Refuge)

Puna Island

Manglecito Island

Gulf of Guayaquil

Bajo Alto Mangroves

Gulf of Guayaquil

Santa Clara Island

Wildlife Refuge Ramsar Site

The El Oro Province

25 km
81

81.5

80

Figure 1. Sightings and local distribution sites on mangrove-estuarine areas (as indicate by black rings) of the Guayaquil Gulf
and Guayas River basin, where several individuals of the Common (Mangrove) BlackHawk were observed. A juvenile hawk was
recorded at a nest on Manglecito Island, El Morro Mangroves Wildlife Refuge, Ecuador.

Santay Island- National Recreation Area. Isla Santay

is a Ramsar site (213'S, 7951'W) with 4,700 ha located
in the inner estuary of the Guayaquil Gulf (Guayas River
Basin) and also close to the urban periphery of
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Guayaquil City (Delgado et al. 2000, Jaramillo et al.

2002, Santander & Muoz 2004). Isla Santay includes
intertidal mud, sand or salt flats and intertidal forested
wetlands, encompassing mangrove swamps, nipah

Alava et al.
Common Black Hawk in Ecuador

swamps and tidal freshwater swamp forests. The total

area of mangroves on Santay Island is 2224 ha. The
mangroves includes: R. mangle, R. harrisonii, A.
germinans, L. racemosa, C. erectus, Mangrove Golden
Leatherfern (Acrostichum aureum), Salicornia fruticosa
and Zizhypus thyrsiflora. During the rainy season (i.e.
late December to May) 60% of the island is inundated.
The island is also inhabited by humans, and several
anthropogenic activities such as livestock farming
(goats, pigs, and chickens), coal production from
burning of trees and rice cultivation are conducted here
(Delgado-Mendoza et al. 2000, Jaramillo et al. 2002).
Even though, it has a considerable degree of human
perturbation, Isla Santay is still a refuge for numerous
species of terrestrial birds and waterbirds. Two raptors,
the Savanna Hawk (Buteogallus meridionalis) and
Harris Hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus), have been also
recorded on the island.
Isla Manglecito (Manglecito Island). This site is part of
the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Manglares-El Morro
(239'S, 8011'W), a recent protected area encompassing
10,130 ha of mangrove forests, intertidal mudflats,
estuarine channels and creeks in El Morro Channel
(Guayas Province), Gulf of Guayaquil. Manglecito

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Island, also known as the Frigatebirds Island is

inhabited by a large, breeding colony and year-round
population
of
about
2,000-6,000
Magnificent
Frigatebirds (Fregata magnificens), which is apparently
the largest seabird population on the Ecuadorian
mainland coast (X. Arosemena pers. com.). Five species
of mangrove trees occur in this island too, including red,
hybrid red, black, white and button mangroves. Presence
of solid wastes (i.e. plastic bags and bottles) and illegal
camp fires are signs of human activity in this area.
Bajo Alto Mangroves. The Bajo Alto Mangroves is
located in the El Oro Province (3S, 79.5W), and has an
area of 555 ha, from which 357 ha are mangrove forests
(Calle 2003). Bajo Alto Mangroves are not yet under any
protected area or reserve status; however, the Ecuadorian
Mangrove Law protects the mangroves ecosystems.
Mangrove remnants are still semipristine, and seem
suitable as habitat for birds. The El Oro Province is
typically characterized by the vast amount of banana
plantations and shrimp farms. In this province, shrimp
farm ponds are encroaching nearby mangrove habitat
where mangrove hawks were sighted. The predominant
mangrove tree species in this area are the red mangroves,
followed by black and white mangroves (Calle 2003).

Alava et al.
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Figure 2. A juvenile of Common (Mangrove) Black Hawk perched on branches of a Red Mangrove tree (Rhizophora sp.),
exhibiting typical plumage features, observed in the Estero Salado Mangrove-Wildlife Production Reserve on March 2006,
Guayas province, Gulf of Guayaquil (Photo: Miguel Saavedra).

Results
Field observations. The sites for the new distributional
records of the Mangrove Black Hawk in the Gulf of
Guayaquil are depicted in Figure 1. Observation dates
and the number of individuals observed in the study
areas are shown in Table 1. Description on the accounts
in surveyed mangrove sites is explained as follow:
Estero Salado MangroveWildlife Production
Reserve. Three Mangrove Black Hawks were recorded
during 15!22 March 2006 and 21 April 2006. These
were the first observations of this hawk for the area after
Sheets (2005) reported this species in Puerto Hondo
Mangroves Sanctuary, a remnant mangrove forest
recently included within the boundaries of the reserve. A
juvenile was also recorded in a site close to human
residences (Fig. 2). These observations were made at
12h00 and each hawk remained perched in red mangrove
trees for 1520 minutes.
Santay Island. During earlier avifaunal surveys,
Mangrove Black Hawks have not been recorded on this

island (Jaramillo et al. 2002). From 5!13 September

2005 (dry season), two individuals were observed in the
Santay Island. These are the first records of the species
in this area. Interestingly, on both occasions these
individuals were observed landing on piles of
accumulated leaf litter (78 m in height) deposited over
shrubs and vines, and we suspected the hawks were
searching for small lizards or other small vertebrates.
Manglecito Island. From December 2006 to July 2007,
two juveniles and three adults were continually observed
at the entrance of Manglecito Island, at the El Morro
Channel (the El Morro Mangroves Wildlife Refuge; Fig.
1). A juvenile was observed in July 2007 (Table 1), and
several adults and juveniles/inmmatures have been
reported soaring and resting around the mangrove trees
(Figs. 3-4). In addition to the observations described
above, a previous isolated sighting (by JJA) of a bird
soaring over a marginal mangrove patch of tall trees next
to a recent deforested mangrove site for shrimp
aquaculture was made during early 2000 (no exact date
recorded) in the Guayaquil Gulf (Puna Island, Fig. 1)
during a mangrove survey and monitoring project.

Figure 3. Pictures of an adult individual soaring over mangrove trees in Isla Manglecito (El Morro Mangrove Wildlife Refuge),
Guayas Province, Gulf of Guayaquil on December 2006 - July 2007 (Photo: Xavier Arosemena).

Bajo Alto mangroves. Two Mangrove Black Hawks

were observed at this site, the first was recorded on
January 2002 and the second on 15 August 2005. These
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are the first documented records for this species in the El

Oro Province, Ecuador (Fig. 1). Other individuals have

Alava et al.
Common Black Hawk in Ecuador

previously been observed in this area (N. Hilgert pers.

com.).
Potential threats. It is estimated that about 54,400
hectares (27% of the original total area: 203,625
hectares) of mangrove habitat has been lost in Ecuador
from 1969 to 2006 due to uncontrolled clear-cutting of
mangroves, not only for construction of illegal shrimp

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farms (aquaculture), but also for agriculture and urban

sprawl (Fig. 5, CLIRSEN 2007). Since this species is
restricted to inhabit mangrove forests (Ridgely &
Greenfield 2001), we believe the Mangrove Black Hawk
population could have suffered an ecologically similar
rate of decline during the period (1969-1999), as the area
used by shrimp farms increased from 0 to 178,000 ha.

Figure 4. Immature-adult individual observed perched on a dry mangrove tree in Isla Manglecito (Photo: M. Saavedra).

Extensive banana plantations, using a broad spectrum

of synthetic pesticides, are found in southwest Ecuador,
and are primarily located in coastal provinces such as
Los Rios-El Guayas and the El Oro (INEC 2007, INEC
2009). Although we were unable to collect historical
data to estimate trends in the area used by banana
plantations, we were able to estimate a total average of
232,235 ha of area dedicated to the production of
bananas at the national level (Fig. 6). About 79% of this
total was located on the costal zone, mainly in the El
Guayas and El Oro provinces (an average of 51,183 and
44,607 ha, respectively, Fig. 3). Being relatively close to
mangrove areas, there is a potential negative effect for
the Mangrove Black Hawk via run-off and aerial
dispersion of pesticides used in agricultural lands close
to the estuary and mangrove forests. It has been well
documented that the use of pesticides such as
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organophosphates, carbamates and bipiridyls (e.g.,

Paraquat) to control and eliminate agriculture pests and
application of organochlorines (i.e. DDT) to overcome
human diseases vectors (such as malaria mosquitoes)
represent a major threat to raptors in developing
countries, jeopardizing their survival in the long term
(Thiollay 1989b). At present, the acute and chronic
impacts of persistent, toxic and bio-accumulative organic
pollutants potentially present in raptors are unknown in
Ecuador.
Discussion
In Ecuador, distribution, reproductive behavior and
feeding ecology are poorly known for Mangrove Black
Hawks. From multiple observations of an individual in
the El Oro province, it appears that this hawk rests

Alava et al.
Common Black Hawk in Ecuador

during noon and early afternoon hours in low and bulky

branches of Rhizophora spp. aside creeks in mangrove
inlets. The Bajo Alto Mangroves have remnant stands of
mangrove habitat in semi-pristine condition and are
believe to be suitable for this raptor. The hawk may
prefer protected habitat, not exposed to the waves or
high tide levels. On the other hand, Thiollay (1994)
reported that this raptor, in French Guiana, nests on the
top of tall trees, which was not the case in the surveyed
areas.

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& Brown 1986, Thiollay 1994), as well as different

species of Ardeidae herons such as Great Egrets Ardea
alba, Snowy Egrets Egretta thula, Little Blue Heron
Egretta caerulea, Tricolored Heron E. tricolor, and
Green-backed Heron Butorides striatus in mangroves,
showing a strong preference for egrets (Caldwell 1986).
In Ecuadorian mangroves, crustaceans have been
identified as the major prey item in the diet composition
of this raptor (Hilgert & Benavides 2002), but no
stomach content studies are available to fully confirm
this observation.

The Common Black Hawks diet consist mostly of crabs,

fishes, shorebirds, small vertebrates and carcasses (Hilty

Figure 5. Temporal and spatial change of mangroves and shrimp farming areas on the continental coast of Ecuador from 1969
to 2006 (CLIRSEN 2007).

Conservation implications
In Ecuador, the Mangrove Black Hawk is a vulnerable
species due to habitat fragmentation and likely declining
population (Hilgert & Benavides 2002). Although the
species is not globally threatened (Thiollay 1989,
Bildstein et al. 1998, BirdLife International 2011), the
populations are also declining and included in the
Appendix II of CITES, with poorly documented status
and with taxonomic confusion of all populations within
one or two species: Common Black Hawk B.
anthracinus or Mangrove Black Hawk B subtilis
(Thiollay 1994, BirdLife International 2011). Its global
population has been estimated to be about 10,000
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individuals, having an extent of occurrence no greater

than 20,000 km2, taking into consideration both severe
fragmentation and population fluctuations and declines
(Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001, BirdLife International
2000, BirdLife International 2011). In Ecuador, this
species is probably facing a dramatic decline caused by
the decimation of its fragile habitat, the mangrove forest,
which is being drastically transformed for the
construction of shrimp ponds and by the urban sprawl
(Ridgely & Greenfield 2001, Hilgert & Benavides 2002).
This trend in habitat loss is critical and might be
affecting not only waterbirds, marine birds and
shorebirds, but also Neotropical raptors and other birds

Alava et al.
Common Black Hawk in Ecuador

depending on mangroves forests. Thiollay (1989a)

pointed out that tropical raptors strongly depend on vast
patches of forest, and habitat destruction is their major
threat. This is more significant when taking into account
sedentary and forest restricted species, as well as gaps in
the ecology of some raptors (Bildstein et al. 1998). The
potential reduction in foraging and nesting grounds for
this hawk can compromise its presence, and in particular
it may cause regional or local extirpation in some
locations of the Ecuadorian coast, as suggested by
Ridgely & Greenfield (2001) in mangroves around Baha
de Carquez. Lately, regional environmental projects to
protect the mangrove ecosystem and avoid its
deforestation in the Gulf of Guayaquil have been

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undertaken in the last decade (Carvajal & Alava 2007).

Fortunately, natural regeneration and rehabilitation of
mangroves has taken place in several areas, where
shrimp ponds were abandoned or closed and when
hydrologic conditions were naturally recovered or
enhanced naturally by the El Nio event (Carvajal &
Alava 2007). For instance, the total mangrove area did
not decrease significantly from 1995 to 2006 (Fig. 5).
Similarly, all the observations, except for those made at
Bajo Alto mangroves, were conducted in areas already
categorized as reserves or wildlife refuges. These
protected areas benefit the local biodiversity, including
waterbirds, parakeets, parrots and raptors, by offering
renewed habitat.

Figure 6. Total national and coastal areas for banana production, including banana plantation areas for the El Guayas and El
Oro coastal provinces, where more than 80% of the Ecuadorian mangrove wetlands are located. Data adapted from INEC
(2009).

From the environmental pollution stand point,

organic chemicals contaminants are a major problem not
only for raptors, but also for wildlife in general and
possibly humans too. It is likely that individuals of
Mangrove Black Hawk inhabiting mangroves close to
commercial banana cultivation (i.e. at El Oro Province)
might be facing exposures to chemicals and bio
accumulative effects both in the long and short terms, as
suggested for the Snail Kite (Rosthramus sociabilis) in
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Guayas, Los Rios and the El Oro provinces, where

pesticides are broadly used (Alava et al. 2007). Research
on eco-toxicology is strongly encouraged in Ecuador to
determine the levels and effect of insecticides and
herbicides in top predator birds, including raptors and
their food webs.
Ongoing national regulations for the protection and
conservation of mangroves are the only environmental

Alava et al.
Common Black Hawk in Ecuador

26

management strategies to conserve habitat in Ecuador,

and we certainly encourage environmental compliance
and enforcement. The observations reported here are
important because most of these findings are new
sightings and contribute to our knowledge of the
distribution of this rare species in southwestern Ecuador,
confirming its presence in disturbed and pristine

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mangrove areas and the need of local environmental

strategies to protect this species. In addition, field
research, monitoring and local training are urgently
required in this region to elucidate gaps in the natural
history of this vulnerable species and contribute to its
long-term conservation.

Table 1. Number of observed Mangrove Black Hawks in 2002 and from 2005 to 2007 in different localities of the Guayaquil Gulf
Estuary, Ecuador.

Bajo Alto Mangroves

Position
3S, 79.5W

Date
January 2002

Observations
1 adult

Bajo Alto Mangroves

3S, 79.5W

15 August 2005

1 adult

Isla Santay

213'S, 7951'W

05 September 2005

1 adult

Isla Santay
RPFMS (Estero Salado
MangroveWildlife
Production Reserve)
RPFMS

213'S, 7951'W
211'S, 7959'W

13 September 2005
15 March 2006

1 adult
1 adult
1 juvenile

211'S, 7958'W

22 March 2006

1 adult

RPFMS

212'S, 7957'W

21 April 2006

1 adult

Isla Manglecito

239'S, 8011'W

December 2006July 2007

3 adults
2 juveniles

Acknowledgments
This research was possible thanks to the funding of
different
organizations
sponsoring
mangrove
conservation projects in the Gulf of Guayaquil, including
Compaa de Cervezas Nacionales and Energy
Development Company. We express gratitude to

Comments
Perched on mangrove
tree (Rhizophora spp.)
Perched on mangrove
tree and landed on sand.
Observed on litterfall
covering shrubs and
vines
Same as above
Perched/resting on Red
Mangrove (Rhizophora
spp.)
Perched/resting on R.
spp.
Perched/resting on R.
spp.
Two juveniles were
observed in this area

Fundacin Natura Captulo Guayaquil and Fundacin

Pro Bosque for managing and conducting mangrove
conservation projects to protect wildlife. We specially
thank Russell Thorstrom, the editorial committee of
Boletin SAO, and the reviewers for their insights and
comments to this manuscript, and all the volunteers
participating during field work.

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del Golfo de Guayaquil, Ecuador. Ornitologa Neotropical 16:175185.
Alava, J. J., Arosemena, X., Astudillo, E., Costantino, M., Peafiel M. & C. Bohorquez. 2007. Occurrence, abundance,
and notes on some threatened Ecuadorian birds observed in the El Canclon Lagoon, Manglares Churute Ecological
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