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1.

SPECIMEN AND TESTING

TERMINOLOGIES
AISI

American Iron and Steel Institute (classifying steels)

SAE

Society of Automobile Engineers (classifying all metals used on motor vehicles)

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers (overseeing codes that pertain to


pressure vessels, fittings, and pipe)
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials (compiling codes for various metal
products)
(Metal Classification-Deciphering the Codes, 2012)
CODING
A36/A36M-08 : Carbon Structural Steel
Under SAE-AISI; 1045 : -Non-resulfurized carbon steel grades(plain carbon steel) with
nominal carbon content of 0.45 %
*E=202 MPa, Yields Strength=632 MPa
-Medium carbon steel used normally in machine parts; gears, shafts
ASTM E2207 : Standard Practice for Strain-Controlled Axial-Torsional Fatigue Testing with
Thin-Walled Tubular Specimens
-The standard deals with strain-controlled, axial, torsional, and combined inand out-of-phase axial torsional fatigue testing with thin-walled, circular
cross-section, tubular specimens at isothermal, ambient and elevated
temperatures. This standard is limited to symmetric, completely-reversed
strains (zero mean strains) and axial and torsional waveforms with the same
frequency in combined axial-torsional fatigue testing. This standard is also
limited to characterization of homogeneous materials with thin-walled tubular
specimens and does not cover testing of either large-scale components or
structural elements (E2207-08, 2008)
-This test is used to characterize the effects of multi-axial forces on various
components. In many engineering scenarios the object of interest experiences
various forces that result in deformation and fatigue failures. ASTM E2207 is
a useful test method for determining valid fatigue life and deformation data of
materials that may be experiencing axial, torsional, and cycling axial-

torsional loads (ASTM E2207 Axial-Torsional Fatigue Thin-Walled Tubular


Materials Test Equipment, 2014)

2. PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN

*Categories: With notch

With heat treatment and without heat treatment

HEAT TREATMENT
Definition : Heat treatment operation is a means of controlled heating and cooling of
materials in order to effect changes in their mechanical properties. The heat
treatment generally is classified into (i) Thermal treatment which consists of
softening process: Annealing and Normalizing, Hardening process: Hardening
and Tempering; (ii) Thermochemical Process which consist of Carburizing
Nitriding, Boronising; (iii) Thermomechanical Processes which consist of
mechanical working operation during heat treatment cycle (T. Senthilkumar,
2012)
Why heat treatment? : It was however known that mechanical properties of steel were
strongly connected to their microstructure obtained after heat
treatments which are performed to achieve good hardened and tensile
strength with sufficient ductility (T. Senthilkumar, 2012)
Annealing
Definition : Annealing is a process involving heating and cooling, usually applied to
produce softening. The term also refers to treatments intended to alter
mechanical or physical properties, produce a definite microstructure, or
remove gases. The temperature of the operation and the rate of cooling
depend upon the material being annealed and the purpose of the treatment
(Thomas G. Digges, 1960)
Annealing is a heat treatment procedure wherein a material is altered causing
changes in its properties such as strength and hardness (Nurudeen Adekunle
Raji, 2012)
Methodology : 1. A material is heated to an elevated temperature for a specified period of
time and slowly cooled (Nurudeen Adekunle Raji, 2012)
2. The low carbon steel cold-drawn at 40% deformation was annealed at 900
degree Celsius for soaking time of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 minutes
(Nurudeen Adekunle Raji, 2012)

3. Annealing treatment at 588C for 11 minutes at grain size of 44.7 m


can be considered to be the optimum annealing treatment for the 40% cold
drawn 0.12 wt% C steel and 539C for 17 minutes at grain size of 19.5 m
for the 55% cold drawn 0.12 wt% C steel (Nurudeen A. Raji, 2013)
4. A full annealing was carried out on the specimen by heating the metal
slowly at 870C. It is held at this temperature for sufficient time (about 1
hour) for all the material to transform into austenite. It is then cooled slowly
inside the furnace to room temperature (T. Senthilkumar, 2012)
Quenching
Definition : Quenching is a widely used commercial process in which steel components in
their austenitic state are immersed in a liquid at much lower temperature,
resulting in rapid cooling, and under appropriate circumstances, the hardening of
the steels (H. S. Hasan, 2011)
Methodology : The prepared tensile test samples and other samples were heated to 900C,
940C, and 980C and soaked for 45 minutes using a muffle furnace. The test
samples were quickly taken out of the furnace after each of the heat treatment
temperatures and quenched in water and palm oil separately (Jamiu
Kolawole Odusite, 2012)

3. SPECIMEN TESTING
TYPES OF LOADING
Uniaxial Loading
Uniaxial loading is a single direction loading mode, such as axial loading (Pettit, 2014)
Biaxial Loading
Biaxial loading is two directional loading modes that involve torsion and tension.
4. FATIGUE CONCEPT
Definition : The term fatigue can be defined as the weakening or breakdown of a material
subjected to prolonged or repeated stress. It is a gradual and located irreversible
process that occurs in materials under tensions or floating deformations (Segun
Afokhainu Agbadua, 2011)
Fatigue failures occur due to the application of fluctuating stresses that are
much lower than the stress required to cause failure during a single application
of stress (International, 2008)
Basic factors to cause fatigue : 1) A maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value

2) A large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress


3) A sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress
(International, 2008)
Geometrical stress concentration
In most structures, fatigue cracking usually initiates at a stress concentration may by inherent
in the design such as fillet, hole, thread, or other geometrical feature, or the stress
concentration can result from a manufacturing process, such as rough surface finish or
residual tensile stresses introduced by heat treatment. The effect of geometrical stress
concentrations on fatigue is often studied by testing notched specimens. (International,
2008)
Effects of notch : 1) There is an increase or concentration of stress at the root of the notch
2) There is a stress gradient from the notch toward the centre of the
specimen
3) A triaxial state of stress exists
(International, 2008)
Fatigue determination
The effect of notches on fatigue strength is determined by comparing the S-N curves of
notched and unnotched specimens
The effect of the notch in decreasing the fatigue strength is reported as the fatigue strength
reduction factor, or the fatigue notch factor, Kf:
Kf = Fatigue limit unnotched/Fatigue limit notched
Values of the fatigue notch factor vary with the severity of the notch, the type of notch, the
material, the type of loading, and the applied stress level. (International, 2008)
Fatigue life
Three major approaches have widely been used to analyse fatigue life, namely the stress-life
approach, the strain-life approach, and the linear elastic fracture mechanics. (Nurazima
Ismail, 2013)
S-N curves or sometimes known as whler curves are used to visualize the relationship
between alternating stress and number of cycles to failure. Many test involving plain
(unnotched) metal specimens have been done and mostly the specimens with circular cross
section are tested with rotating bending fatigue machines. (Pook, 2007)
A fatigue failure almost always begins at the local discontinuity such as notch, crack or any
area with stress concentration. When stress at the discontinuity exceed elastic limit, plastic

strain occurs. If a fatigue failure occurs, cyclic plastic strain should exist. (Nurazima Ismail,
2013)
Effects of Heat Treatment
Since the early days of fatigue investigation, it was recognized that the fatigue life of a
component is very dependent on the surface finish produced by machining or grinding
operations, highly polished steel specimens perform much better in fatigue than even carefully
machined surfaces. Further degradation in fatigue strength occurs for hot rolled and forged
surfaces. Similar to forming, some quenching operations during heat treatment can result in a
tensile residual-stress pattern on the surface that will adversely affect fatigue strength.
(International, 2008)
Environmental Effects
High-temperature fatigue: In general, the fatigue strength of metals decreases with increasing
temperatures. An exception is mild steel, which exhibits a maximum in fatigue strength
between 205 and 300 degree Celsius due to strain aging. (International, 2008)
5. EXPERIMENT-RELATED
The test machine is a purpose built machine capable of applying tension and torsion loads
simultaneously at different strain rates. Two servomotors control the loading of specimen, one
for tension and one for torsion (N. M. Zarroug, 2003)

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