Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH AND
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
he woman chose a story that she remembered from her childhood.1 One Christmas she waited in giddy excitement to find
out what was in the biggest package under the tree. It had the
best wrapping paper. She could hardly imagine what it might be. But
after she unwrapped the gift, it turned out to be something so ordinary that she hardly remembers what it was, only the disappointment
that it didnt live up to the promise of its package.
The short story, written by a woman who had just finished looking at an early version of the PT Cruiser, was the impetus that
prompted designers to take another look at the interior. They
redesigned it from standard, fixed seating to the more adaptable,
unexpected interior that appears in the production car.
The team studying the design of the PT Cruiser read through
hundreds of similar stories, looking for clues they could translate into
action. . . . But rather than relying on focus groups, as they might have
in the past, the team used a different type of qualitative research.
Consumers met for 3 hours to look at the vehicle, discuss it, and then
write stories.The environment is more relaxed than a focus group and
the goal is not to get people to recommend changes but to get them
to tap into less tangible feelings via their creative writing. Sometimes
people just dont know how to say what they really think about a
vehicle. Creative writing often draws it out.
Exploratory research serves as a source for developing ideas that
are then subjected to further research investigation. At Chrysler,
exploratory research helped reduce some of the risks of introducing
a new, unconventional vehicle in the ever-changing automobile industry. This chapter discusses the various exploratory research techniques
used in marketing research.
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Diagnosing a Situation
Much has already been said about the need for situation analysis to clarify a problems nature. Exploratory research helps diagnose the dimensions of problems so
that successive research projects will be on target; it helps set priorities for research.
In some cases exploratory research helps orient management by gathering information on an unfamiliar topic. A research project may not yet be planned, but
information about an issue will be needed before the marketing strategy can be
developed.
For example, when an advertising agency got an account for a new coffee containing chicory, the firm began the research process with exploratory research to
diagnose the situation. The researchers learned that almost nobody had heard of
chicory. It wasnt being used, and nobody seemed to know how to use it.This led
to the hypothesis that the advertising could portray the chicory ingredient any way
the client wanted.
Screening Alternatives
concept testing
Any exploratory research procedure
that tests some sort of stimulus as a
proxy for an idea about a new,
revised, or repositioned product,
service, or strategy.
Chapter 6
When several opportunities, such as new product ideas, arise at once, but budgets
dont allow trying all possible options, exploratory research may be used to determine the best alternatives. Exploratory research can help reveal which of several
new product ideas are the best ones to pursue. Many good products are not on the
market because a company chose to market something better. Exploratory research
may indicate that some new product ideas are unworkable. An exploratory look at
market data (size, number, and so on) may depict a product alternative as not feasible because the market of buyers is too small.This aspect of exploratory research is
not a substitute for conclusive research; however, certain evaluative information can
be gained from such studies.
Concept testing is a frequent reason for conducting exploratory research. Concept
testing is a general term for many different research procedures, all of which have
the same purpose: to test some sort of stimulus as a proxy for a new, revised, or repositioned product or service.Typically consumers are presented with a written statement or filmed representation of an idea and asked if they think it is new and
different, if they would use it, whether they like it, and so on. Concept testing is a
means of evaluating ideas by providing a feel for their merits prior to the commitment of any research and development, manufacturing, or other company resources.
Keeblers Sweet Spots, a combination of shortbread cookie and chocolate drop,
was more than a cookiealmost a candy.2 When Keebler conducted exploratory
research on the positioning concept for Sweet Spots, it considered two alternative
concepts: (1) an upscale product for the indulgent cookie eater and (2) a lunchbox
filler for children.
Researchers look for trouble signals in consumer evaluations of concepts to
reduce the number of concepts under consideration or improve them to avoid
future problems. Concept testing portrays the functions, uses, and possible applications for the proposed good or service. For example, marketers scrapped a concept
for a mens shampoo that claimed to offer a special benefit to hair damaged by overexposure to the sun, heat from a hair dryer, or heavy perspiration after exploratory
research showed that consumers thought the product was a good idea for someone
with an outdoor lifestyle, but not for themselves.3 Early research indicated that
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although the product was seen as unique, the likelihood of persuading men that it
matched their self-images was low.
If a concept is flawed, but the product has not been evaluated negatively,
researchers may learn that the product concept needs to be refined or repositioned.
For example, Procter & Gamble marketed Enviro-Pakssoft plastic refill pouches of
detergents, fabric softeners, and other cleaning productsin Europe and Canada
before concept testing them in the United States. Concept testing with American
consumers indicated that Americans preferred refill packaging that was different
from what was available overseaspackaging that would be more convenient to use.
Exhibit 6.1 shows excellent concept statements for two seafood products made
from squid.The statements portraying the intangibles (brand image, product appearance, name, and price) and a description of the product simulate reality.The product idea is clearly conveyed to the subject.
EXHIBIT 6.1
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design their dream cars using computerized design systems similar to those used by
automotive designers. This exploratory research might generate ideas that would
never have occurred to the firms own designers.5
Uncovering consumer needs is a great potential source of product ideas. One
goal of exploratory research is to first determine what problems consumers have
with a product category. When research has to determine what kinds of products
people will buy, there is a difference between asking people about what they want
or need and asking them about their problems.When you ask a customer what he
or she wants in a dog food, the reply likely will be Something that is good for the
dog. If you ask what the problems with dog food are, you may learn that The dog
food smells bad when it is put into the refrigerator. Once problems have been
identified through research, the marketing job is to find how to solve them.
EXPERIENCE SURVEYS
experience survey
An exploratory research technique in
which individuals who are knowledgeable about a particular research
problem are questioned.
Chapter 6
If management decides that an idea is worthwhile, the decision maker may personally spend some time analyzing the situation. In attempting to gain insight into the
problems at hand, researchers may discuss the concepts with top executives and
knowledgeable individuals, both inside and outside the company, who have had personal experience in the field. This constitutes an informal experience survey. People
who are knowledgeable about the area to be investigated often are willing to share
their experiences with others (competitors excluded, of course). For example, a firm
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that is ready to launch a new product may discuss the general nature of the product
with some of its key retailers and wholesalers. Members of the companys sales force
also may be a valuable source of information.The purpose of such discussions is to
exhaust the information available from relatively inexpensive sources before gathering expensive primary data. While the interviews with knowledgeable individuals
may reveal nothing conclusive, they may help define the problem more formally.
Exploratory research during situation analysis may be quite informal. Input
from knowledgeable people both inside and outside the company may come from
little more than informal conversations. Just to get ideas about the problem, the
marketing manager, rather than the research department, may conduct an experience survey. An experience survey may constitute a small number of interviews
with some carefully selected people. Some formal questions may be asked, but the
respondents generally will be allowed to discuss the questions with few constraints.
Knowledgeable people should be selected because they are articulate on a particular subject; the researcher is not trying to establish a representative probability sample.The purpose is to help formulate the problem and clarify concepts rather than
to develop a conclusive evidence.
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Investigating data that have been compiled for some purpose other than the
project at hand, such as accounting records or trade association data, is one of the
most frequent forms of exploratory research. Because this is also a technique for
conclusive research (both descriptive and causal research), a separate chapter
(Chapter 7) is devoted to the investigation of secondary sources.
Marketing managers often conduct situation analysis using experience surveys
and secondary data studies without a need for assistance from marketing research
specialists. Informal situation analysis can indicate projects that still need clarification and may warrant further exploratory investigation. In that case, the marketing
research specialist is called in to design a more elaborate exploratory study.
CASE STUDIES
case study method
The exploratory research technique
that intensively investigates one or a
few situations similar to the problem
situation.
The purpose of the case study method is to obtain information from one or a few situations that are similar to the researchers problem situation. For example, a bank in
Montana may intensively investigate the marketing activities of an innovative bank
in California.A shirt manufacturer interested in surveying retailers may first look at
a few retail stores to identify the nature of any problems or topics that a larger study
should investigate.
A marketing research manager for Schwinn bicycles used observation techniques to conduct an exploratory case study. Here is a description of the case situation in his own words:
We had a very successful dealer on the West Coast. He sold a lot of bicycles. So it
occurred to me that wed go out and find out how hes doing it. Well use a tape
recorder and get in the back room where well hear these magic words that he says
to people to make them buy bicycles.Well take that tape back to the factory.Well
have it all typed out.Well print it in the Reporter [a dealer newsletter].Well send it
to all the other dealers and everybody can say the same words. And, boy, well need
another factory! Right? So we go out.The guys got a nice store out in Van Nuys.
We sit in the back room and we listen. The first customers come in, a man and a
woman with a boy about nine or ten years old.The dad says,Which one is it?The
son says, This one over here. Dad looks at it. He says to the clerk, How much is
it? The clerk says,$179.95.The father says,Okay well take it. It blew the whole
bit. So we stand there and we listen to some of these conversations going on like
this. Suddenly it dawned on us that it was not what they say, its the atmosphere of
the store. Here was not Joes old, dirty bike shopit was a beautiful store on the
main street.A big sign was in front,Valley Cyclery, inside [were] fluorescent lights,
carpeting on the floor, stereo music, air-conditioning, a beautiful display of bicycles.
It was like a magnet. People came in. So, maybe this is the catch.We tried to introduce that idea to other dealers. Put a bigger investment into your store and see what
happens. Some of them did, and it happened.6
This observational case study serendipitously led to a discovery that would change
Schwinns entire channel of distribution strategy.The opportunity was a direct result
of being open-minded in the problem discovery stage of marketing research.
The primary advantage of the case study is that an entire organization or entity
can be investigated in depth with meticulous attention to detail.This highly focused
attention enables the researcher to carefully study the order of events as they occur
or to concentrate on identifying the relationships among functions, individuals, or
entities. A fast-food restaurant may test a new menu item or a new store design in
a single location before launching the change throughout the chain to learn about
potential operating problems that could hinder service quality.
Conducting a case study often requires the cooperation of the party whose history
is being studied. A successful franchisee may be willing to allow the franchisor access
to records and reports. Intensive interviews or long discussions with the franchisee and
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FRIDAYS
PILOT STUDIES
pilot study
A collective term for any small-scale
exploratory research project that
uses sampling but does not apply
rigorous standards.
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The term pilot study covers a number of diverse research techniques. Within the
context of exploratory research, the term pilot study indicates that some aspect of
the research (for example, fieldwork) will be on a small scale.Thus, a pilot study is a
research project that involves sampling, but it relaxes the rigorous standards used to
obtain precise, quantitative estimates from large, representative samples.
In one kind of pilot study, researchers or managers try to experience what consumers experience to gain inexpensive and valuable insight. Without indicating
their real positions with the company, researchers or managers may wait on customers, ride in repair trucks, and answer telephones. For example, the chairperson
of a major car rental company occasionally gets in line with airport customers waiting for cars or works behind the counter to get customer reactions. This form of
pilot study may yield true comprehension of the situation to be investigated.
Part 2
A pilot study generates primary data, but usually for qualitative analysis. This
characteristic distinguishes pilot studies from research that gathers background
information using secondary data. Some researchers refer to pilot studies that generate qualitative information as qualitative research. The primary data usually come
from consumers or other subjects of ultimate concern rather than from knowledgeable experts or case situations.This distinguishes pilot studies from experience
surveys and case studies. Major categories of pilot studies include focus group interviews, projective techniques, and depth interviews.
The focus group interview has become so popular that many advertising and research
agencies consider it the only qualitative research tool. As noted in Chapter 3, a focus
group interview is an unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of people. It is not a rigidly constructed question-and-answer session but a flexible format
that encourages discussion of a brand, advertisement, or new-product concept. The
group meets at a central location at a designated time; typically, it consists of a moderator or interviewer and six to ten participants, although larger groups are sometimes
used.The participants may range from consumers talking about hair coloring, petroleum engineers talking about problems in the oil patch, or children talking about
toys.The moderator introduces the topic and encourages group members to discuss
the subject among themselves. Ideally, the discussion topics emerge at the groups initiative. Focus groups allow people to discuss their true feelings, anxieties, and frustrations, as well as the depth of their convictions, in their own words. The primary
advantages of focus group interviews are that they are relatively fast, easy to execute,
and inexpensive. In an emergency situation, three or four group sessions can be conducted, analyzed, and reported in less than a week at a cost substantially lower than
that of other attitude-measurement techniques. Remember, however, that a small
group of people will not be a representative sample no matter how carefully they are
recruited. Focus group interviews cannot take the place of quantitative studies.
The flexibility of focus group interviews has some advantages, especially when
compared with the rigid format of a survey. Numerous topics can be discussed and
many insights can be gained, particularly with regard to the variations in consumer
behavior in different situations. Responses that would be unlikely to emerge in a
survey often come out in group interviews:If it is one of the three brands I sometimes use and if it is on sale, I buy it; otherwise, I buy my regular brand or If the
day is hot and I have to serve the whole neighborhood, I make Kool-Aid; otherwise, I give them Dr Pepper or Coke.
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If a researcher is investigating a target group to determine who consumes a particular beverage or why a consumer purchases a certain brand, situational factors
must be taken into account. If the researcher does not realize the impact of the
occasion on which the particular beverage is consumed, the results of the research
may be general rather than portraying the consumers actual thought process. A
focus group elicits situationally specific response: On a hot day the whole neighborhood gets Kool-Aid; but if there are just a few kids, they get Dr Pepper or Coke.
A baby products companys research provides an interesting example of the type
of information focus group interviews can reveal.The company wanted to understand what is of critical importance to mothers of young babies.After a series of initial focus groups, researchers discovered, not surprisingly, that a babys health is what
is most important to a young mother. The company, which planned to target
Hispanic-Americans, next wanted answers to several questions: What is a healthy
baby? Is a healthy baby the same for an Anglo (non-Hispanic) mom as for an
Hispanic one? What does a healthy baby look like, and what does an unhealthy baby
look like, to Hispanic mothers?10
The researchers designed a study that compiled video images and still photos
of babies at different stages of development, at different levels of activity (sleeping,
sitting, walking, running, crawling), in different moods, and with different
physiques (heavier babies and slimmer babies). In focus groups, both Anglo and
Hispanic mothers viewed videos and stacks of baby pictures. In their reaction to
the images, the mothers unconsciously projected their feelings about what healthy
was and what healthy was not.The study revealed very interesting information: A
healthy baby for an Anglo mother is not the same as a healthy baby for an Hispanic
mom.An Hispanic mom looks for a baby that is chubby, has rosy cheeks, and looks
into his mothers eyes and not the camera. What a non-Hispanic mother might
consider a fit, carefree baby might be considered skinny and not well cared-for by
Hispanic moms. There were other bits of interesting information. Healthy
Hispanic babies always wear shoesor, at the very least, clean socks. Non-Hispanic
mothers thought that a barefoot baby was healthy, carefree, and happy.
Focus groups often are used for concept screening and concept refinement.The
concept may be continually modified, refined, and retested until management
believes it is acceptable.
The specific advantages of focus group interviews have been categorized as
follows:11
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Synergy: The combined effort of the group will produce a wider range of information, insights, and ideas than will the cumulation of separately secured
responses from a number of individuals.
Snowballing: A bandwagon effect often operates in a group interview situation. A
comment by one individual often triggers a chain of responses from the other participants. Brainstorming of ideas frequently is encouraged in focus group sessions.
Serendipity: It is more often the case in a group than in an individual interview
that some idea drops out of the blue.The group also affords a greater opportunity to develop an idea to its full potential.
Stimulation: Usually, after a brief introductory period, the respondents want to
express their ideas and expose their feelings as the general level of excitement
over the topic increases.
Security: In a well-structured group, the individual usually can find some comfort in the fact that his or her feelings are similar to those of others in the group
and that each participant can expose an idea without being obliged to defend it
or follow through and elaborate on it. One is more likely to be candid because
the focus is on the group rather than on the individual; the participant soon
realizes that the things said are not necessarily being identified with him or her.
Spontaneity: Because no individual is required to answer any given question in a
group interview, the individuals responses can be more spontaneous and less
conventional.They should provide a more accurate picture of the persons position on some issue. In the group interview people speak only when they have
definite feelings about a subject, not because a question requires a response.
Specialization: The group interview allows the use of a more highly trained
interviewer (moderator) because certain economies of scale exist when a number of individuals are interviewed simultaneously.
Structure: The group interview affords more control than the individual interview with regard to the topics covered and the depth in which they are treated.
The moderator has the opportunity to reopen topics that received too shallow
a discussion when initially presented.
Speed: The group interview permits securing a given number of interviews
more quickly than does interviewing individual respondents.
Scientific scrutiny: The group interview allows closer scrutiny in several ways.
First, the session can be observed by several people; this affords some check on
the consistency of the interpretations. Second, the session can be tape recorded
or videotaped. Later, detailed examination of the recorded session can offer
additional insight and help clear up disagreements about what happened.
Group Composition
The ideal size of the focus group is six to ten relatively similar people. If the group
is too small, one or two members may intimidate the others. Groups that are too
large may not allow for adequate participation by each group member.
Homogeneous groups seem to work best, because they allow researchers to concentrate on consumers with similar lifestyles, experiences, and communication
skills. The session does not become rife with too many arguments and different
viewpoints stemming from diverse backgrounds.
When the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention tested public service
announcements about AIDS through focus groups, it discovered that single-race
groups and multicultural groups reacted differently. By conducting separate focus
groups, the organization was able to gain important insights about which creative
strategies were most appropriate for targeted versus broad audiences.
For example, a typical homogeneous group might be made up of married, fulltime homemakers with children at home; the group would not include unmarried,
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BROOMS
AND
MOPS
ONLY
WOMENS
TOOLS?
working women. Having first-time mothers in a group with women who have
three or four children reduces the new mothers participation; they look to the
more experienced mothers for advice. Although they may differ in their opinions,
they defer to the more experienced mothers; thus, first-time mothers and experienced mothers would be in separate groups.
Researchers who wish to collect information from different types of people
should conduct several focus groups; for example, one focus group might consist only
of men and another only of women. Thus, a diverse sample may be obtained even
though each group is homogeneous. Most focus group experts believe that four focus
group sessions (often in different cities) can satisfy the needs of exploratory research.
Environmental Conditions
The group session may take place at the research agency, the advertising agency, a
hotel, or one of the subjects homes. Research suppliers that specialize in conducting
focus groups operate from commercial facilities that have videotape cameras in observation rooms behind one-way mirrors and microphone systems connected to tape
recorders and speakers to allow observation by others who arent in the room. Some
researchers suggest that a coffee klatch or bull session atmosphere can be established in the commercial research facility to ensure that the mood of the sessions will
be as relaxed and natural as possible.They expect more open and intimate reports of
personal experiences and sentiments to be obtained under these conditions.
The Moderator
moderator
The person who leads a focus group
discussion.
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Exhibit 6.2 is a partial transcript of a focus group interview. Notice how the
moderator ensures that everyone gets a chance to speak and how he or she contributes to the discussion.
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EXHIBIT 6.2
The moderators job is to develop a rapport with the group and to promote
interaction among its members. The moderator should be someone who is really
interested in people, who listens carefully to what others have to say, and who can
readily establish rapport and gain peoples confidence and make them feel relaxed
and eager to talk. Careful listening is especially important because the group interviews purpose is to stimulate spontaneous responses.The moderators role is also to
focus the discussion on the areas of concern.When a topic is no longer generating
fresh ideas, the effective moderator changes the flow of discussion. The moderator
does not give the group total control of the discussion, but normally has prepared
questions on topics that concern management. However, the timing of these questions in the discussion and the manner in which they are raised are left to the moderators discretion.The term focus group thus stems from the moderators task: He or
she starts out by asking for a general discussion but usually focuses in on specific topics during the session.
Chapter 6
Effective focus group moderators prepare discussion guides to help ensure that the
groups cover all topics of interest. The discussion guide begins with a written statement of the prefatory remarks to inform the group about the nature of the focus
group; it then outlines topics or questions to be addressed in the group session.
A cancer center that wanted to warn the public about the effects of the sun used
the discussion guide in Exhibit 6.3.The marketing researchers had several objectives
for this question guide:
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EXHIBIT 6.3
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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11.
12.
The first question, asking participants to describe their feelings about being out
in the sun, was intended to elicit the range of views present in the group, given
that some individuals might view being out in the sun as a healthful practice
while others would view it as dangerous. It seemed important to have group
members see the extent to which others held views different from their own.
Furthermore, this was the only question asked of every participant in turn. As
no one could fail to be able to answer, it gave each individual a nonthreatening
chance to talk and thus broke the ice.
The second question, asking whether participants could think of any reason to
be warned about exposure to the sun, was simply designed to introduce in question form the idea of a warning.
Part 2
Notice that the researchers who planned the outline established certain objectives for each part of the focus group. The initial effort was to break the ice and
establish rapport within the group. The logical flow of the group session then
moved from general discussion about sunbathing to more focused discussion of
types of warnings about danger from sun exposure.
streaming media
Multimedia content, such as audio
or video, that can be accessed on the
Internet without being downloaded
first.
Chapter 6
The videoconferencing industry has grown dramatically in recent years. And as the
ability to communicate via telecommunications and videoconferencing links has
improved in quality, the number of companies using these systems to conduct focus
groups has increased. With traditional focus groups, marketing managers and creative personnel often watch the moderator lead the group from behind one-way
mirrors. If the focus group is being conducted out of town, the marketing personnel usually have to spend more time in airplanes, hotels, and taxis than they do
watching the group session.With videoconferenced focus groups, marketing managers can stay home.
Focus Vision Network of New York is a marketing research company that provides videoconferencing equipment and services for clients. The Focus Vision system is modular, which allows it to be wheeled around to capture close-ups of each
group member.The system operates via a remote keypad that allows observers in a
far-off location to pan the focus group room or zoom in on a particular participant.
The system allows marketing managers at remote locations to send messages to the
moderator. For example, while new product names were being tested in one focus
group, an observing manager had an idea and contacted the moderator, who tested
the new name on the spot.15
Streaming media consist of multimedia content such as audio or video that is
made available in real time over the Internet or a corporate intranet, with no download wait and no file to take up space on a viewers hard disk.16 This new technology for digital media delivery allows researchers to broadcast focus groups that
can be viewed online. The offsite manager uses RealPlayer or Microsoft Media
Player to view a focus group on a computer rather than at a remote location. Except
for a decrease in quality of the video when there are bandwidth problems, the effect
is similar to videoconferencing.
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connected to the Internet. The group participants keyboard their remarks either
during a chat room format or when they are alone at their computers. Because
respondents enter their comments into the computer, transcripts of verbatim
responses are available immediately after the group session. Online groups can be
quick and cost-efficient. However, because there is less interaction between participants, group synergy and snowballing of ideas may be diminished.
A research company may set up a private chat room on its company Web site
for focus group interviews. Participants in these chat rooms feel that their
anonymity is very secure. Often they will make statements or ask questions they
would never pose under other circumstances.17 This can be a major advantage for
a company investigating sensitive or embarrassing issues.
Many focus groups using the chat room format involve a sample of participants
who are online at the same time, typically for about 60 to 90 minutes. Because participants do not have to be together in the same room at a research facility, the number of participants in these online focus groups can be much larger than in
traditional focus groups.Twenty-five participants or more is not uncommon for the
simultaneous chat room format. Participants can be at widely separated locations,
even in different time zones, because the Internet does not have geographical
restrictions. Of course, a major disadvantage is that only individuals with Internet
access can be selected for an online group. (The nature of Internet samples will be
discussed in depth in Chapters 9 and 16.)
The job of an online moderator resembles that of an in-person moderator.
However, the online moderator should possess fast and accurate keyboard skills or
be willing to hire an assistant who does. Ideally, the discussion guide is downloaded
directly onto the site so the moderator can, with one click, enter a question into
the dialogue stream.18
A problem with online focus groups is that the moderator cannot see body language and facial expressions (bewilderment, excitement, interest, etc.) to interpret
how people are reacting. Also, the moderators ability to probe and ask additional
questions on the spot is reduced in online focus groups, especially those in which
group members are not participating simultaneously.19 Research that requires focus
group members to actually touch something (such as a new easy-opening packaging design) or taste something cannot be performed online.
The complexity of the subject will determine the exact nature and length of an
online focus group. For many online projects, the group discussion can continue for
24 or 48 hours or even longer. Cross Pen Computing Group tested the appeal of
an advertising campaign for a new product called CrossPad with an online brainstorming group that ran for 5 days.20
As the sessions time expands, so may the number of participants. Some sessions
involve quite a large number, perhaps as many as 200 participants. Whether these
online chat sessions are true focus groups or not is a matter of some minor debate.
However, these online research projects do have their purpose. For example,
Nickelodeon uses an online format to learn about a variety of subjects from a group
of viewers. These kids use personal computers and the Internet to talk with each
other and with network researchers about pets, parents, peeves, and pleasures. Kids
post notes on the computer bulletin board whenever they want to. Three times a
week they log on for scheduled electronic conferences, during which Nickelodeon
researchers lead discussions to answer questions such as Is this a good scoring
methodology for a game show? or Do kids understand if we show a sequence of
program titles and air times? On one occasion, the kids told researchers they were
confused by the various locations shown in a segment of The Tomorrow People, a
futuristic series with events occurring around the world. Realizing that the sight of
a double-decker bus wasnt enough to allow a modern kid to identify London, the
producers wrote the name of the city on the screen.21
Although we have not yet discussed Internet surveys, it is important to make a
distinction between online focus groups, which provide qualitative information, and
Part 2
CONSUMERS
PROFESSIONAL
OR
RESPONDENTS?
Internet surveys, which provide quantitative findings. Chapter 9 discusses technological challenges and how to administer Internet surveys. (Much of that discussion
is also relevant for researchers wishing to conduct online focus groups.)
Shortcomings
The shortcomings of focus groups are similar to those of most qualitative research
techniques, as discussed later in this chapter. However, here we must point out two
specific shortcomings of bringing people together for focus groups. First, focus
groups require sensitive and effective moderators; without a good moderator, selfappointed participants may dominate a session, giving somewhat misleading results.
If participants react negatively toward the dominant member, a halo effect on attitudes toward the concept or topic of discussion may occur.This situation should be
carefully avoided. Second, some unique sampling problems arise with focus groups.
Researchers often select focus group participants because they have similar backgrounds and experiences or because screening indicates that the participants are
more articulate or gregarious than the typical consumer. Such participants may not
be representative of the entire target market. (The Exploring Research Ethics box
above addresses this issue.)
Projective Techniques
There is an old story about asking a man why he purchased a Mercedes. When
asked directly why he purchased a Mercedes, he responds that the car holds its value
and does not depreciate much, that it gets better gas mileage than youd expect, or
that it has a comfortable ride. If you ask the same person why a neighbor purchased
a Mercedes, he may well answer, Oh, that status seeker!This story illustrates that
individuals may be more likely to give true answers (consciously or unconsciously)
to disguised questions. Projective techniques seek to discover an individuals true
attitudes, motivations, defensive reactions, and characteristic ways of responding.
The assumption underlying these methods lies in Oscar Wildes observation: A
man is least himself when he talks in his own person; when he is given a mask he
will tell the truth. In other words, advocates of projective techniques assume that
when directly questioned, respondents do not express their true feelings because they
are embarrassed about answers that reflect negatively on their self-concept; they wish
to please the interviewer with the right answer, or they cannot reveal unconscious
feelings of which they are unaware. However, if respondents are presented with
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projective technique
An indirect means of questioning
that enables a respondent to project
beliefs and feelings onto a third
party, an inanimate object, or a task
situation.
unstructured, ambiguous stimuli, such as cartoons or inkblots, and are allowed considerable freedom to respond, they will express their true feelings.
A projective technique is an indirect means of questioning that enables respondents
to project beliefs and feelings onto a third party, an inanimate object, or a task situation. Respondents are not required to provide answers in any structured format.They
are encouraged to describe a situation in their own words with little prompting by
the interviewer. Individuals are expected to interpret the situation within the context
of their own experiences, attitudes, and personalities and to express opinions and
emotions that may be hidden from others and possibly themselves. The most common projective techniques in marketing research are word association tests, sentence
completion methods, third-person techniques, and thematic apperception tests.22
During a word association test, the subject is presented with a list of words, one at a
time, and asked to respond with the first word that comes to his or her mind. Both
verbal and nonverbal responses (such as hesitation in responding) are recorded. For
example, a researcher who reads a list of job tasks to sales employees expects that
the word association technique will reveal each individuals true feelings about the
job tasks. A sales representatives first thought presumably is a spontaneous answer
because the subject does not have enough time to think about and avoid making
admissions that reflect poorly on himself or herself.
Word association frequently is used to test potential brand names. For example,
a liquor manufacturer attempting to market a clear-colored light whiskey tested the
brand names Frost,Verve, Ultra, and Masters Choice. Frost was seen as upbeat, modern, clean, and psychologically right; Verve was too modern, Ultra was too common, and Masters Choice was not upbeat enough.
Interpreting word association tests is difficult, and the marketing researcher should
make sure to avoid subjective interpretations.When there is considerable agreement
in the free-association process, the researcher assumes that the test has revealed the
consumers inner feelings about the subject.Word association tests are also analyzed by
the amount of elapsed time. For example, if the researcher is investigating alternative
advertising appeals for a method of birth control, a hesitation in responding may indicate that the topic arouses some sort of emotion (and the person may be seeking an
acceptable response).The analysis of projective technique results takes into account
not only what consumers say, but also what they do not say.
Word association tests can also be used to pretest words or ideas for questionnaires.This enables the researcher to know beforehand whether and to what degree
the meaning of a word is understood in the context of a survey.
The sentence completion method is also based on the principle of free association.
Respondents are required to complete a number of partial sentences with the first
word or phrase that comes to mind. For example:
People who drink beer are ___________________________________.
A man who drinks a dark beer is ____________________________.
Imported beer is most liked by _______________________________.
The woman in the commercial _______________________________.
Answers to sentence completion questions tend to be more extensive than
responses to word association tests.The intent of sentence completion questions is
more apparent, however.
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SMOKINGARE
HONEST
third-person technique
A projective technique in which the
respondent is asked why a third person does what he or she does or
what he or she thinks about a product. The respondent is expected to
transfer his or her attitudes to the
third person.
WITH
SMOKERS
THEMSELVES?
Almost literally, providing a mask is the basic idea behind the third-person technique.
Respondents are asked why a third person (for example, a neighbor) does what he
or she does or what he or she thinks about a product. For example, male homeowners might be told: We are talking to a number of homeowners like you about
this new type of lawn mower. Some men like it the way it is; others believe that it
should be improved. Please think of some of your friends or neighbors, and tell us
what they might find fault with on this new type of lawn mower. Respondents can
transfer their attitudes to neighbors, friends, or coworkers.They are free to agree or
disagree with an unknown third party.
The best-known and certainly a classic example of a study that used this indirect technique was conducted in 1950, when Nescaf Instant Coffee was new to
the market.Two shopping lists, identical except for the brand of coffee, were given
to two groups of women:
role-playing technique
A projective technique that requires
the subject to act out someone elses
behavior in a particular setting.
Chapter 6
Forty-eight percent of the housewives given the list that included Nescaf
described the Nescaf user as lazy and a poor planner. Other responses implied that
the instant coffee user was not a good wife and spent money carelessly.The Maxwell
House user, however, was thought to be practical, frugal, and a good cook.
Role playing is a dynamic reenactment of the third-person technique in a given
situation. The role-playing technique requires the subject to act out someone elses
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A thematic apperception test (TAT) presents subjects with a series of pictures in which
consumers and products are the center of attention. The investigator asks the subject to tell what is happening in the pictures and what the people might do next.
Hence, themes (thematic) are elicited on the basis of the perceptual-interpretive
(apperception) use of the pictures. The researcher then analyzes the contents of the
stories that the subjects relate.
The picture or cartoon stimulus must be sufficiently interesting to encourage discussion but ambiguous enough not to disclose the nature of the research project.
Clues should not be given to the characters positive or negative predisposition. A
pretest of a TAT investigating why men might purchase chain saws used a picture of
a man looking at a very large tree.The subjects of the research were homeowners and
weekend woodcutters.When confronted with the picture of the imposing tree, they
almost unanimously said that they would get professional help from a tree surgeon.
Thus, early in the pretesting process, the researchers found out that the picture was
not sufficiently ambiguous for the subjects to identify with the man in the picture. If
subjects are to project their own views into the situation, the environmental setting
should be a well-defined, familiar problem, but the solution should be ambiguous.
Frequently, the TAT consists of a series of pictures with some continuity so that
stories may be constructed in a variety of settings. The first picture might portray
two women discussing a product in a supermarket; in the second picture, a person
might be preparing the product in the kitchen; the final picture might show the
product being served at the dinner table.
Part 2
EXHIBIT 6.4
Do you think
we need to upgrade
our word processing
software?
Cartoon Tests
picture frustration
A version of the TAT that uses a cartoon drawing for which the respondent suggests dialogue the
characters might engage in.
The picture frustration version of the TAT uses a cartoon drawing in which the
respondent suggests a dialogue in which the characters might engage. Exhibit 6.4 is
a purposely ambiguous illustration of an everyday occurrence.The two office workers are shown in a situation and the respondent is asked what the woman might be
talking about.This setting could be used for discussions about products, packaging,
the display of merchandise, store personnel, and so on.
Several other projective techniques apply the logic of the TAT. Construction
techniques request that consumers draw a picture, construct a collage, or write a short
story to express their perceptions or feelings. For example, children hold in their
heads many pictures that they are unable to describe in words. Asking a child to
draw what comes to your mind when you think about going shopping enables
the child to use his or her visual vocabulary to express feelings.24
Depth Interviews
depth interviews
A relatively unstructured, extensive
interview in whch the interviewer
asks many questions and probes for
in-depth answers.
Chapter 6
Motivational researchers who want to discover reasons for consumer behavior may
use relatively unstructured, extensive interviews during the primary stages of the
research process.A depth interview is similar to a client interview conducted by a clinical psychologist or psychiatrist.The researcher asks many questions and probes for
additional elaboration after the subject answers. In depth interviews, in contrast to
projective techniques, the subject matter is generally undisguised.The interviewers
role is extremely important in the depth interview. He or she must be a highly
skilled individual who can encourage the respondent to talk freely without influencing the direction of the conversation. Probing questions such as Can you give
me an example of that? and Why do you say that? stimulate the respondent to
elaborate on the topic. An excerpt from a depth interview is given in Exhibit 6.5.
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EXHIBIT 6.5
International marketing researchers find that in certain cultures, depth interviews work far better than focus groups.They provide a quick means to assess buyer
behavior in foreign lands.
The depth interview may last more than an hour and requires an extremely
skilled interviewer; hence, it is expensive. In addition, the topic for discussion is
largely at the discretion of the interviewer, so the success of the research depends
on the interviewers skilland, as is so often the case, good people are hard to find.
A third major problem stems from the necessity of recording both surface reactions
and subconscious motivations of the respondent.Analysis and interpretation of such
data are highly subjective, and it is difficult to settle on a true interpretation.
An example of conflicting claims is illustrated by a study of prunes done by two
organizations. One study used projective techniques to show that people considered
prunes shriveled, tasteless, and unattractive; symbolic of old age and parental authority (thus disliked); and associated with hospitals, boarding houses, peculiar people,
and the Army.The other study stated that the principal reason people did not like
prunes was the fruits laxative property.
Finally, alternative techniques, such as focus groups, can provide much the same
information as depth interviews.
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is judgmental. For example, the findings from projective techniques can be vague.
Projective techniques and depth interviews were frequently used decades ago by
practitioners who categorized themselves as motivational researchers. They produced some interesting and occasionally bizarre hypotheses about what was inside
a buyers mind, such as the following:
A woman is very serious when she bakes a cake because unconsciously she is
going through the symbolic act of giving birth.
A man buys a convertible as a substitute mistress.
Men who wear suspenders are reacting to an unresolved castration complex.26
Unfortunately, bizarre hypotheses cannot be relegated to history as long past
events. Several years ago researchers at the McCann-Erickson advertising agency
interviewed low-income women about their attitudes toward insecticides. The
women indicated that they strongly believed a new brand of roach killer sold in little plastic trays was far more effective and less messy than traditional bug sprays.
Rather than purchase the new brand, however, they remained stubbornly loyal to
their old bug sprays. Baffled by this finding, the researchers did extensive qualitative
research with female consumers. After reviewing the womens drawings and indepth descriptions of roaches, the researchers concluded that women subconsciously identified roaches with men who had abandoned them. Spraying the
roaches and watching them squirm and die was enjoyableso by using the spray,
the women both gained control over the roaches and vented their hostility toward
men.27 Conclusions based on qualitative research may be subject to considerable
interpreter bias.
Findings from focus group interviews likewise may be ambiguous. How should
a facial expression or nod of the head be interpreted? Have subjects fully grasped
the idea or concept behind a nonexistent product? Have respondents overstated
their interest because they tend to like all new products? Because of such problems
in interpretation, exploratory findings should be considered preliminary.
Another problem with exploratory studies deals with the ability to make projections from the findings. Most exploratory techniques use small samples, which may
not be representative because they have not been selected on a probability basis. Case
studies, for example, may have been selected because they represent extremely good
or extremely bad examples of a situation rather than the average situation.
Before making a scientific decision the researcher should conduct a quantitative
study with an adequate sample to ensure that measurement will be precise. This is
not to say that exploratory research lacks value; it simply means that such research
cannot deliver what it does not promise.The major benefit of exploratory research
is that it generates insights and clarifies the marketing problems for hypothesis testing in future research. One cannot determine the most important attributes of a
product until one has identified those attributes. Thus, exploratory research is
extremely useful, but it should be used with caution.
However, occasions do arise where the research process should stop at the
exploratory stage. If a cheese producer conducts a focus group interview to get a
feel for consumers reactions to a crispy snack food made from whey (what is left
over from cheese making) and exploratory findings show an extremely negative
reaction by almost all participants, the cheese manufacturer might decide not to
continue the project.
Some researchers suggest that the greatest danger in using exploratory research
to evaluate alternative advertising copy, new product concepts, and so on is not that
a poor idea will be marketed, because successive steps of research will prevent that.
The real danger is that a good idea with promise may be rejected because of findings at the exploratory stage. On the other hand, when everything looks positive in
the exploratory stage, the temptation is to market the product without further
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SUMMARY
Qualitative research is subjective in nature. Much of the measurement depends on
evaluation by the researcher rather than vigorous mathematical analysis.
Quantitative research determines the quantity or extent of an outcome in numbers.
It provides an exact approach to measurement.
This chapter focused on qualitative exploratory research. Exploratory research
may be conducted to diagnose a situation, screen alternatives, or discover new
ideas. It may take the form of gathering background information by investigating
secondary data, conducting experience surveys, scrutinizing case studies, or utilizing pilot studies. The purpose of the research, rather than the technique, determines whether a study is exploratory, descriptive, or causal. Thus, the techniques
discussed in this chapter are primarily but not exclusively used for exploratory
studies.
The case study method involves intensive investigation of one particular situation that is similar to the problem under investigation.
Focus group interviews are unstructured, free-flowing, group sessions that allow
individuals to initiate and elaborate on the topics of discussion. Interaction among
respondents is synergistic and spontaneous, characteristics that have been found to
be highly advantageous.
As the ability to communicate via the Internet, telecommunications, and videoconferencing links improves, a number of companies are using these new media to
conduct focus group research.
Projective techniques are an indirect means of questioning respondents. Some
examples are word association tests, sentence completion tests, the third person
technique, the role-playing technique, and thematic apperception tests.
Depth interviews are unstructured, extensive interviews that encourage a
respondent to talk freely and in depth about an undisguised topic.
Although exploratory research has many advantages, it also has several shortcomings and should not take the place of conclusive, quantitative research.
Knowing where and how to use exploratory research is important. Many
firms make the mistake of using an exploratory study as a final, conclusive
research project. This can lead to decisions based on incorrect assumptions.
Exploratory research techniques have limitations: The interpretation of the findings is based on judgment, samples are not representative, the techniques rarely
provide precise quantitative measurement, and the ability to generalize the qualitative results is limited.
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moderator
discussion guide
streaming media
online focus group
projective technique
word association test
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Case 6.1
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Part 2
Exhibit A
Exhibit B
Chapter 6
Exhibit C
Exhibit D
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Case 6.2
Questions
1. How should Conway and Baggins respond to
Hamiltons final comment?
2. Is Hamilton investigating the casual user market segment
correctly?
3. What conclusions would you draw from the thematic
apperception test? Do you feel this is a valid and reliable test?
4. What specific recommendations would you make to
Campagna concerning the casual user chain saw market?
Todays Man
Chapter 6
Upjohns Rogaine
Upjohn quickly applied to the U.S. Food & Drug
Administration (FDA) for the right to market the drug as a
hair-growth product in the United States.
Questions
1. Define Rogaines marketing problem from a marketing
research perspective.
2. What type of exploratory marketing research should
Rogaine conduct?
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