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INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University)
COIMBATORE 641 105
NAME
: ___________________________________________
REG.NO
: ___________________________________________
SUBJECT
: ___________________________________________
COURSE
: ___________________________________________
. in the
AIRCRAFT DESIGN LAB I of this institution as prescribed by the Anna
University, Coimbatore for the ........semester during the year 2010 2011.
Staff In charge:
INTERNAL EXAMINER
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
ABSTRACT
In this project we have designed a MILITARY TRAINER AIRCRAFT.
We have taken the sufficient steps to make sure that the aircraft what
we are designing is in an optimum range. The aircraft parameters like
cruise velocity, cruise altitude, wing loading etc and weight estimation,
airfoil selection, wing selection, landing gear selection have been made
with extreme care. The adequate details have been collected to make
our calculation easier and to make design more precision. The details
have been collected from various sources which are given in the
bibliography.
ABBREVIATION
A.R. -
Aspect Ratio
Cswell -
Croot
Chord at Root
Ctip
Chord at Tip
CD
Drag Co-efficient
CD,0
Cj
CL
Lift Co-efficient
Drag
Endurance
Oswald efficiency
JA, JT
Symbols
hOB
Obstacle height
k1
Proportionality constant
Wing Span
kuc-
KA , KT
Symbols
Lift
L
D loiter
L
D cruise
mff
Range
Re
Reynolds Number
R/C
Rate of climb
Wing Area
Sa
Sab -
Sf
Sg
Sref.
Approach distance
Flare distance
-
Ground Roll
Swet..
Thrust
Power
Pcruise
Thrust at cruise
Ptake-off
Thrust at take-off
loiter
cruise
takeoff
Vcruise
Velocity at cruise
Vstall
Velocity at stall
VLO
VTD
Wcrew
Wempty-
Wfuel
Weight of fuel
Wpayload
Payload of aircraft
W0
W
S
Wing loading
Density of air
Dynamic viscosity
Tapered ratio
OB
Turning angle
Gliding angle
R/C
Rate of climb
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and scope of airplane design
An airplane is designed to meet the functional, operational and safety
requirements set by or acceptable to the ultimate user. The actual process of design is a
complex and long drawn out engineering task involving:
Selection of airplane type and shape
Determination of geometric parameters
Selection of power plant
Structural design and analysis of various components and
Determination of airplane flight and operational characteristics.
Over the year of this century, aircraft have evolved in many directions and the
design of any modern plane is a joint project for a large body of competent engineers and
technicians, headed by a chief designer. Different groups in the project specialize in the design
of different components of the airplane, such as the wing, fuselage etc.
A new experimental plane has to meet higher performance requirements than
similar planes already in service. Hence design laboratories involved in experimental and
research work are indispensable adjuncts to a design office. These laboratories as well as allied
specialized design offices and research institutions are concerned in helping the designer to
obtain the best possible solutions for all problems pertaining to airplane design and
construction and in the development of suitable components and equipment.
Airplane design procedure is basically a method of trial and error for the design of
component units and their harmonization into a complete aircraft system. Thus each trial aims
at a closer approach to the final goal and is based on a more profound study of the various
problems involved. The three phases of aircraft design are
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
detail
REQUIREMENTS
FABRICATION
Preliminary design
Preliminary design can be said to begin when the major changes are over. The big
questions such as whether to use a canard or an aft tail have been resolved. The configuration
arrangement can be expected to remain about as shown on current drawing, although minor
revisions may occur. At some point late in preliminary design, even minor changes are stopped
when a decision is made to freeze the configuration.
During preliminary design the specialists in area such as structure landing gear and control
systems will design and analyze their portion of the aircraft. Testing is initiated in areas such as
aerodynamics, propulsion, structures, and control. A mockup may be constructed at this point.
A key activity during preliminary design is lofting. Lifting is the mathematical modeling of
the outside skin of the aircraft with sufficient accuracy to insure proper fit between its different
parts, even if they are designed by different designers and possibly fabricated in different
location. Lofting originated in shipyards and was originally done with long flexible rulers called
splines. This work was done in a loft over the shipyard; hence the name.
The ultimate objective during preliminary design is to ready the company for the detail
design stage, also called full-scale development. Thus, the end of preliminary design usually
involves a full scale development proposal. In todays environment, this can result in a situation
jokingly referred to as you-bet-your-company. The possible loss on an overrun contrast o
from lack of sales can exceed the net worth of the company! Preliminary design must establish
confidence that the airplane can be built in time and at the estimated cost.
Detailed design
Assuming a favorable decision for entering full scale development, the detail deign phase
begins in which the actual pieces to be fabricated are designed. For example, during conceptual
and preliminary design the wing box will be designed and analyzed as a whole. During detail
design, that whole will be broken down in to individual ribs, spars and skins, each of which must
be separately designed and analyzed.
Another important part of detailed is called production design. Specialist determine how
the airplane will be fabricated, starting with the smallest and simplest subassemblies and
building up to the final assembly process. Production designers frequently wish to modify the
design for ease of manufacture; that can have a major impact on performance or weight.
Compromises are inevitable, but the design must still meet the original requirements.
It is interesting to note that in the Soviet Union, the production design is done by a
completely different design bureau than the conceptual and preliminary design, resulting in
superior producibility at some expense in performance and weight.
During detail design, the testing effort intensifies. Actual structure of the aircraft is
fabricated and tested. Control laws for the flight control system arte tested on an iron-bird
simulator, a detailed working model of the actuator and flight control surfaces. Flight simulator
are developed and flown by both company and customer test pilot.
Detail design ends with fabrication of the aircraft. Frequently the fabrication Begins on
part of the aircraft before the entire detail-design effort is completed. Hopefully, changes to
already- fabricated pieces can be avoided. The further along a design progresses, the more
people are involved. In fact, most of the engineers who go to work for a major aerospace
company will work in preliminary on detail design.
Type of fuselage
THE DESIGN
Design is a process of usage of creativity with the knowledge of science where
we try to get the most of the best things available and to overcome the pitfalls the previous
design has. It is an iterative process to idealism toward with everyone is marching still.
Design of any system is of successful application of fundamentals of physics.
Thus the airplane design incorporates the fundamentals of aerodynamics, structures,
performance and stability & control and basic physics. These are based on certain degree of
judgment and experience. Every designer has the same technical details but each design
prevails it own individuality and the mode of the designer.
Here the preliminary design has been done of an executive Transport Aircraft.
The basic requirements are the safe, comfortable and economic transport mode with
reasonable time period of flight. Here comfort and safety are given primary importance.
Here the most possible considerations have been taken. And the flight
parameters and limitations are studied.
The modern day calls for the need of latest aircrafts for the use of passenger
transport which aims mainly at improving the aerodynamic characteristics as well as the
passenger comfort. This design project also looks at the above aspects in a lot more closer way.
Also the design project has been classified into different stages in our design will be as follows.
1.V n Diagram
Factor of safety flight envelope:
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases in weight
require stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increases in weight and
so on. Excesses of structural weight mean lesser amounts of payload, thereby affecting the
economic viability of the aircraft. The aircraft designer is therefore constantly seeking to pare is
aircrafts weight to the minimum compatible with safety. However, to ensure general minimum
standards of strength and safety, airworthiness regulations (Av.p.970 and BCAR) lay down
several factors which the primary structure of the aircraft is expected to experience in normal
operation, the proof load, which is the product of the limit load and the proof factor and the
ultimate load, which is the product of the limit load and the ultimate factor. The aircrafts
structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion and should not fail until
the ultimate load has been achieved.
FLIGHT ENVELOPE
The proof and ultimate factors may be regarded as factors of safety and provide for
various contingencies and uncertainties.
The basic strength and flight performance limits for a particular aircraft are selected by
the airworthiness authorities and are contained in the flight envelope or V-n diagram. The curves
OA and OF correspond to the stalled condition of the aircraft and or obtained from the well
known aerodynamic relationship
Lift = nW =
Thus, for speeds below VA (positive wing incidence) and VF (negative incidence) the
maximum loads which can be applied to the aircraft are governed by CLmax, as the speed
increases it is possible to apply the positive and negative limit loads, corresponding to n1 and n3,
without stalling the aircraft so that AC and FE represent Vc the cut-off lines CD1 and D2E relive
the design cases to be covered since it is not expected that the limit loads will be applied at
maximum speed. Values of n1,n2and n3 are specified by the airworthiness authorities for
particular aircraft; typical load factors laid down in BCAR are shown.
A particular flight envelope is applicable to one altitude only since CLmaxis generally
reduced with an increase of altitude, and the speed of sound decreases with altitude thereby
reducing the critical Mach number and hence the design diving speed V D. Flight envelopes are
therefore drawn for a range of altitudes from sea level to the operational ceiling of the aircraft.
1aLOAD Factors during various Manoeuvres:
The load factor, n, is defined as the ratio of the lift to weight, n=L/W .In level flight, the
lift produced by the wings equals the weight, so that n=1. However, during Manoeuvres such as
climb to altitude, acceleration to high speed, or sustained or instantaneous turns associated with
combat, significantly larger load factors can occur. Since these set the limit on the internal
structure, it is important that the maximum load factor be determined.
n = ((q/(W/s))/(CD0/K))
Where again, q is the dynamic pressure,
CD0 is the base drag coefficient for the wing.
And k=
with e 0.8
Instantaneous Turn Rate. With Instantaneous Turn Rate, the load factor was given in below
equation. This is reproduced inn = ([( instV/g)2+1]
Here the turn rate inst, is the Instantaneous Turn Rate, which has units of radians per second.
G = sin = (T-D)/W
Substituting for D/W in the above equation and solving for n, we obtain
D/W = n(CD0/C)L + (CL/nAe)
n = [((T/W)-G)][((T/W)-G)2-(4CD0/Ae)]0.5/[2CD0/CL]
With the condition that
T/W G+2
As an Example, with CD0= 0.007,CL= 1.2,A= 2,and a climb angle of 11 degrees, the
minimum thrust-to-weight ratio that satisfies
Take off transition. The transition phase of take-off is a climb at constant radius. Analysis
determined that the load factor was constant and equal to n= 1.15. Although this is not likely to
be the largest load factor, for consistency it needs to be considered.
High Angle of Attack. A high load factor can result from an instantaneous change in the angle
of attack during level flight. The load factor in terms of the dynamic pressure and lift coefficient
is :
n = qCL / (W/S)
This would be applied for example, at cruise conditions, to determine the extreme load factor
condition. To illustrate this, we take the conditions at the start of cruise for the conceptual SSBJ,
where q= 531 lbs/ft2 and W/S = 157 lbs/ft2. The maximum lift coefficient, without flaps, is
approximately 1.0.applying this to above eqn, the load factor is 3.4
Dive condition. The maximum dynamic pressure is produced in a dive. As a standard, the dive
velocity is taken as Vdive = 1.5 Vcruise. Therefore, the dynamic pressure increases by the factor of
1.52 or 2.25.
We can again illustrate this by using the conditions of the conceptual SSBJ. With
CLCruise= 0.2, under a dive condition, the load factor would be n = 1.52.
V* = 2 nmax
nmax = V 2 Clmax
w/s
Where = 2.2785 * 10-1
Clmax
=3
=0.214
635.6
If V =30 m/s, nmax = *2.2785 * 10-1 * (30)2*3
= 0.483
635.6
= 0.858
635.6
= 1.341
635.6
If V =60 m/s, nmax = *2.2785 * 10-1 * (60)2*3
= 1.931
635.6
If V =70 m/s, nmax = *2.2785 * 10-1 * (70)2*3
= 2.63
635.6
If V =80 m/s, nmax = *2.2785 * 10-1 * (80)2*3
= 3.43
635.6
If V =90 m/s, nmax = *2.2785 * 10-1 * (90)2*3
= 4.346
635.6
If V = 100 m/s, nmax = *2.2785 * 10-1 * (100)2*3
635.6
(Vcr) = V =384.15 km/hr
nmax = 6.1
V * =2*6.1*635.6/0.22785*3
= 5.36
V * =106.5 m/s
nlimit +ve 2.1 + 24000
w+10000
nlimit +ve 2.1 + 24000
5360+10000
nlimit +ve 3.66
n = L/W = V2SClmax
W
Aircraft
Positive
Negative Values
General Aircraft
2.5 to 3.8
1 1.5
Transport
3 to 2
1 to 2
Acrobatic
Fighters
6.5 to 9
3 to 6
n
14
12
10
8
n
6
4
2
0
0
Vs =
20
40
60
2nwo
CnmaxS
Cnmax = 1.1Clmax
Wing area, s = 16 m2
Vs =
2*1*5360
2.2785*10-1*9.81*1.1*3*16
Velocity at diving:
80
100
120
140
160
2nemowo
CnS
Nlim p = 2.1+(24000)/( wo +10000)
Nlim p = 2.1+(24000)/(52323.58+10000)
= 2.550
Num negative =0.4; num positive = 0.4*2.550=1.020
2* 2.550*052323.58
1.225*9.81**3.3*39.506
= 13.05 m/s
Vsnegative =
2* 1.020*052323.58
1.225*9.81**3.3*39.506
= 8.2541 m/s
VA = 13.05 *2.550
VA = 20.839 m /s
VD= 1.25 * Vc
VD = 1.25 *885.20
VD =1106.5m/s
Altitude = 14000 m
= 45931.75 feet
Mean chord c = (Root chord + tip chord)/2
= (2000+500)/2*1000
c = 1.25 m
limit load factor,
nlimit = 1 kg * VDeVcl
498*(w/s)
Kg = 0.88g/(5.3+g)
g = [2*(w/s)] / igcl
g =
2*635.6
0.22785*1.25*9.81*3
g = 151.65
Kg = 0.88g/(5.3+g)
Kg = (0.88*151.65)/(3.3+151.65)
Kg= 0.85
nlimit = 1 kg * VDeVcl
498*(w/s)
For Vc (20000 ft to 50000 ft)
VDe =66.67-(0.000833*h)
=66.67-(0.000833 * 45931.75)
VDe = 55.008
nlimit = 1 0.85*55.008*106.7*3
498*635.6
= 1 4.1485*10-3
nlimit =
L* cos = W
cos =(W/L)
Where,
L = U2Scl At ground
= *1.225*106.72*7.7*3
L = 161,081.9
Lcos = w
161,081 * cos = 5360
= 88
Turn radius,
R=
VD2
gn2max-1
where,
VD --- Diving velocity
g----- gravity
Turn radius, R = (128.04)2
9.81n2max-1
For fighter a/c, nmax =9
R = (128.04)2
9.8192 1
R = 187 m
Turn radius,
R=
Vo2
gn2max-1
nmax= 6.1
R=
(128.04)2
9.816.12 1
R = 278 m
R=
187 + 278
2
R = 232.5 m
Turn rate, W= gn2max-1
Vo
Consider, nmax= 9
W = 9.8192 1
128.04
W= 0.68 m/s
For , nmax= 6.1
W = 9.816.12 1
128.04
W= 0.46 m/s
Vn diagram
13
12.5
150, 12.07
12
11.5
11
10.5
140, 10.4
10
9.5
130, 9.06
9
8.5
8
120, 7.72
7.5
LOAD FACTOR (n)
7
6.5
110, 6.49
Cruise velocity
5.5
100, 5.36
5
4.5
4
90, 4.346
Dive velocity
3.5
80, 3.43
3
70, 2.63
2.5
2
60, 1.931
1.5
50, 1.341
40, 0.858
0.5
30, 0.483
20, 0.214
0
0, 0 10, 0.053
-0.5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
5.5,
-1
10,-0.91
-1
29.5, -1
128, -1
-1.5
-2
VELOCITY (V)
1
stall
velcocity
Where c is the mean chord of the mail wing and g is the gravitational constant. Note that
is dimensionless, so that in British units, gc= 32.2f (lbm/ lbf) s2 is required in the numerator.
The mass ratio, is a parameter in a response coefficient, K, which is defined differently
for subsonic and supersonic aircraft, namely,
K = 0.88 / (5.33 + ) (Subsonic)
K = 1.03 / (6.95 + 1.03)(Supersonic)
The normal component of the gust velocity, u, is the product of the statistical average of
values taken from flight data, , and the response coefficient, or
u=K
The above table gives values of . The variation with altitude is presented in the figure.
Considering equation, we observe that turbulent gusts have a greater effect on aircraft
with a lower wing loading. Therefore, a higher wing loading is better to produce a smoother
flight, as well as in lowering the incremental structural loads.
Vd = 128.04
nlimit = 1 0.85*55.008*128.04*3
498*635.6
nlimit =
1.057for +ve
0.94 for ve
nlimit = 1 0.85*55.008*29.85*3
498*635.6
nlimit =
1.013for +ve
0.94 for ve
Plots like figure which superpose the manoeuvre loads with the gust loads, are important for
determine the conditions that produce the highest load factors. The largest values are the ones
used in the structural design.
L =14,396.96
BM = -LX3/6b
BM = -14,396.96*X3/6*3.85
BM
0.5
-77.9
1.0
-623.2
1.5
-2103.3
2.0
-4985.6
2.5
-9737.5
3.0
-16,826.49
3.5
-26,719.8
3.85
-35,564.11
bending moment
0
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
-30000
-35000
-40000
bending moment
Shear flow
SF = LX2/2b
SF
= 14,396.96*X2
2 * 3.85
SF
0.5
467.43
1.0
1869.73
1.5
4206.9
2.0
7478.9
2.5
11,685.8
3.0
16,827.6
3.5
22,904.25
3.85
27,714.14
shear flow
30000
25000
20000
15000
shear flow
10000
5000
0
0
Lift vs Span:
L = Vd2Scl
Where, s span
AR = b2/s => s= b2/AR, AR =3
Span
Surface Area(S)
Lift(L)
0.25
7531
30,124.4
2.25
67,779.9
6.25
188,277.5
271,119.6
12.25
369,023.9
7.7
14.8
445,841.12
120,497.6
lift
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
lift
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
0
3b Level flight:
Although steady level flight is not a maneuver in the strict sense of the world, it is a
usefulcondition to investigate initial since it establishes points of load application and gives some
idea of the equilibrium of an aircraft in the longitudinal plane. The loads acting on an aircraft in
steady flight are shown in figure, with the following notation.
L is the lift acting at the aerodynamic centre of the wing,
D is the aircraft drag,
M o is the aerodynamic pitching moment of the aircraft less its horizontal tail,
P is the horizontal tail load acting at the aerodynamic centre of the tail, usually taken to be at
approximately one-third of the tail plane chord,
W is the aircraft weight acting at its centre of gravity,
T is the engine thrust, assumed here to act parallel to the direction of flight in order to simplify
calculation.
The loads are in static equilibrium since the aircraft is in a steady state level flight condition.
Thus for vertical equilibrium
L+PW=0
For horizontal equilibrium
TD=0
And taking moments about the aircrafts centre of gravity in the plane of symmetry
L a D b T c - Mo Pl = 0
For a given aircraft weight, speed and altitude, the above equations may be solved for the
unknown lift, drag and tail loads. However, other parameters in these equations, such as M0
depend upon the wing incidence which in turn is a function of the required wing lift so that, in
practice, a method successive approximation is found to be the most convenient means of
solution.
As a first approximation we assume that tail load P is small compared with the wing lift L
so that, from the above equation L W. From aerodynamic theory with the usual notation
L=
Hence
W
The above equation gives the approximate lift coefficient CL and thus (from CL curves
established by wind tunnel tests) the wing incidence . The drag load D follows (knowing V and
) and hence we obtain the required engine thrust T from above equation also Mo, a, b, c & l may
be calculated (again since V and are known) and the equation can be solved for P.As a second
approximation this value of P is substituted in above equation to obtain a more accurate value for
L and the procedure is repeated. Usually three approximations are sufficient to produce
reasonably accurate values.
In most cases P, D and T are small compared with the lift and aircraft weight. Therefore,
from above equation L W and substitution in the above equation gives, neglecting D and T
P W ((a/l)-Mo/l))
We see from above return equation that if a is large then P will most likely be positive. In
other words the tail load acts upwards when the centre of gravity of the aircraft is far aft. When a
is small or negative, that is, a forward centre of gravity, then P will probably be negative and act
downwards.
3dSteady pull-out:
Let us suppose that the aircraft has just began its pull-out from a dive so that it is
describing a curved flight path but is not yet at its lowest point. The load acting on the aircraft at
this stage of the manoeuvre are shown in above figure. Where R is the radius of curvature of the
flight path. In this case the lift vector must equilibrate the normal (to the flight path) component
of the aircraft weight and provide the force producing the centripetal acceleration V2/R of the
aircraft towards the centre of curvature of the flight path. Thus
L = (WV2/gR) + W cos
Or, since L = nW
n = (V2/gR) + cos
At the lowest point of the pull-out, = 0, and
n = (V2/gR) + 1
( )
( )
Where LE is the total lift generated by the wing with an elliptic planform. In both these
expressions, y is the span wise coordinate of the wing, with y = 0 corresponding to the wing root,
and y = b/2 corresponding to the wing tips. A schematic is shown in the figure.
The analysis of the elliptic planform wing shows that it results in an elliptic lift distribution in the
span wise direction. This is the basis for a semi-empirical method for estimating the span wise
lift distribution on untwisted wings with general trapezoidal planform shapes. The method is
attributed to Schrenk (1940) and assumes that the span wise lift distribution of a general
untwisted wing has a shape that is the average between the actual planform chord distribution,
c(y), and that of an elliptic wing. In this approach, the areas under the span wise lift distribution.
For the elliptic or general planform, must equal the total required lift.
For the trapezoidal wing, the local chord length, c(y), varies along the span as
c(y) = cr[1 - ((2y/b)(1-))]
As a check, for a planar wing ( = 1), LT (y) = L/b, which is the correct lift per span.
To use Schrenks method, it is necessary to graph the span wise lift distribution given in the
equation for the elliptic platform and the above equation for the trapezoidal planform. In each
case, L is the required total lift. The approximated span wise lift distribution is then the local
average of the two distributions,namely,
L(y) = [LT(y) + LE(y)]
An example of this corresponds to the dotted curve in figure.
It should be pointed out that Schrenks method does not provide a suitable estimate of the span
wise lift distribution for highly swept wings. In that instance, a panel method approach or other
computational method is necessary.
In most cases, the wing structure is inherently strong (stiff) in the drag component
direction because the relevant length for the bending moment of inertia is the wing chord, which
is large compared to the wing thickness. Therefore, the principle bending of the wing occurs in
the lift component direction. The design of the internal structure of the wing is then primarily
driven by the need to counter the wing-thickness bending moments.
wing loading
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
wing loading
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0
NACA 64A004
Aerofoil thickness at rootchord = 2000 * 4/100
= 80
Aerofoil thickness at tipchord = 500 * 4/100
= 20
wf/ wg=0.6552
wf=0.6552 * 5360
wf=3511.872 kg
Max.Bending moment:
Wl2/6 = (l wf)b2/6
= (161081.9 34451.4) (3.85)2
6
Max.B.M = 312.829* 103
My = 0
Ixy = 0
Maximum bending stress
2 = (MyIxy+ MxIyy)y - (MxIxy+ MyIxx)x
IxxIyy - Ix2 yIxxIyy - Ix2 y
2= (MxIyy)y
IxxIyy
2 = (Mx)y
Ixx
= (312.829 * 103 )y
6354212.44
= 0.049232 * y
Points
40
1.969
26.8
1.319
26.8
1.319
-26.8
-1.319
-26.8
-1.319
-40
-1.969
Vs=
2ndmwe
CnS
nlim p = 2.1+(24000)/(100+10000)
CN = 1.1CLmax
n= load factor
nlimit= 5.69
PsVs=
2*5.69*5670
1.225*1.1*3*16
Vstall= 31.58 m/s
Design maneuring speed (VA)
VA = PsVs* nlim p
VA =31.58 *5.69
Military trainer aircraft:
kc= 27
VA = 75.33
VD = 1.25 VC
VC =kc udo/ (kg/m2 )
VC = 384.15 km/hr = 106.7 m/s
VD = 1.25*106.7
VD =133.3 m/s
VC = 508.2
VD = 1.25*508.2 = 635.25 m/s
Points
B2
106.77
2501.62
97.17
2276.69
97.17
2276.69
-97.17
-2276.69
-97.17
-2276.69
-106.77
-2501.62
Ch= 2 * 4.96
4.45(1+0.285)
= 1.737
Vertical tail root chord,
Cv= 2Sv/ Bv(1+v)
Ch= 2 * 3.36
3.66(1+0.285)
= 1.43
Tip Chord :
CTh= h+ Ch= 0.283 * 1.737 = 0.491m
CTv= v+ Cv= 0.283 * 1.43 = 0.404 m
Root chord(horizontal)=1.737*0.04 = 0.069 m
Tip chord(horizontal)= 0.491*0.04 = 0.0196 m
Root chord(vertical) = 1.43*0.04= 0.0572 m
Tip chord(vertical) = 0.404*0.04 = 0.01616 m
Area of:
Sflap/s = 0.17
Sflap= 0.17 * 7.7 = 1.309 m
Sslat/s = 0.1
Sslat = 0.1 * 7.7 = 0.77 m
Saileron/s = 0.03
Saileron= 0.03 * 7.7 = 0.231 m
Landing gear(tri-cycle landing gear is chosen)
Wmainlandinggear (Wwm) = 90% of Woverall
= 5360 * 90/100
Wt. Acting on main landing gear (Wwm) = 4824 Kg = 47323.4 N
Wwm = Wnoselandinggear= 10% of Woverall
= 5360 * 10/100
Wwm = 536 Kg = 5258.16 N
Diameter of the wheel
Nose Diameter = 1.59 * (47323.4)0.302
= 41.04 in = 41.04*0.0254 = 1.04 m
Diameter of rear = 1.59 *0.0254* (5258.16)0.302
= 0.536 m
Width of wheel
Nose width = AWnoseB
= 0.098 * (5232.358 * 9.81)0.467
= 15.52 m = 39.42 cm = 0.39 m
Rear width = 0.098 * (47091.22 * 9.81)0.467
= 43.31 m = 110.01 cm = 1.10 m
The above table gives an example of a load breakdown and the resulting
moments about the location of the wing center of lift.
For static stability in the pitching direction, the balance of the loads about the center of lift
should result in a nose-down moment that has to be offset by the horizontal stabilizer downward
lift force. (This would be upward lift in the case of a canard). This is determined by finding the
moments produced by the product of the resultants of the respective loads, and the distance from
the location where they act to the location of center of lift. For the condition in table, the net
moment needed to balance the fuselage is -50 f-lbs. This moment is produced by a downward lift
force of 125 lbs at the location of the center of lift of the horizontal tail.
There is obviously some leeway in setting the locations of many of the items in table.
Their placement affects the static stability as well as the performance of the aircraft. Placing the
center of gravity too far forward of the center of lift can make an aircraft too stable and require
too large of a control surface from the horizontal tail to maintain level pitching altitude. For an
aft tail, this situation leads to induced drag on the horizontal tail and main wing.
The static stability analysis will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. However, a
simplified measure of the pitching stability that can be used for locating some of the heavier
components on the fuselage is called static margin(SM).
The static margin is defined as
SM = (xnp- xcg) / c
Where Xnp is the location of the neutral lift point of the main wing and c is the
mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c).As a first approximation, we can neglect the lift-induced
moment of the main wing so that Xnp corresponds to the center of lift Xcl.
For static stability in the pitching direction the static margin is positive(SM>0). Normal
values for the static margin for a large spectrum of aircraft give a range of 3SM10.
A consideration in the placement of the fuel is how the location of the center of the mass
will shift as the fuel wait is reduced over a flight plan. In the case of a long-range aircraft, the
static margin can change significantly from the start of cruise to the end of cruise. The placement
of fuel should be such that the static margin always remains positive.
Fuselage structural analysis
L = V
= 2(-V0 + 2 V)
Resultant load = L-W
Circulation, = 2(-1033.6 +( 2* 3234.924)
= 34156.95
L = V
= 2.2785 * 10-1 * 34156 * 32340934
L = 25176317.04
L = 2.51* 106
Wing volume
Wing volume = area * thickness
Volume by taking tip thickness
Tip:
Volume = 39.506 * 0.08268
= 3266.35 m3
Root:
Vol = 39.506 * 0.3444
= 13605.86 m3
Avg.Vol = (3.266 + 13.605)/2
= 8.43 C
Horizontal tail volume
A1 +A2 +A3
= (1.35*10-3*0.02)+(2.31*10-3*0.04)+(1.35*10-3*0.05)
(1.35+2.31+1.35)*10-3
X = 0.0135 m
Ixx = Ay2
= 2(Ar2) + 4(Ay12) + 4(Ay22) + 4(Ay32)
R= thickness +radius
D =o.2/2 + 2m
D=2.1m
r-d/2=2.1/2
r=1.05m
y1 =sin 22.5 = y1/r = 0.382= y1/1.05
y1=0.40m
y2 =sin 45 = y2/r = 0.707= y2/1.05
y2=0.742m
y3=sin 67.5 = y3/r = 0.923= y3/1.05
y3=0.97m
Ixx = (0.0138/2 * (1.05)2) + 4(0.0138 * (0.040)2) + 4(0.0138*(0.742)2) + 4(0.0138*(0.97)2)
= 0.0152+ 8.832*10-3+ 0.0309 + 0.0319
Ixx = 0.1068 m4
2 = (Mx)y
Ixx
Mx=We2/6
Mx = (24591.32 * 22)/6 = 90.16 *103
2 = (90.16 *103 *y)/0.1068 = 8.44 *103 *y
Striger
Y(m)
2(Nm2)
1.05
8.86*105
-1.05
-8.86*105
2.16
0.97
8.18*105
3.15
0.742
6.26*105
4.14
0.40
3.37*105
5.13
6.12
-0.40
3.37*105
7.1
-0.742
-6.26*105
8.10
-0.97
-8.18*105
6b Tensile loading:
In the semi-monocoquedesign, the sheet metal covering is designed to
withstand the tensile loads. With the fuselage, supported at the centre of lift for a positive load
factor, the tensile loads are on the top surface. For a negative load factor, they would be on the
bottom surface. In most cases, the positive load factor is the larger of the two, so that it will
dictate the structural design.
The tensile force acting on the fuselage skin is due to the moment at XCL. The
tensile stress is then
T = (MXCL R)/I
Where R is the half-height of the fuselage at XCL and I is the bending moment
of inertia. In the case of a circular cross-section fuselage, R is the radius of the fuselage; I is
I = /4 (R4 r4)
Where r=R-t; and t is the thickness of the sheet metal skin. Since t <<R,
I /2(R3t)
Therefore, from the above equation,
T = (MXCL)/R3t
The stress in the skin must be less than the ultimate tensile stress for the
material divided by the design load factor, or
T Tu/ ndesign
From this using above equation, the minimum skin thickness is
t min = (2 MXCL ndesign)/TuR2
In many cases, a more desirable cross-section shape for the fuselage is elliptic
in order to give a higher ceiling height. For an elliptic cross-section fuselage, where the major
axis is the vertical height of the fuselage, the bending moment of inertia about the minor axis
(due to MXCL) is
I = /4 (A3B C3D)
Where A is the major axis radius, B is the minor axis radius, and C=A-t and D=B-t, where again
t is the fuselage skin thickness.
For t <<R,
I = /4 (A3B + A3) t
In this case, the minimum skin thickness is
tmin = (MXCL ndesign) / (Tu (A3B + A3))
In either case of a circular or elliptic cross-section fuselage, the above
equations provides values for the minimum skin thickness needed to withstand the tensile load
produced by the maximum bending moment. The required thickness depends on the material
property, Tu. Values for materials typically used are presented in the next section.
6cCompressive Loading:
In the semi-monocoque design, the longerons are designed to withstand the
compressive loads. With the fuselage, supported at the centre of lift for a positive load factor, the
compressive loads are on the lower side. For a negative load factor, they are on the upper side. Again in
most cases, the positive load factor is the larger of the two and dictates the structural design.
Structural failure under compression for the longerons usually occurs due to
buckling. Therefore, this will set the structural design limit. The criterion for buckling comes
from the Euler column formula, given as
FE = C2EI/ (L) 2
Where F is the critical column load to produce buckling, L is the unsupported length
and C is a factor that depends on how the column is fixed at its ends. For pinned ends, C=1, whereas C=4
for fixed ends. The longerons are often supported by comparatively flexible ribs or bulkheads, which are
free to twist or bend. Thus, a value of C=1 is appropriate. If the bulkheads are rigid enough to provide
restraint to the longerons, a value of C=1.5 can be used.
And
M =
Where N is the number of elements over which the wing span is divided. Of
course, the sums approximate the integrals better as the number of elements becomes large;
however, a reasonably good estimate for the conceptual design can be obtained with
approximately twenty elements over the half-span of the wing.
In order to make these definite integrals, the integration (summation) needs to
be started where the shear and moment are known. With the wing, this location is at the wing
tip(y=b/2), where V (b/2)=M (b/2)=0. Note that in this case, the resultant load on an element is
Wi=W(y). y y which is the quantity inside the sum in equation. If the index, I, in the above
equation indicates the elements along the wing span, with i=1 signifying the one at the wing tip,
then
V1 =0;
V2 = W1 + W2;
V3 = W1 + W2+W3 = V2 + W3;
V4 = V3 + V4;
.
.
.
VN =VN-1 + WN.
Note that the shear on element N must equal the sum of the resultant loads on
the wing. In reality, there might be a small discrepancy due to the finite number elements in
which the wing span is subdivided. However, with a large enough number of elements the
difference should be small.
The bending moment on the wing is given by eqn. For the moments along the
wing span, one should also start at the wing tip where the moment on the element is zero. Then
the following format in the above eqn.
M1 =0;
M2 = V1 +yV2;
M3 = = V1 +yV2 +yV3 = M2 + yV3;
M4 = M3 y V4;
.
.
.
MN =MN-1 + yVN.
The top plot in fig. illustrates Schrenks approximation of the span wise lift
distribution for the finite span wing. The solid curve corresponds to the lift distribution for the
trapezoidal wing. This is constant along the span because the taper ratio () in this example is 1.
The total span wise load distribution, W, shown in fig. for generic wing
includes all of the weight and lift components. For this, the wing was divided into 20 span wise
elements. The sharp negative spike in the load distribution marks the location of the engine. The
more gradual dip in the loads near Y/(b/2) = 0.4 corresponds to the outboard edge of the flaps.
The span wise distribution of the shear load, V, comes from eqn. This shows
that the largest shear is at the wing root, with the second largest shear being at the location of the
engine.
The moment distribution, M, in fig. is based on eqn. It reflects the wing cantilever structure,
whereby the largest moment is at the wing root. The small peak in the moment distribution near
Y/(b/2) is due to the engine.
VN =VN-1 + WN.
And
M1 =V1;
M2 = V1 +yV2 ;
M3 = = V1 +yV2 +yV3 = M2 + yV3
M4 = M3 y V4;
.
.
.
MN =MN-1 + yVN.
The summation starts at one end of the fuselage (x=0 or x=1). In contrast to the
wing, the shear force in the first element is considered to be the load in that element (W 1), and
the moment is considered to be the shear on that element to the other end, as with the wing.
In this process, the shear force and the moment can be found for the summation
of all the loads, or separately for the individual loads, with the total shear and the moment being
the sum of the individual shear and moment distributions. In either approach, it is important to
include the concentrated reaction load that occurs at the point of support, x=xCL.
The inclusion of the resultant force was not necessary for the wing, because
only half of the wing span was considered and the point of support was at the one end. For the
fuselage, if the resultant load is properly included, the force on that element minus the shear at
xCL, Should equal the sum of the total load across all of the elements.
An example of the application of these equations is shown in fig. The load
corresponds to those listed in table and illustrated in fig. The shear V shows a reversal of sign at
the eqn x=xCLas a result of the resultant force that acts at the point of support at the wing lift
center. As a result, the shear is zero at the leading and trailing point of the fuselage.
The moment, M, in fig. is also a maximum at the point of support of the fuselage, which
corresponds to the wing lift center. These values as set the maximum stress condition for the
structural design and dictate the internal structural layout of the fuselage.
RESULTANT LOAD
Sy = L - wfus
= 59377.73 3578.95
= 55798.78Kg
On Half Portion
V = L - Wfus
= 55798.78/2 = 27899.39Kg
Thickness of fuselage, t = 10mm
Radius = 5m = 5000mm
17.2mm
100mm
38.1mm
Ixx = 2(A*r2)+4(A*y12)+4(A*y22)+4(A*y32)
Sinnn67.5 = y1/r = y1/5
Therefore, y1 = 4.62m = 4620mm
Sin45 = y2/r
Therefore, y2 = 5*Sin45
= 3.54m = 3540mm
Sin22.5 = y3/r
Therefore, y3 = 1.91m = 1910mm
A = 1+2+3
= (38.1*17.2)+(65.6*17.2)+(38.1*17.2)
Area, A = 2438.96mm2
Ixx= 2(2438.96*50002)+4(2438.96*46202)+4(2438.96*35402)+4(2438.96*19102)
Ixx= 4.88*1011mm4
Shearflow
q12 = - V/I(A*y1)
= -27899.39/4.88*1011(2438.96*500011)
= - 0.644
q23 = q12 + (- V/I(A*y2))
= - 0.644 - 27899.39/4.88*1011(2438.96*4620)
= - 1.137
q34 = q23 + (- V/I(A*y3))
= - 1.137 - 27899.39/4.88*1011(2438.96*3540)
= - 1.403
q45 = q34 + (- V/I(A*y4))
= -1.403 - 27899.39/4.88*1011(2438.96*0)
= - 1.403
q56 = q45 + (- V/I(A*y5))
= - 1.403 - 27899.39/4.88*1011(2438.96*(-1910))
= - 1.136
= - 0.642 - 27899.39/4.88*1011(2438.96*4620)
=-
Thrust = 0.8*94650.91
= 75720.728Kg
= 742820.34N
Index = wg2/SCLmaxST
= (94650.91*9.81)2/1.225*9.81*3*104.706*742820.34
= 31.34
Take Of Field Length
2 engine, TOFL = 857.4+(28.43*31.34)+(0.0185*31.342)
= 1766.64m
= 1.76Km
9.BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.