Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
2nd Edition
2nd Edition
Raed I. Kafafy
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia
Ossama O. Abdelkhalik
Department of Mechanical Engineering - Engineering Mechanics,
Michigan Tech University, USA
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without any prior written
permission of the authors.
CONTENTS
Introduction .................................................................................. 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
References ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Background ......................................................................................................................... 21
2.2
2.3
References ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 40
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 43
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
References ...................................................................................................................................... 51
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 52
vi
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
References ...................................................................................................................................... 61
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 62
5.2
5.3
References ...................................................................................................................................... 72
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 73
6.2
vii
6.3
6.4
6.5
References ...................................................................................................................................... 82
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 83
7.2
7.3
7.4
References ...................................................................................................................................... 92
Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 93
viii
Orbital Maneuvers..................................................................... 95
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
9.2
9.3
9.4
ix
9.5
9.6
9.7
10.2
10.3
10.4
xi
xii
Introduction
The Sun, with all the planets revolving around it, and depending on it, can still ripen a bunch
of grapes as though it had nothing else in the Universe to do.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
the Moon; or vehicles made by man such as satellites, space shuttles and
space probes. The branch of the subject studying the former objects is usually
referred to as celestial mechanics, whereas the branch studying the latter is
usually referred to as astrodynamics (Vallado, 2007). Orbital mechanics may
be considered as a synonym for space mechanics.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Egyptian buildings, such as the Abu Simbel Temple and the infamous Pyramids
of Giza, were built with an astronomical orientation (Astronomy in ancient
Egypt). Babylonians invented a sexagesimal (base 60) number system which is
still used in the modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60
minutes each, began with the Sumerians.
Egyptian and Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of the astronomical traditions that later developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in
classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanid, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, in
medieval Islamic astronomy, and in Western European astronomy. Some
historians, even, goes to the extreme that most of the scientific and
philosophical body of knowledge unanimously accredited to the great Greek
philosophers such as Democritus, Aristotle and Socrates are in fact the mere
Greek translations of the original unpublished knowledge of the Egyptian
priests (James, 1954)!
Beginning around 600 BC, Greek philosophers and scientists developed a
number of important astronomical ideas. The early Greek astronomers knew
many of the geometrical relationships of the heavenly bodies. Pythagoras,
who lived during the 500s BC, argued that the earth was round. He also tried
to explain the nature and structure for the universe as a whole. He developed
an early system of cosmology. In about 370 BC, Euxodus of Cnidus had
developed a mechanical system to explain the motion s of the planets.
Euduxos taught that the planets, sun, the moon, and the stars revolved
around the earth. In 300s BC, Aristotle incorporated this earth centered or
geocentric, theory into his philosophic system.
Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises including the astronomical treatise, Almagest. His Planetary Hypotheses went beyond the
mathematical model of the Almagest to present a physical realization of the
universe as a set of nested spheres, in which he used the epicycles of his
planetary model to compute the dimensions of the universe. He estimated the
Sun was at an average distance of 1210 Earth radii while the radius of the
sphere of the fixed stars was 20,000 times the radius of the Earth.
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
An important area in Astronomy is optics. It is very relevant in the development of tools for observation like telescopes that employ lenses or mirrors.
Ibn al-Haytham (the Latin Alhazen) studied the property of lenses, discovered
the camera obscura, explained correctly the process of vision, studied the
structure of the eye, and explained for the first time why the sun and the
moon appear larger on the horizon (very simply put, it is because the thicker
layer of atmosphere at the horizon acts as magnifying lens compared to overhead).
Other Muslim mathematicians such as Khayyam and al-Tusi examined
Euclidean geometry that is the geometry of flat surfaces. The Muslim mathematicians, especially al-Battani, Abu'l-Wafa', Ibn Yunus and Ibn al-Haytham,
also developed spherical Astronomy. Euclidean and spherical geometry are
particularly useful in studying the overall geometry of the Universe in the
study of cosmology.
The Muslims also applied their astronomical knowledge to questions of timekeeping and the calendar in making almanacs, this word too being Arabic in
origin. The most exact solar calendar existing to this day is the Jalali calendar
which was developed under the direction of Omar Khayyam in the 12th century. This is still in use in Persia and Afghanistan.
Many people think that the Arabs gave us (the) zero. It is more appropriate
to look at the phenomenon of Islamic science within its own cultural context.
Then, if we want to compare, we discover that actually, as far as astronomy is
concerned, little was achieved in Europe until ca. 1550 that had not been
achieved previously by Muslim scholars at some time between the 9th and the
15th century.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
time of its swing. These early explorations were not soon exploited by
Newton, though he studied astronomy and the problems of planetary motion.
Correspondence with Hooke (1679-1680) redirected Newton to the problem
of the path of a body subjected to a centrally directed force that varies as the
inverse square of the distance; he determined it to be an ellipse, so informing
Edmond Halley in August 1684. Halley's interest led Newton to demonstrate
the relationship afresh, to compose a brief tract on mechanics, and finally to
write the Principia.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). British
mathematician and physicist, one of the
foremost scientific intellects of all time.
He was elected a Fellow of Trinity
College in 1667 and Lucasian Professor
of Mathematics in 1669. During two to
three years of intense mental effort he
prepared Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy) commonly known as
the Principia, although this was not
published until 1687.
Book III shows the law of gravitation at work in the universe: Newton demonstrates it from the revolutions of the six known planets, including the Earth,
and their satellites. However, he could never quite perfect the difficult theory
of the Moon's motion. Comets were shown to obey the same law; in later
editions, Newton added conjectures on the possibility of their return. He
calculated the relative masses of heavenly bodies from their gravitational
forces, and the oblateness of Earth and Jupiter, already observed. He
explained tidal ebb and flow and the precession of the equinoxes from the
forces exerted by the Sun and Moon. All this was done by exact computation.
Universal Gravitational Law: Any two bodies attract one another with a
force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.2.4 Astrodynamics
The birth date of astrodynamics may be marked with the successful launch of
the first man-made Earth satellite known as Sputnik I by the former Soviet
Union on October 4, 1957. Only few months later, to be followed by the
launch of the second man-made satellite Explorer I on January 31, 1958 by the
United States. Thousands of satellites have been launched since then to serve
numerous applications ranging from purely civil to purely military. In addition
to Earth satellites missions, many interplanetary space exploration missions
have been successfully accomplished to the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Saturn and
other planets in the solar system. From Sputnik to Ulysses (the joint ESA/NASA
solar orbiter mission and one of the longest and most successful space
missions ever conducted, which has finally ended on June 30, 2009), space
utilization has become an integral and crucial part of the modern human life.
Due to the highly ambitious programs in NASA and ESA, in recent years, it has
become evident that there is piling interest innovative space missions which
require collaborative scientific and engineering efforts from different
disciplines. Recent advances in modern orbital mechanics, space propulsion
systems, and orbital and attitude control techniques paved the way to realize
missions which used to be unfeasible. New space mission concepts such as
formation flying have gained much of the space community interest. Such
progresses were supported by peer advances in orbital determination
methods and maneuver techniques which constitute what is referred as
modern astrodynamics (Gurfil, 2006).
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere itself is divided into five segments: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The thickness of each
segment is determined mainly by temperature gradients.
Troposphere [sea level 18 km]
The temperature in this region varies with altitude from about 290 K (17C) at
sea level to 220 K (53C) at 11 km. Nearly, all the weather effects we
experience on the surface of Earth, such as rain and snow, occur within the
troposphere. The tropopause is an extension of the troposphere where the
temperature remains relatively constant, and it extends from 11 to 18 km.
Stratosphere [18 km 50 km]
Fig. 1-1
The standard atmosphere.
Here, the temperature gradient reverses, and the air actually gets warmer. At
18 km, the temperature is about 220 K and rises to about 270 K (3C) at 50
km. At an altitude of 22 km, cabin pressurization is not economic due to low
atmospheric density and the threat of ozone poisoning (So, human flight
above this height requires a sealed environment with independent oxygen
and pressure supplies). For humans, 22 km might be a good altitude to denote
the beginning of the space environment.
At about 45 km, aircraft propulsion requires an independent supply of fuel
and oxidizer. So, essentially, for aircraft the space environment begins at 45
km. Astronauts who fly above the stratosphere receive wings for their
achievements, so we might define the beginning of space here.
The stratosphere is also the house of the ozone layer (Ozone = O3) which
screens out ultraviolet radiation (a radiation which would kill off all forms of
life) but transmits visible light (which is essential for life and photosynthesis).
High-altitude carbon dioxide allows visible energy from the sun to pass
through, and Earth absorbs it. When Earth reradiates that energy as longwavelength infrared energy, the CO2 will not let it back out.
Mesosphere [50 km 85 km]
The temperature in this region decreases with altitude from about 270 K at 50
km to 190 K (-83C) at 85 km (this is the coldest region of the atmosphere).
The mesosphere is essential for human survival on earth as it absorbs primary
cosmic radiation and deadly solar ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, and
vaporizes incoming meteorites entering from interplanetary space.
At 60 km altitude no atmosphere is present to scatter sunlight, making the sky
appear black and allowing the curvature of the earth to be discerned. This lack
of atmosphere also prevents sound and shock waves from permeating. It is
too low for spacecraft and can only be reached by very large high-altitude
balloons. The mesosphere is often thought of as a no-persons land.
Thermosphere [85 km 300 km]
Beyond the mesosphere the temperature gradient rapidly reverses and the
temperature rises from 190 K (83C) to 1,000 K (773C) at higher altitudes
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
where ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed. If the solar cycle is at
a maximum (many solar flares), the temperature can exceed 1,000 K due to
the higher number of energetic particles in the region, which results in an
inflation of the upper atmosphere and an increase in the density at a given
altitude
The same effectsinflation and variation of densityare observed to a lesser
extent in a daynight cycle. One way to think about it is to imagine the atmosphere breathing on a daynight basis, inflating during the day (or taking an
extremely large breath in) during solar maximum (7 years) and exhaling during
the night (or a large sigh during solar minimum) (4 years).
At 100 km, the Von Karmen line denotes the altitude where aerodynamic
forces (drag, viscosity, etc.) are minimal. (100 km is the height that the U.S. Air
Force Office of Aerospace Research defines as the beginning of space.)
Expososphere [300 km and beyond]
The temperature remains constant at 1,000 K with the exception of solar cycle
variations. Here, atomic oxygen is more abundant than molecular oxygen or
nitrogen due to UV radiation. Atomic oxygen is highly reactive and may cause
damage to satellite surfaces.
Upper atmosphere aerodynamic drag affects spacecraft design and operations. This drag is created by the impact of atmospheric particles on the
spacecraft surface. Although its magnitude is in no way comparable to aerodynamic drag encountered by aircraft, it is nevertheless present and below ~
600 km should be considered. (A satellite at 200 km cannot remain there for
more than several days based on the ballistic coefficient of the spacecraft).
More than an order of magnitude of variation in atmospheric density is
observed between solar minimum and solar maximum which should be
considered when designing a space system to be operated below 600 km.
Above the exosphere is the region known as hard space. While the idea of
space is usually accompanied by a thought of emptiness, hard space is by no
means empty. At 2,000 km altitude, the density is 108 particles per cubic
meter (the density at the surface of Earth is 1025 particles/m3) So, space is not
empty but, rather, is filled with electromagnetic radiation and particles.
10
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
The extent to which a body absorbs solar radiation is determined by the solar
absorption coefficient . Likewise, the amount of power a body emits also
depends on the emissivity. The physical phenomenon of radiation is governed
by Kirchhoffs law. Kirchhoffs law is satisfied when the amount of power absorbed is equal to the amount of power emitted.
= 4 2 2
(1-1)
4
2
Pemitted = T 4r
(1-2)
Pemitted = Pasborbed
(1-3)
Combining the above equations results in a solution for the equilibrium temperature for any object at a distance d from the Sun of
=
1
2
1
2
(1-4)
Where is the average surface temperature of the sun and is the average
radius of the sun.
1.3.4 Microgravity
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
11
EXAMPLE 1-1
If the acceleration of gravity at the surface of Earth is 9.8 m/s2, what will be
the acceleration of gravity at an altitude of 600 km. Assume the average
radius of Earth = 6,378 km.
SOLUTION
The acceleration of gravity can be found from
=
=
2
( + )2
2
1
= 0
2
( + )
(1 + / )2
1
= 8.187 ms 2 83% g 0
(1 + 600/6378)2
Sun spot
Fig. 1-2
Sunspots are places where very intense
magnetic lines of force break through
the Suns surface. They are used to
measure the intensity of solar activities.
Solar flare
The near Earth environment looks like a cavity in the interplanetary scene
under which the Earth surface is more or less protected from the hostile space
environment. The blue planet offers to its inhabitants a fragile shield that
consists of both its atmosphere and its magnetic field, without which, life on
Earth would be impossible. Outside this double protection, various types of
radiation are encountered, which are highly variable in nature, energy, origin,
and distribution.
Fig. 1-3
Solar flares are associated with a violent
release of energy for a short time, from
an hour to a few days.
12
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
times the radius of Earth. The distance from Earth to the Sun is referred to as
an astronomical unit or AU (1 AU ~ 1.5x106 km).
Temperature, pressure, and density are highest at the core, or center, of the
Sun. The temperature reaches as high as 16 million Kelvin at the core then
decreases farther away from the sun to about 106 K at the highest point of the
atmosphere.
Solar Activity
The activity of the Sun is measured by the number of visible sunspots
(organized in groups). This activity presents a periodicity of approximately 11
years, with essentially 7 years of maximums (i.e., high solar activity levels
related to an increase in the number of sunspots, and associated with violent
emissions of particles), and 4 years of minimums.
Solar Wind
The external gaseous envelope of the Sun, the corona, has an extremely high
temperature, and thus it continuously ejects particles, mainly electrons and
protons. This continuous flux of charged particles constitutes the solar wind
which streams off the Sun in all directions at average speed of charged particles ranges from 400 to 1,000 km/s (1.44 to 3.6 million km/hr).
The solar windcharged particles, under the influence of the solar magnetic
field, diffuse in the entire interplanetary space. These particles originate from
two regions, the Suns equatorial and polar regions. The equatorial area emits
ions at ~400 km/s, which continuously affect the near-Earth environment. The
Suns polar region spits particles out at 1,000 km/s, but these only occasionally
affect our neighborhood (when these regions extend to lower latitudes). Now
we might ask, what happens when these energetic particles hit Earths
magnetic field (or shield)?
Sunspots and Solar Flares
The main features of our active star are best understood through the Suns
magnetism. The Suns magnetism, or magnetic field, is produced by the flow
of electrically charged ions and electrons.
Sunspots are places where very intense magnetic lines of force break through
the Suns surface. The sunspot cycle results from the recycling of magnetic
fields by the flow of material in the interior. Magnetic fields are at the root of
virtually all the features we see on and above the Sun without them the Sun
would be a rather boring star.
Sunspots are the most obvious dynamic phenomenon on the Sun. Large ones
can be seen from Earth with the unaided eye, and they may look like dark
objects passing in front of the Sun. Galileo was the first to show that sunspots
are actually on the Suns surface. In 1851, a German amateur astronomer,
Heinrich Schwabe, published a paper in which he concluded that the number
of sunspots was not constant, but went from a minimum to a maximum about
every 10 years (not too far off the actual 11-year cycle). The magnetic field of
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
the Sun forms vertical bands from the north magnetic pole to the south magnetic pole. From these active regions stem the solar flares that are associated
with a violent release of energy for a short time, from an hour to a few days.
This burst of energy produces various types of radiation, mainly X-rays and
gamma rays, and ejects particles that can have extremely high energy into the
interplanetary environment.
13
14
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
Fig. 1-4
Earths magnetosphere and its
structure. Cosmic charged particles will
be either repelled (orange trajectories)
or trapped by the magnetosphere lines
as illustrated by the (yellow trajectories).
One noticeable effect of this offset is a weaker magnetic field over the south
Atlantic, which is called the south Atlantic anomaly (SAA). In the SAA,
radiation particles interfere with satellite, aircraft, and spacecraft communications. Usually, trapped particles are repelled by the strong magnetic field of
Earth. However, within the SAA the weaker field strength allows more
particles to reach lower altitudes, causing potential damage to spacecraft or
communications blackouts (i.e., no radio signals are received from a
spacecraft) when passing through the SAA because of the high concentration
of charged particles in the region.
These blackouts last about 15 to 30 min per orbit, and typical spacecraft pass
through the SAA approximately 9 to 15 times per day. The SAA is also responsible for exposing astronauts to high doses of radiation in space. The SAA traps
high-energy radiation from solar flares, solar wind, and GCRs. To avoid
unnecessary exposure to this radiation, extravehicular activity (EVA), or
spacewalks, is planned, as much as possible, for orbits that do not pass though
the SAA. At an altitude of 500 km above Earth the SAA ranges from 90 to 40
in geographic longitude and 50 to 0 in geographic latitude. The field lines
deviate substantially from those of a simple dipole.
As the solar wind hits Earths magnetosphere, the magnetic field is
compressed on the day side of the Earth. The region where the solar wind is
stopped (but not exactly) is called the magnetopause. The magnetopause is
situated around 10 Earth radii on the day side in the equatorial plane. However, during violent solar flares, this boundary could be as low as 6 Earth radii
[i.e., approximately geostationary earth orbit
Charged particles of solar or cosmic origin are deviated by Earths magnetic
field when they are not trapped in the Van Allen belts. Therefore, in order for
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
15
Inner belt
Outer belt
Fig. 1-5
Van Allen belts.
16
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
As the particle plows through a chip, it creates along its path a localized
ionization. This ionization in turn can result in the following: If the electronic
component is a memory device, local ionization can result in a change of the
data point or state of the device (a change of 0 to 1 or vice versa). This
phenomenon is called a single event upset (SEU) and is often nondestructive.
Some electronic components undergo a single event latch-up (SEL). In this
case, a conduction path is created between the power input and a substrate
of the component power source, which can drag down the satellite bus
voltage. If the device is not being monitored (by a watchdog) and is not disconnected when a latch-up is detected, the excessive current may lead to the
destruction of the component, or burnout (single event burnout, SEB). SELs
and SEBs tend to be quite destructive SEEs. The SEE severity depends on the
specific type of event and the system criticality of the component. Shielding
the satellite and components has little effect against SEEs.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
17
Fig. 1-6
This is how human-made spacecraft
objects occupying the near-Earth space
environment look like to an external
observer.
18
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
Fig. 1-7
The solar system. The well-known nine
planets in addition to the largest known
asteroids to-date. The planets shown
are of the correct scale and order from
the sun. Distances are not to scale.
REFERENCES
Hubble Telescope. (n.d.). Retrieved 2008, from
www.hubblesite.org/the_telescope/hubble_essentials/
Hubble
Site:
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
19
2008,
from
20
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies, but not the madness of people!
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
Earth orbiting spacecraft are attracted by the Earth as the main gravitational
force. The Earth gravitational force is not the only force affecting the
spacecraft; however, it is the dominating force on the spacecraft. In order to
obtain a good approximate description of spacecraft motion, we assume that
the spacecraft is attracted only by the central body (Earth for Earth orbiting
satellites.) If the central body is spherical with a homogenous mass
distribution, then we can assume the central body is a point mass. In this case,
the spacecraft motion is called two-body motion.
The motion of a spacecraft is usually described by its position and velocity
vectors, as functions of time, in a defined reference frame. In order to
understand the motion of a spacecraft, we will start by reviewing fundamental
kinematic and dynamic relations, in section 2.1. Section 2.2 derives the
governing equations of motion of a spacecraft, starting from Newtons
gravitational law. The geometrical solutions for the spacecraft equations of
motion, in a two-body problem frame, are discussed in section 2.3.
2.1 Background
The motion of any particle P (as shown in Fig. 2-1) can be tracked in
a Euclidian space with the help of a Cartesian coordinate system and a clock!
In the frame of reference XYZ, we can define the particle position r(t ) as
C
Z
r
s
Fig. 2-1
Particle kinematics.
21
22
(2-1)
r = r = (r r )1/ 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
(2-2)
dr
= r = x i + y j + zk
dt
= vx i + v y j + vz k
v (t ) =
(2-3)
dv
= v = r
dt
= v x i + v y j + v z k
a (t ) =
(2-4)
= axi + a y j + azk
Particle Trajectory
The trajectory or path of a particle is the locus of points the particle occupies
as it moves through space. Since a velocity vector describes the direction of
motion (or the future position of the particle), it is always tangent to the
trajectory.
The velocity vector of a particle is always tangent to its trajectory.
V
ut
a
un
C
Z
O
X
Let us introduce the unit vectors u t and u n (as illustrated in Fig. 2-2) which
are the tangent and normal to the particle trajectory at its local position
respectively. Since the velocity is always tangent to the trajectory, then we
can write it as
r
s
(2-5)
v = v = vv
(2-6)
Where
Fig. 2-2
Particle trajectory and osculating plane.
v = vu t
The distance traveled by the particle along its trajectory, s is related to the
particle speed (magnitude of velocity) through
ds = v.dt
v = s
Note that s = v r , or
(2-7)
d
(r
dt
23
(2-8)
See Example 2-1 for illustration. The acceleration of the particle can be
expressed in the osculating plane (the plane of motion) in terms of the unit
vectors u t and u n as follows
a = a t u t + an u n
(2-9)
where
at = v = s, an =
v2
(2-10)
Fnet
P
m
Take = 3 + 2 . Calculate
SOLUTION
d
() and
dt
compare it
d
todt .
Fig. 2-3
Particle kinetics.
= 3
= 3
= 9 2 + 4
=
=
9 2 + 4
Fg
4
1 + 2
9
Angular Momentum
The angular momentum of a particle about a point is the moment of
momentum (or more specifically, linear momentum) of the particle about that
point. For the particle P shown in Fig. 2-3, which has mass (m), the angular
momentum H about O is given by
Fg
r
Fig. 2-4
Earth and a rotating satellite is a good
approximation of two-body system.
24
(H )O = r (mv)
(2-11)
Then, for constant m, we can find the rate of change of angular momentum
(H )O = d [r (mv)]
dt
= r (mv) + r (ma )
Fg
Z
M
Z
The first term on the right hand side will cancel by vector identity (Note that
r v = v v = 0 ). If the net force acting on the particle is Fnet , then from
Newtons second law (conservation of linear momentum), we can write, for
constant m,
Fnet = ma
(2-13)
(H )O = r Fnet
Y
X
(2-14)
Now, r Fnet is exactly the moment of the net force Fnet about O, or (M net )O .
Fig. 2-5
Formulation of the two-body problem.
(H )O = (M net )O
(2-15)
The above equation is analogues to Newtons second law for linear motion,
and is called Newtons second law for angular motion or the conservation of
angular momentum.
r
Moving frame
(2-12)
X
Inertial frame
Fig. 2-6
Inertial frame and moving frame.
25
Fg = G
Mm r
r2 r
(2-16)
r = rm rM
(2-17)
mrm = G
Mm r
r2 r
(2-18)
MrM = G
Mm r
r2 r
(2-19)
rm = G
Mr
r2 r
(2-20)
rM = G
mr
r2 r
(2-21)
Or
rm rM = r = G
(M + m)
r
r3
(2-22)
Equation (2-22) is the vector differential equation of the relative motion of the
two-body system. Now, if we assume one of the masses is much smaller than
the other, specifically, m << M, then G(M + m) GM and equation (2-22)
becomes
GM
r = 3 r
r
(2-23)
26
found from the astronomical data of most known celestial objects. Hence, the
equation of motion will become
r +
r=0
r3
(2-24)
r r +
r r = 0
r3
(2-25)
r r =
d v2
1 d
1d
(r r ) =
( v v) =
dt 2
2 dt
2 dt
(2-26)
We know that
d
(r r) = 2r r
dt
(2-27)
d
d
(r r) = (r 2 ) = 2rr
dt
dt
(2-28)
But
r r = rr
(2-29)
, we get
r
d
= 2 r = 3 (rr) = 3 r r
dt r r
r
r
Now, if we substitute from (2-26) and (2-30) into (2-25) to get
(2-30)
d v 2
=0
dt 2 r
27
(2-31)
v2
= const
2 r
(2-32)
Now, let us take the cross product of the equation of motion (2-24) with r
from left to get
rr = 0
r3
(2-33)
The second term on left hand side vanishes by vector identity, since r r = 0 .
So, we have
r r = 0
(2-34)
d
(r r) = r r + r r = r r = 0
dt
(2-35)
h = r r = r v = constant
(2-36)
Z
Y
X
Fig. 2-7
Angular momentum.
r r +
28
This is the second constant of motion which complies with the conservation of
angular momentum principle. According to equation (2-15), since the
gravitational force acting on spacecraft always passes through the center of
the central body (O), it will have zero moment about O. Hence, the angular
momentum of the particle about point O will be invariant. We also notice that
since h = r v = const , the plane of motion which contains r and v (the
osculating plane) will be fixed in space. For convenience, we will usually refer
to angular momentum per unit mass as angular momentum and mechanical
energy per unit mass as mechanical energy.
r h +
(2-37)
m
M
rh = 0
r3
d
(r h ) = r h + r h = r h
dt
(2-38)
r h = r ( r v ) = r( r v ) v ( r r )
Fig. 2-8
True anomaly.
= r r r r 2 v
(2-39)
d r
r r
2
= 2 r = 3 r r r r v = 3 r h
dt r
r
r
r r
(2-40)
r
d
r h = 0
r
dt
(2-41)
r
r h = B
r
(2-42)
By integration we get
r (r h ) =
rr + rB
r
29
(2-43)
r (r h ) =
rr + rB
r
(2-44)
Then,
h 2 = r + rB cos
(2-45)
Where is the angle between B and r (as shown in Error! Reference source
not found.The angle is called true anomaly. The true anomaly of spacecraft
may be considered as an angular coordinate of the spacecraft position
measured from a fixed direction in the plane of motion. Now, we can solve (245) for r
r=
h2 /
1 + (B / ) cos
(2-46)
So, the two-body motion is a planar motion which is described by the above
equation. But how does the trajectory look like? Let us have a look on the
equation of a conic section in polar coordinates, r and .
r=
p
1 + e cos
(2-47)
p and e are called the parameter 3 and eccentricity of the conic section,
respectively. If we compare the two-body trajectory equation and the
equation of a conic section in polar coordinates, we find that they will match
exactly, if we let
p = h2 /
(2-48)
e = B /
(2-49)
and
e=
(2-50)
3 In many texts, it is also referred to as the semi-latus rectum. In this textbook, we will use the name
parameter throughout.
Fig. 2-9
A conic section is a curve obtained by
intersecting a circular cone with a plane.
The conic sections were named and
studied as early as 200 BC, when
Apollonius of Prego undertook a
systematic study of their properties.
30
r=
h2 /
1 + e cos
(2-51)
The shape of orbit is specified by any two of the following four parameters.
semi-major axis
semi-minor axis
eccentricity
parameter
In standard orbital elements, and are used to describe the shape of orbit.
Orientation of the Orbit in Plane
Once we have specified the orbit shape and plane, then we need to describe
how to place the ellipse in the plane. This is done by specifying the angle
argument of perigee, which is the angle measured from the ascending
node to the periapsis.
The Position of Spacecraft on the Orbit
31
Equation (2-51) is known as the orbit equation, which defines the path of
a spacecraft with respect to the central body. It gives the spacecraft position
as a function of true anomaly .
Velocity Vector Components
1 + cos
(1 + cos )
2
sin
= =
=
=
1 + cos
(1 + cos )2 2
2
3
sin
2
=
sin
(1 + cos )2 1 + cos
(2-52)
(2-53)
tan =
sin
=
1 + cos
(2-54)
From the orbital equation, is only minimum when = 0. This point is called
the periapsis of the orbit (which means the closest point in Greek). At
periapsis, we have
2 1
1 +
= 0 ; = (1 + )
1 2
2 2
(2-55)
(2-56)
(2-57)
(2-58)
32
2 1
1 +
1 2
(1 2 ) = (1 2 )
2
2
2
(2-59)
(2-60)
Fig. 2-10
Circular orbit.
We have in the previous section that the solution of the two-body system
results in a planar trajectory which has the shape of a conic section. Since such
orbits agrees with the Keplers laws of planetary motion, the two-body orbits
are usually referred to as Keplerian orbits. A Keplerian orbit can be circular,
elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic.
2
=
constant
= =
2 ()2
=
(2-61)
(2-62)
The time, T required for one orbit is known as the period. Since speed is
constant,
=
circumference
2
=
speed
2 3 2
2 =
;
33
(2-63)
1 2
=
2
2
(2-64)
(2-65)
If 0 < < 1, then the orbit equation is bounded. The initial orbit equation
describes an ellipse if it is bounded from 0 < < 1. The minimum value of
is
=
2 1
1 +
(2-66)
2 1
1
(2-67)
2 = +
2 =
(2-68)
1
1
1 1 +
2 1
2
=
= (1 2 )
1 2
(1 2 )
=
1 + cos
(1 2 )
1 +
= cos(180 ) = cos =
(2-69)
apoapsis
(2-70)
(2-71)
(2-72)
(1 2 )
cos
1 + cos
(2-73)
Fig. 2-11
Elliptic orbit.
periapsis
34
rB
F
ae
Fig. 2-12
Geometry of an ellipse.
ra
Solving for ,
rp
= cos
(2-74)
2 = 2 ()2 = 2 (1 2 )
(2-76)
(2-75)
= 1 2
(2-77)
1 2
(1 2 )
2 2
But for an elliptic orbit, 2 = (1 2 )
=
2
=
=
2
2
(2-78)
(2-79)
(2-80)
The area swept by the position vector during time dt can be found from the
area of the triangle which side are r and r + dr as shown in Fig. 2-13. The
differential area is then
Fig. 2-13
Keplers law.
1
1
= ( + ) =
2
2
2
=
2
The area of ellipse = . Then, we can write
(2-81)
(2-82)
(2-83)
or
(2-84)
(2-85)
2 2
1 2
(2-86)
3 2
= 2 =
where
(2-87)
= 3
(2-88)
1
=
1 +
Solving for
35
(2-89)
1
1
=
() =
(1 2 )
2
2
1 +
= 1 2 = =
(2-90)
(2-91)
As 180, .
=
=
2
1
1 +
1 2
(1 2 ) = 0
2 2
2
=0
2
2
=
(2-92)
vr
(2-93)
periapsis
(2-94)
(2-95)
Fig. 2-14
Parabolic orbit.
36
(2-96)
tan =
sin
1 + cos
2
1
1 +
(2-97)
(2-98)
(2-99)
(2-100)
(2-101)
(2-102)
periapsis
empty focus
rp
Fig. 2-15
Hyperbolic orbit.
a
|ra|
(2-103)
2 1
37
(2-104)
For < < , spacecraft is in hyperbola I while for < < (360
), vacant orbit in hyperbola II is traced.
For = 0,
For = ,
=
2 1
1 +
2 1
; < 0
1
2 = | | =
=
2 1
2 1
( 2 1)
=
1 +
= ( 1); = ( + 1)
=
1 2
(1 2 )
2 2
=
(2-105)
(2-106)
(2-107)
(2-108)
(2-109)
(2-110)
(2-111)
(2-112)
2
=
2 =
+
2 2
Recall that = ,
2
2
2 = esc
+
2
(2-113)
(2-114)
38
EXAMPLE 2-2
At a given point on a spacecraft geocentric trajectory, = , ,
= . / and = , show that the path is hyperbolic. Then,
calculate 3, , , , , and .
SOLUTION
2
= = 7.389 km/s
b) Compute
2
1 + cos
cos = 0.1193
= sin =
sin = 1.334
sin
= tan = 11.18
cos
= 84.89
c) Compute
d) Compute
e) Compute
= 1.339
=
=
2 1
= 6986 km
1 +
2 1
= 20609 km
2 1
Circular
Elliptic
Parabolic
Hyperbolic
e=0
0<e<1
e=1
e>1
rp = a(1 e)
rp , ra
rp = ra = R
r a
2 3 / 2
R
2 3 / 2
a
2R
ra = a(1 + e)
2a
rp = p/2
2
r
rp = a(1 e)
ra = a(1 + e)
2
+
r
a
2a
REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
39
40
PROBLEMS
P2-1
Search the web for the orbit radii and eccentricities of the following
satellites:
(a) Global Positioning System (GPS)
(b) MEASat - 5
(c) RazakSat
(d) Ofeq-5
(e) Molniya-1
P2-2
= 2 + 2 + 2 DU ,
P2-4
P2-5
Repeat problem P2-4, if the Earth satellite orbit has a semi-major axis,
a, of 10,000 km and eccentricity, e, of 0.3.
P2-6
where i,j,k are the unit vectors of a non-rotating geocentricequatorial coordinate system.
(a) Find the velocity vector of the spacecraft as a function of time
and its magnitude.
(b) Find the angular momentum vector of the spacecraft as
a function of time and its magnitude.
= 1 + 2 cos + 2
P2-8
P2-9
vellip
vcirc
Fig. P2-9
[Answer: cos1()]
P2-10 A flying object has been observed from the Earth. The object was
determined to be travelling at an altitude of 300 km and velocity of
7.5 km/s with a flight path angle of 20.
(a) Calculate the angular momentum of the object about the
center of Earth.
(b) Calculate the total mechanical energy of the object.
(c) Determine the eccentricity of the object trajectory and specify
its shape.
(d) Calculate the true anomaly of the object at epoch.
41
42
Coordinate Systems
I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies, but not the madness of people!
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
3.1 Introduction
(North pole)
Equatorial plane
(Vernal equinox)
Fig. 3-1.
Geocentric-equatorial
system.
coordinate
43
44
(Vernal equinox)
Fig. 3-2.
Heliocentric-equatorial coordinate
system.
Fig. 3-3.
Right ascension-declination system.
Where
r
= r
(3-1)
(3-2)
EXAMPLE 3-1
Given
= 5368 + 1784 + 3691
45
Find and .
SOLUTION
r =
= 161.6 or 198.4
Since < 0, = .
Perigee
v
r
Equatorial
plane
Y
Ascending node
Node line
Fig. 3-4.
Orbit orientation in space.
Long time ago, astronomers developed orbital elements which easily express
the orbit size, shape and orientation. Orbital elements (sometimes referred to
as Keplerian elements) are five scalar quantities to describe orbit size, shape
and orientation and a six scalar quantity to locate the spacecraft in its orbit. In
a two-body motion (Keplerian orbit), the five elements determining the shape,
size and orientation of the orbit remain fixed with time, whereas the sixth
scalar quantity progresses with time.
Fig. 3-5.
Alternative orbital elements.
46
(3-3)
47
(3-4)
o = + + o = + o = + o
(3-5)
3.3.3 Ephemerides
An ephemeris 4 (plural: ephemerides) was, traditionally, a table giving the
coordinates (in a Cartesian coordinate system, or in right ascensiondeclination system), of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets in the sky at a
given time. A modern planetary ephemeris is software which generates the
coordinates of the planets and often of their satellites, or of asteroids or
comets at virtually any time provided by the user. Typically, such ephemerides
cover very long period of time (several centuries) past and future. The biggest
uncertainties are due to the perturbations on the planets of numerous
asteroids, most of whose masses are poorly known, rendering their effect a bit
uncertain. Solar system ephemerides are essential for the navigation of
spacecraft and for all kinds of space observations of the planets, their natural
satellites, stars and galaxies. 5
Fig. 3-6
Perifocal coordinate system
Origin: Focus of orbit Center of the central body (Earth for example), which is
the focus of the
-axis: is at = 90
http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Ephemerides
48
Fig. 3-7.
Transformation
from
elements to r and v.
orbital
where
But
and
= cos + sin
2
1
( + )
1 +
= = +
= cos sin
= sin + cos
= =
= =
(1 + )
(3-6)
(3-7)
(3-8)
(3-9)
(3-10)
(3-11)
(3-12)
= ; = ( + )
49
(3-13)
(3-14)
(3-15)
(3-16)
The node vector or (nodal vector) is the vector pointing from the center of
earth to the ascending node, which is calculated from (n is perpendicular to
both K (normal to equatorial plane) and h (normal to orbital plane)).
The eccentricity vector e is the vector pointing from the center of the Earth
(focus of orbit) toward perigee with magnitude equal to orbit eccentricity, e.
We can calculate e from
1
= 2 (. )
(3-17)
K
I
n
Fig. 3-8
Transformation r and v to orbital
elements.
50
Now we solve for the orbital elements according to the following procedure:
= 2 /
=
cos =
cos =
cos =
(3-18)
(3-19)
(3-20)
(3-21)
(3-22)
(3-23)
The inverse of the cosine function gives an angle between 0 and 180 (See
Fig. 3-9.). For inclination, this is not a problem since the correct range of
inclination is already between 0 and 180. However, attention should be
given to the angles , , , and u0 which all range from 0 to 360. Since cos
= cos (360 ), the value of the cosine is not enough to determine the correct
value of , , , and u0.
cos 0 =
By inspection of figure (orbit figure below), we notice that the ascending node
will be east of vernal equinox direction, if 0 < < 180 and west of the vernal
equinox direction otherwise. Therefore, if n.J > 0 (or ny > 0), the ascending
node will be east of the vernal equinox direction, hence 0 < < 180.
Otherwise, 180 < < 360. Also, by inspection of the same figure, we notice
that the periapsis of the orbit will be north to the fundamental plane (the
equatorial plane in case of an Earth satellite), if 0 < < 180 and south to the
fundamental plane otherwise. The eccentricity vector e can be considered as
the position vector of the periapsis in the XYZ coordinate system. Therefore, if
e.K > 0 (or ez > 0), the periapsis will be north to the fundamental plane, hence
0 < < 180. Otherwise, 180 < < 360. Similarly, we can show that if r.K > 0
(or rz > 0), the satellite will be north to the fundamental plane, hence 0 <
u0 < 180. Otherwise, 180 < u0 < 360.
Fig. 3-9.
Cosine function.
REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.
51
52
PROBLEMS
P3-1
Given the orbital elements for objects A, B, C and D, fill in the blanks
to correctly complete the following statements:
Object
undefined
210
114
180
260
63.4
90
110
23
60
260
0
30
90
140
160
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
P3-2
P3-3
= 1 + 2 cos + 2
P3-4
P3-5
53
vellip
vcirc
Fig. P2-9
P3-6
[Answer: cos1()]
A flying object has been observed from the Earth. The object was
determined to be travelling at an altitude of 300 km and velocity of
7.5 km/s with a flight path angle of 20.
(e) Calculate the angular momentum of the object about the
center of Earth.
(f) Calculate the total mechanical energy of the object.
(g) Determine the eccentricity of the object trajectory and specify
its shape.
(h) Calculate the true anomaly of the object at epoch.
54
Time Systems
Time and space are modes by which we think and not conditions in which we live.
55
56
Fig. 4-1.
Tropical year.
Celestial observations are measured in Julian Day Numbers which are the
number of Julian days (noon to noon) from epoch of noon at Greenwich on 1
January 4713 BC (e.g. 1 Jan 2004 = 2,453,006 JD). The JD enables astronomers
to conduct all their observations in one day. Julian day numbers for any given
day is provided in the Astronomical Almanac which is published yearly.
Table 4-1 can be used to find the Julian date equivalent of Gregorian dates.
There are also various conversion programs which are available over the
internet. The Julian date is an integer and decimal that accounts for the
fraction of day since last noon. A fraction of 0.1 is equivalent to 2.4 hours.
Astronomical observations when specified by JD are denoted by prefix J.
Therefore, J2000 = 12:00:00 Universal Time (UT) on 0 Jan 2000 (31 Dec 1999).
The Julian period was named after Scalingers father and not Julius Caesar as commonly perceived!
Year
Jan 0
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2453371
3736
4101
4466
4832
5197
5562
5927
6293
6658
7023
7388
57
3430
3795
4160
4526
4891
5256
5621
5987
6352
6717
7082
7448
3461
3826
4191
4557
4922
5287
5652
6018
6383
6748
7113
7479
3491
3856
4221
4587
4952
5317
5682
6048
6413
6778
7143
7509
3522
3887
4252
4618
4983
5348
5713
6079
6444
6809
7174
7540
Jul 0
3552
3917
4282
4648
5013
5378
5743
6109
6474
6839
7204
7570
Aug 0 Sep 0
3583
3948
4313
4679
5044
5409
5774
6140
6505
6870
7235
7601
3614
3979
4344
4710
5075
5440
5805
6171
6536
6901
7266
7632
3675
4040
4405
4771
5136
5501
5866
6232
6597
6962
7327
7693
3705
4070
4435
4801
5166
5531
5896
6262
6627
6992
7357
7723
Precession
Nutation
Earths
rotation
Fig. 4-2.
Precession and nutation of the
Earth's Polar Axis
58
TT = TAI + 32.184 s
(4-1)
Sidereal time is a direct measure of the Earths rotation about the celestial
pole with respect to the equinox. Vernal equinox is always on the equator.
Hence, sidereal time is defined as the hour angle of the vernal equinox relative
to the local meridian. During one sidereal day, the Earth has to turn slightly
more than one complete rotation on its axis relative to the fixed stars as
shown in Fig. 4-3. This is because the Earth travels about 1/365.24 of the way
around its orbit in one mean solar day. Since the vernal equinox is the
reference point, the sidereal time related to the Greenwich meridian is
termed Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time, GMST. The sidereal time at
a particular longitude is called Local Sidereal Time, LST. LMST stands for Local
Mean Sidereal Time. Thus, the following relationships can be obtained:
1 mean solar day
Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time (GAST) is the hour angle of the apparent
or true vernal equinox of date with the hour angle measured west from
Greenwich meridian to the equinox. Greenwich mean sidereal day begins
when the Greenwich meridian coincides with the vernal equinox. Greenwich
Mean Sidereal Time (GMST) is the hour angle of the mean vernal equinox of
date with the hour angle measured west from Greenwich meridian to the
equinox. The difference between GAST and GMST lies in the nutation of the
equinox. Illustrations of GMST, LMST, GAST and LAST are shown in Fig. 4-4.
Fig. 4-4.
Difference between mean
apparent sidereal times.
and
59
2 451545.0
36525
360
s
86400
(4-2)
(4-3)
(4-4)
(4-5)
The above formula needs a designation for east and west longitudes. The
designation that is used here is positive for east longitudes and negative for
west longitudes.
EXAMPLE 4-1
60
Shift from
12h UT to
0h UT
JD of 0h UT
on 1 Jan 2010
30 Dec 2009
31 Dec 2009
1 Jan 2010
1 Jan 2010
2 Jan 2010
2 Jan 2010
Gregorian
Julian Date
Noon
0 Jan 2010
30 Dec 2009
31 Dec 2009
Mid-night
New Year
(4-6)
GPS = TAI 19 s
61
(4-7)
From the time systems chart, we recognize the regularity of the GPS, TAI and
TT time systems which all differ by fixed time shifts. The irregularity of the UT1
is also evident. We also notice from the chart the coordination of the UTC to
satisfy the condition on difference with UT1.
REFERENCES
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.
62
PROBLEMS
P4-1
P4-2
Why the universal time (UT) does not measure the same seconds as
terrestrial time (TT)?
P4-3
P4-4
P4-5
P4-6
Orbit Determination
We must admit with humility that, while number is purely a product of our minds, space has a
reality outside our minds, so that we cannot completely prescribe its properties a priori.
Johann C. F. Gauss (1777 1855)
The determination of the orbits of celestial bodies has been a long lasting
scientific interest which possessed most of the greatest minds in mathematics
and physics over the centuries. Tens of most accurate mathematical
techniques have been used and even invented purposely for the sake of orbit
determination. Below is a list of the mathematicians who primarily
contributed to the problem of orbit determination and their major
contributions.
63
64
The observations that have only direction are called Angles Only
Observations. One of the effective methods for orbit determination given
angular measurements is Laplaces method, which requires 3 sets of angular
measurements. It can process data collected from different sites at different
times. Gauss technique is another method for orbit determination from
angular measurements. It is primarily useful if the measurements are
separated by less than 10 deg.
If we have observations for the positions of the spacecraft at two different
locations, then we can implement a Lambert problem solution to determine
the orbit as will be detailed in the next section. If we have three position
vectors available, then Gibbs method can be implemented.
65
sin() = 1 cos 2 ()
(5-1)
(5-2)
The two vectors, in fact, identify the orbit plane (any two vectors define a
plane). If = 180 , then there are infinite orbit planes. The special case of
= 180 will not be considered here.
Fig. 5-2.
Minimum energy solution.
66
There are infinite number of orbits that include the two known vectors and
. All of them are in the same plane. For an ellipse, the sum of the distances
from any point on the ellipse to the two fuci is always constant and is equal to
twice the semi major axis of the orbit. Hence, the semi major axis of any orbit
that includes the two vectors and should satisfy the following relation:
2 = + (2 ) = + (2 )
(5-3)
As eluded to in section 5.2, there is infinite number of orbits that include the
two measured vectors. In order to fix one of these orbits, we need an
additional piece of information. For instance, we can select the time of
spacecraft flight between the two vectors. This way we will be able to
determine a finite number of orbits. In this section, we will show how to
compute the particular orbit that has the minimum possible value of semi
major axis (the minimum energy orbit).
Lamberts theorem: The orbit transfer time depends only upon the semi
major axis, the sum of the distances of the initial and final points of the arc
from the centre of force and the length of the chord joining these points.
The length of the cord can be geometrically computed as follows:
= 2 + 2 2 ()
(5-4)
1
= ( + + )
2
(5-5)
Recall that sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse to foci is
constant and is equal to 2. So, the secondary focus F is the intersection of
the two circles, as shown in Figure 5-3. The first circle is centered at the first
point and has a radius of 2 . The second circle is centered at the second
point and has a radius of 2 . So, in order for a solution to exist (in order
for F to exist) the two circles must intersect. On the other hand, the radius of
each of them is proportional to . Since we are interested in the minimum
energy solution, then the circles touch. Show that the touch point is located
on the cord. Lets denote the semi major axis of the minimum energy orbit by
. Then we can write:
(2 ) + (2 ) =
(5-6)
+ +
=
4
2
67
(5-7)
Note: If we are looking for the orbit that has minimum eccentricity, we can
show that in that case the major axis of the ellipse will be parallel to the
chord. This particular ellipse is called the fundamental ellipse.
To find the eccentricity of the minimum energy orbit, note that:
2 =
+ +
+
=
=
2
2
(5-8)
Consider the blue triangle, and recall that the distance between the two foci is
2amin emin , then we can write the following identity:
(2 )2 = {( ) }2 + { ( ) }2
2
2
4
= ( )2 (1 2 ) + 2 + ( )2 2
2( )
But,
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos
2( ) = 2
2 + 2 02
2
+ + + +
2
2
2 + 2 + 2
=
2
(5-9)
(5-10)
(5-11)
(5-12)
(5-13)
(5-14)
2(1 )
1
(5-15)
68
2
2
4
= 2
4
( 0 )( )
(5-16)
2
2
4
= 2 2
= ( )( ) =
(1 )
= 1
(5-17)
(5-18)
(5-19)
+ +
=
=
2
4
2
+ +
=
=
2
4
2
(
(
+ +
)=
=
2
4
2
+
)=
=
2
4
2
(5-20)
(5-21)
(5-22)
(5-23)
= [2 + ( )]
3
[
( )]
(5-24)
(5-25)
69
(5-26)
(5-27)
r . C 23 = 0
U
1
(5-28)
= 1 + 3
(5-29)
The three position vectors have to be in the same plane (the orbit plane), so
we can write the following identity which is valid for any three coplanar
vectors:
From the kinematics of the orbit motion described in Chapter two, It is easy to
show that for any :
= +
( ) = +
r
(5-30)
(5-31)
( ) = (. ) (. ) = 2 0 = 2
(5-32)
70
Recall the p q w
coordinate system, which is defined as:
= ep ; = hw
; w
p = q
w
=
+ eq
h
r
(5-33)
(5-34)
(5-35)
The above identity is valid at each of the three given positions of the
spacecraft. From Equation 5-29, we can write:
. = . (C1 + C3 )
(5-36)
Also, From the orbit equation, we can write for each position vector:
. =
2
1 ;
. =
2
2
2 ; . =
3
2
2
2
2 = 1 1 + 3 3
(5-37)
(5-38)
1 =
2
1
1 +
1 + 1 =
But
1 =
2
1
. e = r1 e cos
(5-39)
(5-40)
(5-41)
(5-42)
. e =
71
h2
r1
(5-43)
( = 1 + 3 ) = 3 ( )
(5-44)
( = 1 + 3 ) = 1 ( )
(5-45)
2
( + + )
(5-46)
= 1 ( ) + 2 ( ) + 3 ( )
= 1 ( ) + 2 ( ) + 3 ( )
(5-47)
= ( + + )
(5-48)
Note that both vectors, N and D, are functions only in the known three
position vectors. From equation (5-46) we can write:
=
h2
(5-49)
(5-50)
Where,
(5-51)
(5-52)
72
= 1 ( ) + 2 ( ) + 3 ( )
(5-53)
Substitute for w
, q , and h
(5-54)
(5-55)
Despite the lengthy derivation of the method, the algorithm becomes very
simple and short as follows:
Gibbs Algorithm:
Given , ,
Calculate 1 , 2, 3 , 23
. 23 = 0
Verify:
1
Calculate , , ,
REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
PROBLEMS
P5-1
73
74
Orbit Perturbations
Absolute true, and mathematical time, in and of itself and of its own nature, without reference
to anything external, flows uniformly Absolute space, of its own nature, without reference to
anything external, always remains homogeneous and immovable.
Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
r = U + b
U = gravitational potential
b = force vector per unit mass of spacecraft
(6-1)
75
76
Source
Table 6-1
Relative magnitudes of perturbing
accelerations.
Acceleration (m/s)
500 km
Geostationary orbit
(35786 km)
Air drag*
6E-5 A/m
1.8E-13 A/m
Radiation
pressure
4.7E-6 A/m
4.7E-6 A/m
Sun(mean)
5.6E-7
3.5E-6 A/m
Moon(mean)
1.2E-6
7.3E-6
Jupiter(max)
8.5E-12
5.2E-11
short-term
priodic
secular
(arbitrary units)
7
6
5
4
3
long-term
periodic
2
1
0
0
Orbit Periods
Fig. 6-1.
Secular and periodic perturbations.
77
1
FD = ACDV 2
2
(6-2)
Successive
orbits
C D = drag coefficient
V
V
drag
Original
orbit
Earths
atmosphere
3 r / B
m = spacecraft mass
( 6-3 )
coordinate
78
R n
1 + E J n Pn 0 cos
r
2
n
=
(r, , ) =
n R n
E
+ r (Cnm cos m + Snm sin m )Pn 0 cos
m =1
U(r, , )
Pmn
= Legendre polynomial s
( 6-4 )
J2
C21
S21
J3
C22
S22
J4
C31
S31
J5
C32
S32
J6
C33
S33
1082.6E-6
-2.53E-6
-1.62E-6
-0.23E-6
-0.54E-6
1.57E-6
2.19E-6
0.31E-6
0.10E-6
-0.90E-6
0.27E-6
-0.21E-6
0.20E-6
E
Line of nodes
Fig. 6-3.
Regression of line of nodes.
Zonal harmonics are defined by zeroth order (m=0), where the dependence of
the potential on longitude vanishes and the field is symmetrical about the
polar axis. These are simply bands of latitude. It is apparent that the term J2 is
much dominating compared to others. This term represents the Earths polar
flattening (or equatorial bulge). J2 is almost 1000 times larger than the next
largest coefficient (J3). Excess gravitational mass in the equator region affects
spacecraft orbits in two ways: (1) Regression of the line of nodes, and (2)
Precession of the line of apsides.
79
4
3
(/day)
2
1
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Fig. 6-4.
Regression of line of nodes. [Nodal
regression in degree/day].
Inclination ()
Line of
apsides
The equatorial bulge produces a torque which rotates the angular momentum
vector. For direct orbits (i < 90), the orbit rotates westward (regression of line
of nodes). Whereas for indirect orbits (i > 90), the orbit rotates eastward.
Nodal regression can be calculated from solution of the equation of motion of
the satellite taking into account the J2 term in the earths potential function.
The perturbed solution gives the regression of nodes per orbit as
2
= 0 3 J 2 R2 E n t cos i + O( J 22 )
2 p
( 6-5 )
We notice that orbits with zero and 180-degress inclination (i.e. equatorial
orbits) will experience no regression of nodes. This is expected since such
types of orbits have no defined nodes. Fig. 6-3. shows the variation of
regression of nodes in degrees per day as a function of orbit inclination,
eccentricity and altitude.
5
= 0 + 3 J 2 R2 E n 2 sin 2 i t + O( J 22 )
2 p
2
( 6-6 )
Fig. 6-5.
Precession of line of apsides.
80
100 x 100km, e = 0
4
(/s)
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
-1
Fig. 6-6.
Daily
apsidal
degree/day.
regression
in
105W
165E
Fig. 6-7.
Triaxiality.
rs
Equator
75E
Inclination()
6.2.4 Triaxiality
15W
0
Greenwich
-2
= k 2 sin 2( )
rsd
( 6-7 )
rd
Disturbing
body
Fig. 6-8.
Solar and lunar gravitation.
IIncoming
photons
Specularly reflected
photons
Fig. 6-9.
Solar radiation pressure.
81
During periods of intense solar storms, this effect may be much larger than all
the other perturbations (depending on the altitude); at times of low activity,
the effect may be negligible.
A spacecraft moving within the solar system will experience a perturbation
owing to the incidence of solar radiation on its illuminated surface.
To arrive at the solar-radiation pressure, begin with the intensity of the energy
of the incoming radiation from the Sun. A solar-radiation constantoften
called the intensity, irradiance or the solar radiation fluxis W ~ 1400
W/m2.
Electromagnetic radiation (photons) carries momentum and the reflection of
incident radiation on a surface represents exchange of momentum, thus
exerting a tiny, but measurable, pressure on the surface which is given by
P = W / c
P = solar radiation pressure
c = speed of light in vacuum
( 6-8 )
0
0
-1
500
1000
1500
drag
2000
primary gravity
-2
J2
-3
-4
-5
J3
J4
-6
J5
-7
solar gravity
-8
-9
-10
Spacecraft altitude(km)
Fig. 6-10.
Perturbing Accelerations on Earths
Satellite vs. Altitude (normalized by
standard acceleration of gravity at
Earths surface).
82
REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
PROBLEMS
P6-1
P6-2
P6-3
Write a MatLAB script (You may also use Simulink) to integrate the
equations of motion of an Earths satellite. Assume the satellite is
inserted into orbit with initial velocity = 0 at the point =
0 where i,j,k are the unit vectors of geocentric-equatorial
coordinate system xyz. Plot the satellite trajectory in the geocentricequatorial coordinate axes and compare it to Keplerian orbit. Consider
the motion of the satellite under the influence of a homogenous and
spherically symmetric Earth which is described by the equation
= =
P6-4
where = + + , = = 2 + 2 + 2 ,
0 = 7.5 kms , 0 = + 1000 km , =
398600.4415 km3 s 2 , 2 = 1802.627 106 , =
6378.1363 km
= = 3 ( + )
where = + + and
2
5 2
3
= 2 2 2 1 ,
2
2
3 5 2
= 2 2 2 1 ,
2
2
3 5 2
= 2 2 2 3
2
83
84
Mission Analysis
I can The diversity of the phenomena of nature is so great, and the treasures hidden in the
heavens so rich, precisely on order that the human mind shall never be lacking in fresh
nourishment.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
86
(SSP).A satellite is visible at all points on the Earths surface within a circle
centered on the SSP, whose diameter increases with altitude. Signals from
satellites at the horizon limit are attenuated by the atmosphere, so for
practical purposes the surface coverage is restricted to the region in which
satellite elevation is greater than ~ 5. The geocentric semi-angle over which
the satellite is visible can be calculated from
Earth
E
S
s
= + cos1 RE cos
RE + h
( 7-1 )
s = ( RE + h) sin / cos
( 7-2 )
for
ground
station
= 2 / ES
( 7-3 )
where
ES
+ 2 E
2
cos i
es
E
i
Fig. 7-2.
The angular velocity of the satellite
with respect to Earth can be found
from the vector subtraction of the
satellite inertial angular velocity
from the Earths inertial angular
velocity about its axis.
sin( + )
+C
cos( + )
cos i
where
n = true anomaly
i = inclination
f = latitude of subsatelite point
ls = longitude of subsatellite point
= argument of periapsis
W = longitude of ascending node
l g = hour angle of Greenwich
C = 0 if cos( + n) 0
= p if cos( + n) < 0 and cos i sin( + n) > 0
= p if cos( + n) < 0 and cos i sin( + n) < 0
( 7-4 )
87
The central angle or great circle angle between the observer and subsatellite
point is given by
cos = cos
0 cos
sin
2
sin
2
s cos(s 0 )
( 7-5 )
cos RE
sin
El = tan
Az = cos
sin 0 cos
cos 0 sin
1 sin s
( 7-6 )
Where r = h + RE
Fig. 7-3.
Ground track on a non-rotating
Earth.
The maximum latitude north or south of the equator that the satellite passes
over is just equal to the orbit inclination of orbit (i), if the orbit is direct, and to
180 i, if the orbit is retrograde.
Fig. 7-4.
Effect of Earth rotation on ground
track.
88
A global surveillance satellite would have to be in a polar orbit to fly over the
Earths entire surface. If the time required for one complete rotation of the
earth on its axis (23 hr 56 m) is an exact multiple of the satellites period then
eventually the satellite will retrace exactly the same path over the earth as it
did on its initial revolution (repeating orbit). This is a desirable property for a
reconnaissance satellite where you wish to have it fly over a specific target
once each day.
From the above equation, we notice that for a direct orbit (0 < i <90), cos i is
positive. Since -90 < AzL < 90, for any launch site, then cos L is always
positive. We also notice that a direct orbit requires, that the launch azimuth,
AzL, be easterly (0 < AzL < 180). To find the minimum orbital inclination that
can be achieved from a launch site at L, cos i must be maximized which
implies that AzL should be 90.
C
A
Fig. 7-5.
Launch site
inclination.
L0
effect
on
( 7-7 )
orbit
For a due east launch, the orbital inclination will be the minimum possible
from a launch site at latitude, L and i will be exactly equal to L0. A satellite
cannot be put directly into an equatorial orbit (i = 0) from a launch site which
is not on the equator. The previous Soviet Union had no launch site closer
than 45 to the equator. So, it cannot launch a satellite whose inclination is
less than 45. To insert a satellite into an equatorial orbit, we should perform
a plane change maneuver of at least 45 (a maneuver which requires a lot of
fuel) after the satellite is inserted into orbit. For example, The previous Soviet
Union had no launch site closer than 45 to the equator. So, it cannot launch a
satellite whose inclination is less than 45. To insert a satellite into an
equatorial orbit, a plane change maneuver of at least 45 should be performed
(which requires a lot of fuel) after the satellite is inserted into orbit.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
89
Polar Orbit
Geo-synchronous Orbit
Molniya Orbit
Sun-synchronous Orbit
Repeating Ground Track Orbit
Polar orbits (i = 90) have no regression of nodes. So, a polar orbit will remain
fixed in inertial space.
= 0
3 J2R2E
nt cos i + O( J 22 )
2 p2
( 7-8 )
Polar orbits provide global coverage (from pole to pole). A near-polar orbit at
1000 km and with (68.4< i <111.6) provides global coverage with min
elevation (min = 10) at poles and better coverage at higher altitudes.
Therefore, polar LEO is usually used for Earths remote sensing and
surveillance. The altitude of satellite orbit is determined by trade-off between
instrument resolution (the lower, the better) and fuel required to maintain
orbit (the higher, the better). Civil remote sensing satellites are typically
placed between 600 900 km. Military surveillance missions usually have
more complex mission scenarios. In addition, the polar orbit may also be Geosynchronous, Sun-synchronous or sometimes both.
Fig. 7-6.
Ground track and swath width of a
polar satellite (i = 90, h = 1000 km,
0 = 104.5, elevation = 10).
Fig. 7-7.
Ground track and swath width of a
near-polar satellite (i = 68.4, h =
1000 km, 0 = 104.5, elevation =
10).
90
E = 2
rad/orbit
(7-9)
R =
3 J 2 R 2 E cos i
a (1 e )
2
2 2
rad/orbit
(7-10)
So,
( i 0)
= E + R
rad/orbit
(7-11)
n = m 2
where n and m are integers
(7-12)
91
- 0 = 0 =
2
2
3 J 2 R E
5
n 2 sin i t
2 p2
2
(7-13)
s = 2 / ES
rad/orbit
Fig. 7-11
Molniya orbit in space.
(7-14)
Fig. 7-12.
Ground track of a Molniya satellite (i =
63.4, hp = 1000 km, 0 = -0.7174, e =
0.722)
Sun
Sun
Fig. 7-13.
Illustration
of
synchronous orbit.
Sun-
92
REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Unsld, A., & Baschek, B. (2001). The New Cosmos: An Introduction to
Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin Springler.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.
PROBLEMS
P7-1
What are polar orbits? What are the missions they are more suitable
for?
P7-2
P7-3
P7-4
P7-5
P7-6
The two line element (TLE) data of the international space station (ISS)
retrieved from (www.celestrak.com/NORAD/elements) at some past
epoch are as follows:
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678
1 25544U 98067A
10063.37915313 .00014094 00000-0 10260-3 0 6988
2 25544 51.6465 48.6647 0007661 11.8053 136.8643 15.73611041646963
Find the classical orbital elements of ISS at epoch from the TLE data.
Use the Appendix for explanation of the TLE designations), specifically
find the following: eccentricity (e), inclination (i), argument of
periapsis (), longitude of ascending node (), mean motion in rad/s
(n), semi-major axis (a).
93
94
P7-7
At the given epoch (as indicated by the TLE data given in P7-6),
calculate the following:
(a) The time past since last perifocal passage (0 ) of the ISS.
(b) The true anomaly at epoch (0 )
(c) The Greenwich mean sidereal time (GMST) at epoch
(d) The geographic longitude and latitude of the ISS subsatellite
point at epoch
(e) The elevation and azimuth of the ISS with respect to a ground
station at 8N, 10142E.
(f) Assuming the ISS orbit is a Keplerian orbit; find the geographic
longitude and latitude of the subsatellite point 30 minutes
after epoch.
Orbital Maneuvers
I Philosophy is such an impertinently litigious lady that a man had as good be engaged in
lawsuits as to have to do with her.
Isaac Newton in a letter to his friend Edmund Halley, June 20, 1687
(8-1)
95
96
2nd burn
1st burn
V2
=
2
r
2a
(8-2)
Potential Energy
Total Energy
Kinetic Energy
+
=
Satellite Mass
Satellite Mass
Satellite Mass
Note that total energy/satellite mass is dependent only on a. As a increases,
energy increases.
Fig. 8-1.
Satellite launch.
Impulse
(1)
(2)
=
(3)
Fig. 8-2.
Delta-V Budget.
ve
Fig. 8-3.
Impulsive thrust produced based on
rocket theory.
= = 0
97
= ln = ln
(8-3)
(8-4)
(8-5)
(8-6)
= 0 ln(1 +
= exp
1 = 1 exp
0
0
(8-7)
Tangential-Orbit Maneuver,
Non-tangential Orbit Maneuver,
Hohmann Transfer,
Bielliptic Orbit Transfer.
Fig. 8-4.
Single coplanar maneuver.
98
V
V1
V2
Vp
2
= , =
Fig. 8-5.
Basic orbital maneuver.
V2
r2
Fig. 8-6.
Hohmann transfer.
r1
The orbit maneuver is not limited to apogee and perigee points. If needed, the
satellite may perform the orbit maneuver at any point. When the spacecraft
performs a burn from one orbit to another, the burn has to be performed at
the intersection point of the old and the new orbits.
Fig. 8-5 shows the V vector required for a non-tangential orbit maneuver,
where is the angle difference between the flight path angles before and
after the maneuver, at the intersection point.
V = v12 + v22 2v1 v2 cos
(8-8)
= 1 2
99
orbits at their apsides. To accomplish the transfer, two burns are needed. The
first burn will insert the spacecraft into the transfer orbit, where it will coast
from periapsis to apoapsis. At apoapsis, the second burn is applied to insert
the spacecraft into final orbit.
Fig. 8-6 represents a Hohmann transfer from a circular orbit into another
circular orbit. A tangential V1 is applied to the circular orbit velocity. The
magnitude of V1 is determined by the requirement that the apogee radius of
the resulting transfer ellipse must equal the radius of the final circular orbit.
When the satellite reaches apogee of the transfer orbit, another V must be
added or the satellite will remain in the transfer ellipse. This V is the
difference between the apogee velocity on the transfer orbit and the circular
orbit velocity in the final orbit.
The first impulse magnitude can be calculated as:
2
V1 = Vp,t V1 =
r1
a
r1
(8-9)
Where, Vp,t is the velocity of the spacecraft on the transfer orbit at perigee.
The second impulse magnitude can be calculated as:
2
V2 = V2 Va,t =
r2
r2 a
(8-10)
Where,
Va,t is the velocity of the spacecraft on the transfer orbit at apogee.
The time of flight on the transfer orbit is:
1
3
= =
2
(8-11)
EXAMPLE 8-2
, = 1 ,
, = 2
(8-12)
100
rfinal = 42164.215 km
At the first impulse, the delta-v required is:
2
V1 =
rinitial a
rinitial
where,
rinitial + rfinal
= 24366.796 km
2
Thus, V1 = 2.457 km/sec
For the second impulse, the delta-v required is:
a=
V2 =
= 1.478 km/sec
rfinal
rfinal a
EXAMPLE 8-3
Two geocentric elliptical orbits have common apse lines and their perigees
are on the same side of the Earth. The first orbit has a perigee radius of
= km and = . , whereas for the second orbit = km
and = . .
a. Find the minimum total delta-v and the time of flight for a transfer
from the perigee of the inner orbit to the apogee of the outer
orbit.
b. Do part (a) for a transfer from the apogee of the inner orbit to the
perigee of the outer orbit.
SOLUTION
a.
The initial orbit:
1 = 1 (1 + 1 ) = 9100 km
1 = 11 2 = 10000 km
=
1
2 = 48000 km
=
+
2
= 8.6038 km/sec
& 2 = 64000 km
2 = 96000 km
= = 1.4408 km/sec
2
= 51500 km
2
= = 10.3027 km/sec
1
1
2
2
=
2
= 0.7512 km/sec
1 = = 1.6989 km/sec
1
2 = = 0.6896 km/sec
2
= 2.3885 km/sec
= 3
Time of flight:
b.
1 = 1 (1 + 1 ) = 13000 km
2
1
= 4.6328 km/sec
2
2
= 4.3225 km/sec
=
1
=
2
=
1
2
2
=
2
= 6.6036 km/sec
= 2.6827 km/sec
1 = = 1.9708 km/sec
1
2 = = 1.6398 km/sec
2
Time of flight:
= 3.6106 km/sec
= 3.3588 104 sec
= 4.665 hr
101
102
EXAMPLE 8-4
A spacecraft is in a 300 km circular earth orbit. Calculate the transfer time
for a Hohmann transfer to a 3000 km coplanar circular Earth orbit.
SOLUTION
For initial orbit, 1:
1 = 6678.145 km 1 = 7.7258 km/sec
For final orbit, 3:
3 = 9378.145 km 3 = 6.5194 km/sec
For elliptical transient orbit, 2:
2 = = 6678.145 km
2 = = 9378.145 km
2 =
2 +2
2
= 8028.1 km
23
2 =
2 =
2
2
= 0.9943 hr
The bi-elliptic transfer requires a total of three impulses with two transfer
orbits. The first burn inserts the spacecraft into first transfer orbit at its
periapsis. When the spacecraft coasts to the apoapsis of the first transfer
orbit, the second impulse is fired to insert the spacecraft into second transfer
orbit. The spacecraft orbits along the second transfer orbit to its apoapsis
point. Finally, a third impulse inserts the spacecraft into the destination orbit.
Fig. 8-7 illustrates a bi-elliptic transfer between two circular orbits.
V1
V2
Fig. 8-7.
Bielliptic Transfer.
V3
The bi-elliptic transfer requires much longer transfer time compared to the
Hohmann Transfer. However, bi-elliptic transfers are more efficient in terms
of total delta-V needed for the mission, in some cases. Fig. 8-8 shows the cost
comparison between Hohmann and Bi-elliptic Transfers. R is the ratio of final
to initial radii for both orbits, where R* is the ratio of apogee radius of transfer
orbit to initial orbit in bi-elliptic orbit. For R < 11.94, Hohmann transfer is more
cost effective than the bi-elliptic transfer. For R > 15.58, the bi-elliptic transfer
is more cost effective than the Hohmann transfer.
Bi-elliptic
103
Hohmann
R* Increases
R* 50
R* 60
R* 100
R* 200
R* =
R* 11.94
R* 15.58
EXAMPLE 8-5
Determine the total V required and time of flight for a bi-elliptic transfer
with given orbit properties:
Initial orbit, hinitial = 191.344 km
Apogee altitude of transfer orbit, hapog = 503873 km
Final orbit, hfinal = 376310 km
SOLUTION
The initial, transfer orbit apogee and final radius are,
rinitial = 191.344 + 6378.145 = 6569.489 km
rtrans = 503873 + 6378.145 = 510251.145 km
rfinal = 376310 + 6378.145 = 382688.145 km
And the semimajor axis for both transfer orbits are,
rinitial + rtrans
a1 =
= 258410.317 km
2
rfinal + rtrans
a2 =
= 446469.645 km
2
At first impulse, the delta-v required is,
V1 =
= 3.156 km/sec
rinitial a1
rinitial
V2 =
= 0.677 km/sec
rtrans a2
rtrans a1
Fig. 8-8.
Delta-v cost comparison between
for Hohmann and bieleptic orbit
transfers.
104
V3 =
= 0.0705 km/sec
rfinal
rfinal a2
a31
a32
TOF =
+
= 2138113.26 sec = 593.92 hr
EXAMPLE 8-6
A spacecraft is in a 300 km circular Earth orbit. Calculate
a. The total delta-v required for the bi-elliptical transfer to a 3000 km
altitude coplanar circular orbit shown, and
b. Compare the total transfer time with the Hohmanns transfer time in
Example 9-4.
SOLUTION
a. For initial orbit, 1:
r1 = 6678.145 km v1 = 7.7258 km/sec
For final orbit, 4:
r4 = 9378.145 km v4 = 6.5194 km/sec
For first elliptical transient orbit, 2:
2 =0.3
r2A = r1 = 6678.145 km
r2B
r2
a2 = 1A = 9540.21 km
2
= rB = a2 (1 + 2 ) = 12402.26 km
2
v2A =
r
2A
v2B =
r
2B
a2
a2
= 8.8087 km/sec
= 4.74316 km/sec
105
r3C = r4 = 9378.145 km
r3B = rB = 12402.26 km
a3 =
r3C +r3B
2
r3C
v3C =
v3B =
r
3B
a3
a3
= 10890.2 km
= 6.9573 km/sec
= 5.26088 km/sec
3
2
2
3 = = 1.131 104 sec
3
3
= 1.02918 104 sec = 2.859 hr
2 =
Transfer Orbit
Transfer Orbit
r2
r1
Possible because
rp < r1 and ra > r2
r2
r1
Impossible because
rp > r1
Transfer Orbit
r2
r1
Impossible because
ra < r2
Fig. 8-9.
General coplanar transfer
between circular orbits.
106
The amount of the first and second impulses in this case are not optimal, in
general. To calculate the amount of Delta-V needed, first we compute the
points of the first and second impulses. At each point, we compute the
velocity of the spacecraft before and after applying the impulse. The
difference is the required Delta-V at that point.
phase =
2
ntgt
(8-13)
Where ntgt n is the mean motion of the target spacecraft (the original orbit).
The semimajor axis for the phasing orbit is then:
phase =
nphase
a3phase
= 2
2/3
phase
aphase =
Original Orbit
Target
Phasing Orbit
V
Interceptor
Phasing Orbit
Fig. 8-10.
Phasing orbit maneuver.
(8-14)
107
EXAMPLE 8-7
Determine the semimajor axis of the phasing orbit, given that the
position of target and interceptor spacecraft are:
=
= +
SOLUTION
2/3
phase
=
Fig. 8-11.
Simple plane change.
= 3.5422 DU
V1 = V2 . Using the velocity vector triangle illustration in Fig. 8-12., the delta-v
required is,
= 2 sin
(8-15)
V
Fig. 8-12.
Velocity vector triangle for circular orbit
plane change.
108
EXAMPLE 8-8
Determine the V required for a satellite to change its orbit plane from
inclination 10 to inclination 25 at altitude 600km.
SOLUTION
The radius of the orbit is,
r = 600 + 6378.145 = 6978.145 km
The delta-v required for the plane change is,
25 10
V = 2 sin
= 1.973 km/sec
r
2
In general, plane change maneuver involves the inclination and RAAN change
while the size and shape of orbit remain the same. The change of the RAAN in
plane change maneuver results that both orbit do not intersect at the original
RAAN location. Fig. 8-13 shows the example of general plane change
maneuver. Nodes 1 and 2 are the direction of RAAN for both initial and final
orbits respectively, where else the e is the eccentricity vector (also known as
argument of perigee) for the initial orbit.
The delta-v required for the general plane change maneuver is given by
equation Fig. 8-13 . ALa is the argument of latitude of intersection point.
V = 2Vsin
(8-16)
2
cos = cos cos + sin sin cos()
(8-17)
ALa = +
(8-19)
sin() =
Final Orbit
Initial Orbit
X
initial
Fig. 8-13.
General Plane Change Maneuver.
node 1
node 2
(8-18)
109
Z
Final Orbit
Initial Orbit
ALa
ifinal
Equatorial Plane
Fig. 8-14.
Argument of latitude of intersection
point.
iinitial
node 2, f
node 1, i
EXAMPLE 8-9
Compute V required to change the right ascension of the ascending node
of the following orbit to 100o West:
rp1 = 1.1DU, e1 = 0.1, i = 45 , = 40 West, = 10
SOLUTION
The orbit of satellite is transfer to = 100 West.
The V required is given by,
V = 2Vsin
2
where is,
cos = cos cos + sin sin cos()
= 40 + 100 = 60
= 41.4
The speed of satellite at that particular point is,
2
V=
where,
a = 1.22DU
Thus,
V = 0.96 DU/TU
V = 0.679 DU/TU
110
(8-20)
= (1 )
The total delta-v that required for the combined maneuver is,
2
2
=
+
2 cos()
2
2
+_
+
2 _ cos(1 )
Final Orbit
Transfer Orbit
Vb
Va
Initial Orbit
Fig. 8-15.
Orbit transfer of a spacecraft using
combined maneuver.
(8-21)
111
1
sin()
tan1
_ cos()
_
(8-22)
_
= 3 , =
_
(8-23)
EXAMPLE 9-10
Calculate the total delta-v required for a spacecraft to transfer from an orbit, r1 =
1.02 DU to r2 = 2.33 DU with the change of inclination i = 10.
SOLUTION
We have the initial and final radius, r1 and r2. Then semimajor axis for the transfer
orbit is,
1 + 2
=
= 1.675
2
The velocities at each location are:
2
trans_ = = 1.1678 DU/TU
1
2
trans_ = = 0.5512 DU/TU
2
+ cos()
Therefore, the total delta-V is,
= 0.3464 DU/TU
112
REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Chobotov, V. (2002). Orbital Mechanics (3 ed.). AIAA.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Pisacane, V. (2005). Fundamentals of Space Systems (2 ed.). Oxford University
Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
Walter, U. (2008). Astronautics: The Physics of Space Flight (2 ed.). Wiley-VCH.
PROBLEMS
P8-1
P8-2
P8-3
Determine the total time of flight for Hohmann and bi-elliptic transfer
with given orbit properties:
Initial orbit, hinitial = 200 km,
Apogee altitude of transfer orbit for bi-elliptic transfer, hapog = 35,000
km, Final orbit, hfinal = 30,000 km.
P8-4
P8-5
P8-6
Given that the target and interceptor spacecraft are orbiting around
the Earth in equatorial orbit. Determine the semimajor axis of the
phasing orbit. Both spacecrafts positions at that time are:
rtgt = 12546.387I + 10527.667J km
rint = 16129.324I + 2844.035J km
P8-7
P8-8
P8-9
113
114
C
1
2
r
Fig. P8-11
[Answer: 2/]
2
1
Fig. P8-13
P8-14 Calculate the total delta-V required for a spacecraft to transfer from
an orbit with altitude, h1 = 400 km to geosynchronous orbit with the
change of inclination i = 25.
P8-15 Calculate the total delta-v required for a spacecraft to transfer from
an orbit, r1 = 1.157 DU to r2 = 4.136 DU with the change of inclination
i = 20 using:
(a) Hohmann transfer followed by simple plane change.
(b) Combined Maneuver.
P8-16 A satellite is in a circular earth orbit of altitude 400 km. Determine the
new perigee and apogee altitudes if the satellite on-board propulsion
system increases the speed of the satellite
(a) in the flight direction by 240 m/s;
(b) gives the satellite a radial (outward) component of velocity of
240 m/s.
115
116
Interplanetary
Trajectories
The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from
the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent
inequalities in the heavens.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
9.1 Trajectories
Interplanetary missions involve spacecraft travels within the solar system.
Interplanetary trajectories are different from satellite orbits around planets
mainly because the spacecraft is exposed to more than one dominant force. A
spacecraft may leave the Earth, pass close to the Moon, travel round a
heliocentric trajectory dominated by the Sun, and have close encounters with
planets or asteroids before reaching its target planet. Parking orbits around
initial and final bodies also add intermediate goals to the mission but give
more flexibility to the mission design.
One of the major exploration projects in the United States was the Galileo
mission to Jupiter in 1989. The trajectory to Jupiter employed a two stage
inertial upper-stage (IUS) using one-gravity assist maneuver at Venus and two
maneuvers at Earth, requiring more than 6 years of travel time. Galileo was
launched in October 1989 from Earth on a Space Shuttle. Instead of heading
towards Jupiter or the asteroid belt, Galileo took a flight path that carried to
Venus. Galileo arrived there in February 1990. Venus gravity accelerated
Galileo and sent it on a flight path back toward Earth.
When Galileo passed Earth in December 1990, the Earths gravitational field
added energy to send Galileo out to the asteroid belt. A propulsive maneuver,
performed in December 1991, brought Galileo past Earth again in December
1992 for a last gravity assist before the spacecraft began its final path to
Jupiter. Arrival at Jupiter occurred late in 1995.
117
118
9.2.1 Planets
Except for Mercury and Pluto, the planetary orbits are nearly circular and lie
nearly in the ecliptic plane. Plutos orbit is so eccentric that the perihelion
point lies inside orbit of Neptune. The size, shape and orientation of planetary
orbits are given by five classical orbital elements which remain relatively fixed
except for slight perturbations caused by the mutual attraction of the planets.
Fig. 9-1.
Components of the Solar System.
Fig. 9-2.
Fig. 9-3.
Orbital
period
(years)
Mean
distance
(106 km)
Orbital
speed
(km/s)
Mercury
0.241
57.9
47.87
Venus
0.615
108.1
Earth
1.000
Mars
Planet
Mass
Relative
to Earth
(km3/s2)
119
Equatorial
radius
(km)
Inclination
of equator
to orbit
7 15
333432 1.3271011
696,000
0.055
2.232104
2,487
35.04
0.815
3.257105
6,187
177.4
149.5
29.79
1.000
3.986105
6,378
23.5
1.881
227.8
24.14
0.107
4.305104
3,380
25.2
Jupiter
11.86
778
13.06
317.9
1.268108
71,370
3.1
Saturn
29.46
1426
9.65
95.18
3.795107
60,400
26.7
Uranus
84.01
2868
6.80
14.54
5.820106
23,530
97.9
Neptune
164.8
4494
5.49
17.13
6.896106
22,320
28.3
Pluto
247.7
5896
4.74
0.00216
860.976
1,154
122.5
Sun
Table 9-1
Physical
Planets
Properties
of
the
9.2.2 Asteroids
Asteroids (a Greek word for star-like), also called minor planets or planetoids,
are a class of small celestial bodies in the solar system that orbit around the
Sun. Asteroids are material left over from the formation of the solar system.
One theory suggests that they are the remains of a planet that was destroyed
in a massive collision long ago. More likely, asteroids are material that never
coalesced into a planet. They have been found inside Earth's orbit to beyond
Saturn's orbit. Most, however, are contained within a main belt that exists
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The first asteroid to be discovered,
Ceres, is the largest asteroid known to date and is now classified as a dwarf
planet. All others are currently classified as small solar system bodies. A newly
discovered asteroid is given a provisional designation consisting of the year of
discovery and an alphanumeric code (such as 2002 AT4). Once its orbit has
been confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g.
433 Eros).
Moon
Pluto
Fig. 9-4.
Astronomical symbols.
120
Fig. 9-5.
Asteroids belt.
9.2.3 Comets
The word "comet" comes from the Greek word kom, meaning hair of the
head. Comets are small Solar System bodies that orbit the Sun and, when
close enough to the Sun, exhibit a visible coma (or atmosphere) and/or a
tail both primarily from the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's
nucleus. Comet nuclei are themselves loose collections of ice, dust and small
rocky particles, measuring a few kilometers or tens of kilometers across.
Comets originate in the outer solar system; they are thrown inwards towards
the Sun by gravitational perturbations from planets or nearby stars. They have
a variety of different orbital periods, ranging from a few years, to 50 or 100
years, to thousands of years, while some are believed to pass through the
inner Solar System only once before being thrown out into interstellar space.
Dust tail
coma
nucleus
Fig. 9-6.
Comet structure.
Ion tail
121
( 9-1 )
122
Table 9-2
Sphere of influence of the Planets.
Surface
Escape
Velocity
(m/s)
J2
Sphere of
influence
(106 km)
273.98
6.18105
Mercury 2.232104
3.70
4250
Venus
3.257105
8.87
10360
Earth
3.986105
9.81
11180
Mars
4.305104
3.71
5020
Jupiter
1.268108
23.12
59530
~ 9h50m
Saturn
3.795107
9.05
35560
~ 10h15m
Uranus
5.820106
7.77
21250
0.012
49.4 54.1
~ 17h50m
Neptune 6.896106
273.98
6.18105
~ 27 days
Pluto
3.70
4250
Planet
Sun
(km/s)
1.327101
1
860.976
Equatorial
Surface
Gravity
(m/s)
0.09 - 0.14
Axial rotation
period
(sidereal)
~ 27 days
58.646 days
243.019 days
0.00108
0.91 0.94
3
0.00196
0.52 0.63
4
23h56m22.7s
0.09 - 0.14
24h37m22.6s
58.646 days
Jupiter
Earth
1. Heliocentric Phase:
The spacecraft speed relative to Earth as it exits the Earths sphere of
influence is given by
2
=
1 = 8.792 km/s
2
= 1
= 5.643 km/s
which means that is in the opposite direction. The transfer time is half
orbital period of the transfer orbit
+
=
=
= 2.731 years
2
8
It is interesting to note here that the minimum time for the Earth-Jupiter
mission is 2.73 years. This is by no means a long trip in the context of
interplanetary missions as we will see later.
2. Geocentric Phase:
The spacecraft is assumed to be initially parking in a 300-km circular orbit.
Impulsive velocity increment 1 is provided at point (A) to inject the vehicle
into hyperbolic escape trajectory having speed at a great distance from the
Earth.
123
124
VE
A
VE
Asymptote
(periapsis)
=
= 7.726 km/s
+
In order to reach (B) with velocity , the spacecraft should leave (A) with
velocity
Therefore,
2
=
+ ( )2 = 14.024 km/s
+
1 =
= 6.298 km/s
+ 2
( ) = 2.295
=1+
Arrival at Jupiter:
= cos1(1/) = 115.8
Within the sphere of influence of Jupiter, the transfer trajectory will appear as
a hyperbola.
VJ
D
VJ
Asymptote
(periapsis)
Assume that after arrival at Jupiter the spacecraft will be inserted into a
circular capture orbit with radius = 6RJ, in which the velocity is given by
=
= 17.173 km/s
6
Assume (D) is the point of closest approach to Jupiter on the hyperbola. As the
spacecraft approaches (C) with velocity , it will arrive at (D) with velocity
2
=
+ ( )2 = 24.934 km/s
6
2 =
= 6.298km/s
6 2
=1+
= 1.1080
125
126
9.4.1 L1 (stable)
The L1 point Lies on the line defined by the two large masses between them.
Example: A body which orbits the Sun closer than the Earth would have a
shorter orbital period than the Earth. However, this is based on the
assumption that the effect of the Earths own gravitational pull is negligible.
If the object is directly between the Earth and the Sun, then the effect of the
Earth's gravity is to weaken the force pulling the object towards the Sun, and
therefore increase the orbital period of the object. The closer to Earth the
object is, the greater this effect is.
At the L1 point, the orbital period of the object becomes exactly equal to the
Earth's orbital period. L1 is well-suited to solar observations. Objects here are
never shadowed by the Earth or the Moon.
9.4.2 L2 (stable)
The L2 point Lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the
smaller of the two. Here, the gravitational forces of the two large masses
balance the centrifugal force on the smaller mass.
Fig. 9-7.
Liberation points
On the side of the Earth away from the Sun, the orbital period of an object
would normally be greater than that of the Earth. The extra pull of the Earth's
gravity decreases the orbital period of the object, and at the L2 point that
orbital period becomes equal to the Earth's.
As the Earth rotates around the Sun, these two points rotate around the Sun
with it, always staying in the same place with respect to the planet. These
stable orbits are being eyed as places to deploy satellites that observe the
Earth-Moon system.
9.4.3 L3 (stable)
The L3 point lies on the line defined by the two large masses, beyond the
larger of the two. This Lagrange point is located the farthest away from the
Earth, on the opposite side of the Sun. Until the development of
interplanetary probes which could travel to areas of the solar system outside
the Earth and Moon, L3 could never be observed due to its position.
L3 in the SunEarth system exists on the opposite side of the Sun, a little
outside the Earth's orbit but slightly closer to the Sun than the Earth is. At the
L3 point, the combined pull of the Earth and Sun again causes the object to
orbit with the same period as the Earth.
9.5 Aerobraking
A technique that can be employed to capture a spacecraft by the atmosphere
of a planet in order to reduce the fuel required for the mission. When the
spacecraft is at its closest point, the propulsion system is used to insert the
spacecraft into an elliptic orbit. The periapsis radius will approximately remain
fixed, while the apoapsis radius will decay at twice the rate of the semimajor
axis decay
127
128
dra/dt = 2 da/dt
( 9-2 )
When the apoapsis radius reaches the required altitude of the target orbit, the
propulsion system is used to raise the periapsis out of the atmosphere to the
desired altitude such that the target orbit will be sustained.
Aerobraking was first successfully used in the Magellan mission to Venus
Proper predictions of aerobraking requires good knowledge of the planets
atmospheric density. Consider the example of the Mars Global Surveyor
spacecraft.
Fig. 9-8.
Gravity assist maneuver
129
Fig. 9-9.
Aerogravity assist maneuver
130
REFERENCES
Bate, R., Mueller, D., & White, J. (1971). Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New
Work: Dover Publications.
Chobotov, V. (2002). Orbital Mechanics (3 ed.). AIAA.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Hamilton, C. (1997). Asteroid Introduction.
http://www.solarviews.com/eng/asteroid.htm
Retrieved
2009,
from
PROBLEMS
P9-1
P9-2
P9-3
P9-4
P9-5
Calculate the sphere of influence for the nine planets in the solar
system.
P9-6
P9-7
Compute the distance to L1, the Lagrangian liberation point, from the
center of the moon along the Earth-moon line. To a first
approximation, L1 is an equilibrium point between the gravitational
and centrifugal accelerations of the attracting bodies.
P9-8
P9-9
Compute the velocity impulse (V) for transfer from a 100-km circular
orbit at Mars to a hyperbolic orbit Earth return trajectory with an
eccentricity e=1.5.
P9-10 Write the equation of motion for a solar sail in the solar system.
Discuss the type of trajectories possible.
131
132
P9-11 If the Earth were stopped in its orbit, what would be the elapsed
time, in days, until collision with the sun? Assume point masses, and
assume the Earths orbit to be circular, with r=1.0 A.U.
P9-12 Assuming the orbits of Earth and Mars are circular (with radius equal
to semi-major axis) and coplanar, calculate
(a) the total V required to send a spacecraft from a 600-km
Earth orbit into a Hohmann transfer from Earth to Mars,
(b) the time required for the Hohmann transfer maneuver, and
(c) the initial position of Mars () in its orbit relative to Earth for
interception to occur.
Fig. P9-12
P9-13 Your space mission analysis team is assigned to design the first
interplanetary mission to Mars. The spacecraft will be initially
launched into a 500-km parking circular orbit around Earth. The
spacecraft propulsion system will be used to escape the gravitation
field of Earth and insert the spacecraft into a Hohmann transfer orbit
along which the spacecraft will coast towards Mars. On arrival at
Mars, the propulsion system will be used to decelerate the spacecraft
and insert it into a 13,500-km altitude circular orbit around Mars.
Assume the orbits of Earth and Mars around the Sun are both circular
and coplanar
(a) Calculate the velocity at which the spacecraft will be inserted
into the Hohmann transfer orbit relative to the Sun, then
relative to Earth.
(b) Calculate the velocity at which the spacecraft will exit the
Hohmann transfer orbit relative to the Sun, then relative to
Mars.
(c) Calculate the velocity change required to escape the Earths
orbit assuming a simple coplanar maneuver is used.
(d) Calculate the velocity change required to insert the spacecraft
into the Marss circular orbit assuming a simple coplanar
maneuver is used.
10
Relative Motion
The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from
the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent
inequalities in the heavens.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Chaser
k
N
rrel
= rBN rAN
j
i
(10-1)
Where, the superscript N denotes the inertial reference frame. The relative
position vector can be expressed spacecraft As RSW-reference frame as:
A
N
rrel
= [Q]rrel
rrel
Target
X
Y
(10-2)
Fig. 10-1.
Relative position of Chaser to
Target in RSW frame..
133
134
(10-3)
A
A rrel + 2
A v
aB = aA + A rrel +
rel + arel
(10-4)
A .
A is the rate of change of the angular velocity,
(10-5)
vAp = rA A
(10-6)
A =
rA v
A
= A k
2
rA
(10-7)
A ) =
2
2
rA
rA
(10-8)
We have the angular velocities and accelerations derived in Eqs. (10-7) and
(10-8), then we can determine the relative velocities and accelerations in
Inertial frame using Eqs. (10-3) and (10-4). In spacecraft As RSW reference
frame are, we have:
A
N
vrel
= [Q]v
rel
aArel = [Q]aN
rel
(10-9)
EXAMPLE 10-1
At a given time, the orbital elements of spacecraft A are:
= , = . , = , = , = , =
and the orbital elements of spacecraft B are:
= , = . , = , = , = , =
Determine the relative position, velocity and acceleration of
spacecraft B with repect to spacecraft A, as expressed in spacecraft A
reference frame.
SOLUTION
First, the absolute positions and velocities for both spacecraft are,
= [6086.2086 4941.2610 1176.8355]T km
= [4.5384 5.2771 1.5146]T km/sec
= [6159.0316 4871.8140 1571.0703]T km
= [ 4.5076 5.1031 1.9933]T km/sec
= 8.82334 104
rad/sec
A = 3
aA
rA v
A )
rad
2(
8
A =
=
0.6641
10
A
r2A
sec
Next, we determine the Directional Cosine Matrix of spacecraft A at
that point, which is,
[Q]A = C(, i, + )
0.76775
0.62332 0.14845
[Q]A = 0.64035 0.73824 0.21201
0.02256 0.25783 0.96593
A
N = [Q]TA
rel
v
= vB vA
N
N
rel
v
= [0.06122 0.22816 0.46354]T km/sec
The relative acceleration in Inertial frame is,
N
)
aN
B aA
N
N (
N
2
N v
rel
rel = a
135
136
aN
rel = [0.03850
0.11369
= [Q]A
= [71.1472 14.3185 400.3501]T km
= [Q]A
= [0.02639 0.10937 0.50795]T km/sec
X
3
X
X
4
2
Y
1
X
Y
6
8
X
Spacecraft A
Spacecraft B
Consider two spacecraft in two orbits with the same semimajor axis. That is,
both spacecraft have same orbit period. Let the first orbit be circular and the
second orbit be elliptic with small eccentricity.
X
7
Fig. 10-2.
Relative direction observation in
Inertial frame.
The spacecraft As reference frame is always rotating such that one axis is
pointing to the earth center. Consider an observer on spacecraft A and is
observing spacecraft B location at all times (see figure 10-2.) Because
spacecraft B is in elliptic orbit, its velocity is not uniform. If we plot the
observations on an XY coordinate system attached to spacecraft A, we get the
bean-shape shown in figure 10-3.
Spacecraft B travels faster when it is close to its perigee (when its altitude is
below that of spacecraft A,) and travels slower when it is close to its apogee
(when its altitude is above that of spacecraft A). The following section shows
how to compute the position vectors shown in figure 10-3 as a function of
time.
3
4
5
8
7
Fig. 10-3.
As viewed from co-moving frame
by spacecraft A
(10-10)
137
Assume that the relative distance between the spacecraft is small, compared
to the absolute distance to the Earths center:
rB = rA +
r
(10-11)
r
1
rA
(10-12)
Substituting Eq. (10-12) into the second order time derivation of Eq. (10-10)
yields,
r + rA
r = rA
rB3
(10-13)
The range of the target spacecraft, , to the Earths center can be expressed
as:
rB2 = (r + rA ) (r + rA ) = rA rA + 2r rA + r r
(10-14)
If we expend the Eq. (10-14), and using the assumption in Eq. (10-11), we get:
rB2
rA2 1 +
2r rA r 2
2r rA
+ 2 rA2 1 +
2
rA
rA
rA2
(10-15)
rA3 1
2r rA
+
rA2
3
2
(10-16)
where, =
we have,
2rrA
.
r2A
(1 + ) = 1 + +
( 1) 2
+
2!
(10-17)
2r rA
1 +
rA2
3 2r rA
1 +
2
rA2
(10-18)
Target
rB
X
rA
Chaser
Fig. 10-4.
Relative Position of Target
Spacecraft to Chaser Spacecraft.
138
3r rA
1
3
= 3 5 r rA
2
rA
rA rA
(10-19)
1
3
r = rA 3 5 r rA (r + rA )
rA rA
= rA
r
3
rA
rA
r3A
3
(r rA )rA
r5A
(10-20)
3
(r rA )r
r5A
Since the relative dstance between the two spacecraft is small, then
3
(r rA )r 1. Eq. (10-17) becomes:
r5
A
r
r
3
r= rA r3 + rA3 r5 (r rA )rA
A
(10-21)
r
Recall that rA = rA3 and substitute that into Eq. (10-18).The linearized
A
r 3
r = 3 5 (r rA )rA
rA rA
(10-22)
EXAMPLE 10-2
Given the initial positions and velocities of two spacecraft:
= [. . . ]
= [. . . ]
= [. . . ] /
= [. . . ] /
Using the linearized method, determine the relative position after
30mins. Then compare the results with the relative position
obtained through the determination of the absolute position of each
spacecraft.
SOLUTION
At initial time, the relative positions and velocities are,
12 = 2 1 = [22.0744 57.6290 14.0791]T km
12 = 2 1 = [0.054772 0.058184 0.017981]T km/sec
139
r = + +
(10-23)
Based on the assumption that the relative distance between the two
spacecraft is small compared to the absolute position, Clohessy and Wiltshire
showed that the acceleration of the relative position vector is:
= 3 + r
+
r
3
(10-24)
The term represents all external forces, like thrust forces or aerodynamic
drag forces, affecting spacecraft B. Another way of looking at Equation (10-24)
is to consider spacecraft A as a target spacecraft and spacecraft B as an
interceptor spacecraft. The interceptor spacecraft may have thrusters
onboard and use them to intercept the target after a given amount of time.
Consider the equation,
r = r
r A 2
A
(
r A )
(10-24)
8 Clohessy and Whiltshire are both engineers who first developed this form of the equations of
relative motion, in the middle of the twentieth century
140
= 3
.
The vector
is the angular velocity of spacecraft A:
=
Substitute for the angular velocity vector into equation (10-25), we get:
3 + + 2 2 + 2
r = 2 + +
(10-25)
+ 2
(10-26)
+ 2 =
(10-27)
(10-28)
0
0
0
+ 2
+
2
2
(
)
+
( + 2 )
(10-29)
() = 0 +
141
0 0
0
+ sin() 2 cos()
2
(10-30)
2 0 0
2 0
+ sin() 30 +
cos()
(10-31)
Eq. (10-32) shows the closed form solution of Hills equation for the xcomponent of the relative position vector. The relative velocity is obtained by
taking of the time derivative of ():
() = 0 cos() + 30 +
2 0
sin()
(10-32)
(10-33)
() =
2 0
2
cos() + (30 + 2 0 )sin() + +
(10-34)
Therefore,
() =
2 0
+ 0
(10-35)
2 0
2
2 0
cos() + (30 + 2 0 )sin() (60 +)
(10-36)
+ 0
(10-37)
142
2 () 0 0 = 2 ()
()( 2 + 2 ) = 0 + 0
() =
( 2
(10-38)
0
0
+ 2
2
+ ) ( + 2 )
0
sin() + 0 cos()
(10-39)
() = 0 cos() 0 sin()
From these results for the equation of relative motion, we can see that the
closed form solutions are linear functions in the initial relative positions and
velocities. Thus, they can be expressed in matrix form as follows:
= rr r0 + rv r0
= vr r0 + vv r0
where,
(10-40)
4 3cos()
0
0
rr = 6(sin() ) 1
0
0
0 cos()
rv
2
1
(1 cos())
sin()
0
2
1
= (cos() 1)
(4 sin() 3)
0
sin()
0
0
vr
vv
EXAMPLE 10-3
3sin()
0
0
= 6(cos() 1) 0
0
0
0 sin()
cos()
2sin()
0
0
= 2sin() 4 cos() 3
0
0
cos()
(10-41)
143
1 = vr r0 + vv r0
with 0 = [0 0 0]T km and 1 = [5 5 0]T km
Given that the satellite is drifted to position 1 after one hour, then:
1 = 3600 secs.
The relative velocities at initial time and at t1 are,
r = [0.001669 0.000999 0]T km/sec
0
1 = [0.001093
0.001728
0]T km/sec
2 = rr r1 + rv 1 +
where 2 = [0 0
2 = vr r1 + vv 1 +
0]T km and,
2 = [0.0001941
0.0005303
0]T km/sec
0.001458
0]T km/sec
144
REFERENCES
Chobotov, V. (2002). Orbital Mechanics (3 ed.). AIAA.
Curtis, H. (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineers (1 ed.). ButterworthHeinemann.
Gurfil, P. (2006). Modern Astrodynamics. Academic Press.
Vallado, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of Astrodynamcis and Applications.
Microcosm.
PROBLEMS
P10-1 A spacecraft is about to be released from the space shuttle, which is
in circular orbit at 600 km altitude. The relative velocity (from the
shuttle bay) of the ejection is 0.9 m/s down, 0.05 m/s backwards, and
0.01 m/s to the right. Find the position and velocity of the spacecraft
after 4 minutes.
145