NatGeogStds Review2

GEOGRAPHY FOR LIFE, 2ND EDITION
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHY STANDARDS
DraftVersionforReviewOnly
June12,2009
DRAFT:GeographyforLife,2ndEdition
EssentialElement:TheWorldinSpatialTerms
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD1
HOWTOUSEMAPSANDOTHERGEOGRAPHICREPRESENTATIONS,GEOSPATIALTECHNOLOGIES,ANDSPATIALTHINKING
TOUNDERSTANDANDCOMMUNICATEINFORMATION
schoolexperienceingeographyandothersubjectsacross
Thegeographicallyinformedpersonusesmapsandother
thecurriculum.Theywillalsohaveanarrayofpowerful
geographicrepresentations,geospatialtechnologies,and
problemsolvinganddecisionmakingskillsforuseinboth
spatialthinkingtounderstandandcommunicate
theireducationalpursuitsandtheiradultyears.
information.Thestudyandpracticeofgeographyrequire
theinformedandethicaluseofgeographic
Standard1isarrangedaroundthreethemes:1)Properties
representations,geospatialtechnologies,andspatial
ofGeographicRepresentationsandGeospatial
thinking.Maps,graphicrepresentationsofselected
Technologies;2)MapInterpretation;and3)Map
aspectsofEarthssurface,arethekeygeographicmodeof
Construction.Atallgradelevels,studentsneedto
representationbutglobes,graphs,diagrams,andaerial
understandwhatamapisandwhatitcanandcannot
andsatelliteimages(RemoteSensing)alsoprovide
do.Theyneedtobeabletoreadandinterpretmapsand
valuableinformationaboutspatialpatternsonEarth.
othergeographicrepresentationssuchasremotelysensed
Nosinglemapcanshoweverything,andthefeatures
imagesasatoolofanalysis.Andfinally,studentsneedto
depictedoneachmapareselectedtofitaparticular
knowhowtomakemaps,fromsimplesketchmapsto
purpose.Therevolutioningeospatialtechnologies
morecomplexrepresentationsusingarangeof
appropriatetechnologies.Further,theyneedpracticeand
(includingGeographicInformationSystems(GIS)and
experiencesinhowtocollectanddisplayinformation
GlobalPositioningSystems(GPS)aswellasInternetbased
mappingsitessuchasdigitalglobes)hasmadetheability
(data)onmaps,graphs,anddiagrams.
toanalyzespatialpatternsinmultiplefashionsquicklyan
importantproblemsolvinganddecisionmakingskillin
geographyandothersciencesubjectareas.
Geographicdataarecompiled,organized,stored,
manipulated,andmadevisibleinmanyways.Knowing
howtoidentify,access,evaluate,anduseappropriate
geographicrepresentationswillensurestudentsofarich

Bytheendofgrade4,
thestudentknowsandunderstands:
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
PropertiesofGeographicRepresentationsandGeospatialTechnologies
1.Propertiesandpurposesofgeographic
representationssuchasmaps,globes,
graphs,diagrams,Internetbasedmapping
applications,GIS,GPS,RS,andgeographic
visualizations,aerialandother
photographs,andremotelysensedimages
1.Propertiesandfunctionsofmaps,
globes,aerialandotherphotographs,
remotelysensedimages,GIS,andGPSand
theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeach
foranalyzingspatialdistributionsand
patterns
Therefore,thestudentisableto:
A.Identifyanddescribetheproperties
(positionandorientation;symbols;scale;
perspective;coordinatesystems),and
purposesofgeographicrepresentations,as
exemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Describetheproperties(positionand
orientation;projections;symbols;scale;
perspective;coordinatesystems),and
functionsofgeographicrepresentations
andgeospatialtechnologies,as
Examineavarietyofgeographic
representationstoidentifyanddescribe
theirbasicproperties(e.g.,title,legend,
cardinalandintermediatedirections,scale,
symbols,grid,principalparallels,meridians)
andpurposes(wayfinding,reference,
thematic).
B.Describehowmappropertiesrelateto
thepurposesofmapcreationanduse,as
Differentiateamonggeographic
representationsbasedontheirproperties
(e.g.,orientation,gridsystem,scale,
resolution,andcontent)andpurposes(e.g.,
usingGISanddigitalglobestoexplore
geographicinformationandrelationshipsat
arangeofscales).
B.Evaluatetheappropriateuseof
geospatialrepresentationsand
technologiesforspecificgeographictasks,
suchasanalyzingspatialdistributionsand
patterns,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
1.Waysthepropertiesandfunctionsof
geographicrepresentations(including
maps,globes,graphs,diagrams,internet
basedmappingapplications,GIS,GPS,RS,
andgeographicvisualizations)affecthow
theycanbeusedtorepresent,analyze,
andinterpretgeographicpatternsand
processes
A.Explaintheappropriateusesof
differenttechnologiesandmethodsfor
acquiring,producing,anddisplaying
geospatialdata,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Describedifferentgeospatialtechnologies
(e.g.,GIS,GPS,RS,geographic
visualizations)andhoweachmightbeused
tosolveageographicproblem(e.g.,help
determinewheretolocateanew
playgroundwithinacommunity).
B.Constructmapsdesignedappropriately
forspecificgeographictasks,as
Selectthemapsortypesofmapsmost
appropriateforarangeofpurposes,(e.g.,
tolocatephysicalandhumanfeatures;to
determinetheshortestroutefromone
Basedontheadvantagesand
locationtoanother;tocomparegeographic disadvantagesofdifferentgeospatial
representationsandtechnologies,select
Constructmapsdesignedfordifferent
purposesusingdifferentcartographic
techniques(e.g.,2Dclimatemap,3D
elevationmap,3Dpopulationdensitymap,
cartogram,thematicmapsusingdifferent
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
conditionsattwoormorelocations).
theappropriatemapforaspecificpurpose projections).
(e.g.,acartogramoranequalareamapto
illustratepopulationdistribution,a
remotelysensedimageorareferencemap
toobserveevidenceofpastcultures,or
topographicmapsorahighwaymapto
considerbestroutesfornewtransportation
corridorsorwindfarm.
MapInterpretation
2.Waystoreadandinterpretmapsand
othergeographicrepresentations
A.Analyzeandinterpretmapsandother
geographicrepresentations,as
Usethematicmapsandothergeographic
representationstoobtain,describe,and
comparespatialpatternsandinformation
aboutpeople,places,regions,and
environments.
2.Waystointerpretspatialdistributions
andpatternsongeographic
representationsinordertosolve
geographicproblems
2.Usesofgeographicrepresentationsand
geospatialtechnologiestoinvestigate,
analyze,andcommunicatetheresultsof
geographicproblemsolving
A.Analyzeandinterpretgeographic
representationstoaskandanswer
questionsaboutspatialdistributionsand
patterns,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Analyzeconditionsandsuggest
solutionstoproblemsatlocaltoglobal
scalesusinggeographicrepresentations
andgeospatialtechnologies,as
Analyzemapsusingspatialconceptsto
observespatialdistributionsinorderto
generateandanswergeographicquestions
(e.g.,usedigitalcensusdatatodetermine
demographicpatternsinastate;analyze
censusdataandtransportationroutesto
identifyandlocateservices,suchasaday
carecenteroramallneededinaregion).
Usemultiplegeographicrepresentations
andgeospatialtoolstocreatea
presentationwhichillustratesalternative
viewsofacurrentorpotentiallocalissueof
publicdiscussion.
MapConstruction/Data
3.Waystodisplaygeospatialdatainmaps
andothergeographicrepresentations
3.Waystoacquireandgenerate
geospatialdatatoconstructmaps
3.Thepropertiesofgeospatialdataused
inmapconstruction
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
A.Constructgeospatialrepresentationsto A.Identifytheproperties(e.g.,resolution,
A.Constructmapsandothergeographic
representationstodisplaygeospatialdata, displaythematictopics,suchasworld
dateofcreation,andmethodofcollection)
religions,populationdensity,and
asexemplifiedbybeingableto
andevaluatethequalityofgeographic
historicalevents,asexemplifiedbybeing
dataofvaryingformats(e.g.,image,text
Designandconstructageographic
ableto
file,databases)fromavarietyofsources
representationeitherdrawnbyhandor
andusethemappropriatelyinmap
Usedatatodeveloppaperordigitalmaps
producedbyageospatialtechnologythat
construction,asexemplifiedbybeingable
andflowchartsillustratingsignificant
displaysgeographicinformation,using
to
geographicthemes(e.g,toshowmajor
symbolsexplainedinakey(e.g.drawa
patternsofmovementofpeopleand
Locateandexaminemetadata("dataabout
sketchmaptoillustrateanarrativestory;
constructabargraphthatcomparesthe
commoditiessuchasinternationaltradein thedata")fordemographicdata,landuse
populationsofthe5largestcitiesinastate petroleum,migrationofrefugeesfrom
data,orstreetdatafrommultiplesources
ornation;interpretabargraphofUS
countriesexperiencingconflict,or
anddescribedifferencesintheirdesign
exportsandconstructamapdisplayingthe settlementpatternsinNorthAmerica1600 whichmightaffecttheresultofanalyses.
sameinformationusinglinesofvarying
1900;toexamineassociationsamong
widthtodenotevolumeoftrade.
geographicphenomenasuchaswater
resourcesandpopulationdistribution,or
topographyandCivilWartroop
movements).
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD2
HOWTOUSEMENTALMAPSTOORGANIZEINFORMATIONABOUTPEOPLE,PLACES,ANDENVIRONMENTSINASPATIAL
CONTEXT
andrefinetheirmentalmapsthroughlearningfrom
Knowingwherepeople,places,andenvironmentsare
teachersandthemedia,andthroughpersonalexperience,
locatedisanecessaryprecursortoandoutcomeof
movingfromsimpletomorecomplexlevelsof
muchgeographiclearning.Tobegeographicallyinformed
completenessandaccuracy,continuingtoaddlayersof
apersonmustkeepinmindalotofinformationabout
informationsothatthemapsreflectagrowing
people,places,andenvironmentsandmustbeableto
understandingofachangingworld.Aspeopleread,hear,
organizethisinformationinappropriatespatialcontexts.
observeandthinkmoreabouttheworldaroundthem,
Aneffectivewayofdoingthisistodevelopandusewhat
theyinterprettheworld,addmoredetailandstructureto
arecalledmentalmaps:anindividualsinternalized
theirmaps,andaccumulatelayersofusefulinformation
representationofaspectsofEarthssurface.Thesemaps
whichtheycanuseinlearningmoregeographyandin
inthemindarewhatapersonknowsaboutthelocations
problemsolvinganddecisionmaking.
andcharacteristicsofplacesatavarietyofscales,fromthe
local(thelayoutofapersonsbedroom)totheglobal(the
Standard2isorganizedaroundthreethemes:1)
distributionofoceansandcontinentsacrossEarth).
DevelopingMentalMaps;2)UsingMentalMaps;and3)
Mentalmapsareamixofobjectiveknowledgeand
VariationsinMentalMaps(Perception).Studentsneedto
subjectiveperceptions:preciseknowledgeaboutthe
buildtheirplacelocationknowledgeinordertodevelop
locationofgeographicfeaturesaswellasimpressionsof
detailedunderstandingsofpeoples,places,and
places,roughestimatesofsizeandlocation,andageneral
environments.Theyalsoneedpracticeandopportunities
senseoftheconnectionsbetweenplaces.
inapplyingtheirmentalmapsinlearninggeographyand
othersubjects.Finally,studentsandteachersneedto
Mentalmapsprovidepeoplewithanessentialmeansof
understandtherolethatperceptionplaysinthecreation
makingsenseoftheworldandofstoringandrecalling
anddevelopmentoftheirunderstandingsoftheworld.
informationaboutthepatternsofEarthsphysicaland
humanfeatures.Theyrepresenteverchangingsummaries
ofspatialknowledgeandareindicatorsofhowwellpeople
knowthespatialcharacteristicsofplaces.Peopledevelop

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
DevelopingMentalMapsPlace/Location(Acquisitionofcontent)
1.Locationsandcharacteristicsofphysical
andhumanfeaturesatlocaltoglobal
scalesasmentalmaps
1.Thelocations,patterns,and
characteristicsofphysicalandhuman
featuresatlocaltoglobalscalesas
understoodfrommentalmaps
A.Recallthepositionandarrangementof
majorphysicalandhumanfeaturesatlocal A.Recalldistributionsofphysicaland
toglobalscales,asexemplifiedbybeing
humanfeaturestoanalyzegeospatial
ableto
relationships,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Markandlabelthelocationsofplaces
Recallwithrelativeaccuracythelocation,
discussedinsocialstudies,languagearts,
science,andotherschoolsubjects(e.g.,use characteristics,andrelationshipsamong
maps,asamatterofhabit,toplacehistoric physicalandhumanfeatures(e.g.,changes
inthelocationofthelargesturbanareasin
eventsintheirspatialcontextsordepict
countriesorregionsreadaboutinlanguage theUnitedStates;globalpatternsof
arts).
landform,vegetation,climate,andocean
currents).
1.Thelocations,patterns,characteristics,
andrelationshipsamongelementsof
physicalandhumanfeaturesandsystems
asunderstoodfrommentalmaps
A.Recallthelocations,patterns,
characteristics,andrelationshipsamong
humanandphysicalsystems,as
Recallpatternsofcontemporaryand
historicalphysicalandhumanfeaturesto
examinediffusionanddrawconclusions
aboutspatialinteractions(e.g.,
communicablediseasessuchasAIDS,
influenza,Lymedisease;factorsaffecting
themovementofinvasivespecies).
UsingMentalMaps(Application)
2.Waystouseinformationfrommental
mapsaboutlocationsandcharacteristics
ofplacesandregions
2.Waystouseinformationfrommental
mapstoidentifyandanswergeographic
questions
A.Usehisorhermentalmapoflocations
andgeographiccharacteristicstoanswer
geographicquestions,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
A.Usehisorhermentalmapsofphysical
andhumanfeaturesandeventstoaddress
geographicquestions,makedecisions,and
solveproblems,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Answerquestionsaboutthelocationsand
2.Waystouseinformationaboutphysical
andhumanfeaturesatlocaltoglobal
scalesfrommentalmapstoanswer
complexgeographicquestions
A.Usehisorhermentalmaptoportray
andexplainelementsandpatterns
involvedingeographicissues,as
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
characteristicsofplaces(e.g.,Ismy
neighborhoodclosertoschoolthanmy
friend's?IsMainefarthereastthanFlorida?
IsSingaporeclosertoEuropeorNorth
America?WhichcountriesinAfricahave
largedeserts?).
Associatethelocationofgeographic
phenomenaandeventstoexplainthe
relationshipbetweenthem(e.g.,recallthe
locationandgeographiccontextofcurrent
eventstoexplainwhythingsareoccurring
wheretheyare;citeexamplesof
geographicfeatureswhichfacilitateor
hindermovementandspatialinteraction).
Construct(andthenportrayonadigital
globe)thelikelypathsfollowedbycommon
householditems(e.g.,milk,bread,coffee,
cottonTshirt,gasoline)fromtheirsource/s
tothehome.
IndividualPerceptionandMentalMaps
3.Individualsvaryintheirunderstandings
ofpeople,places,regionsand
environments
A.Describehowindividuals'viewsand
understandingsofpeople,places,and
environmentsdiffer,asexpressedbytheir
mentalmap,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Answerthequestionwhereelseinthe
worldwouldyouliketoliveandwhy,and
compareresponseswithfellowstudentsto
identifythefactorsthatinfluence
perceptions,images,andstereotypes.
3.Mentalmapsreflecthumanperceptions 3.Theroleperceptionplaysininfluencing
ofpeople,places,regionsand
people'smentalmaps,thustheir
environments
understandingofandattitudesabout
people,places,regionsandenvironments
A.Analyzewaysinwhichmentalmaps
reflectanindividual'sattitudestoward
A.Analyzethementalmapsofindividuals
people,places,regions,andenvironments, toidentifycommonfactorsthatinfluence
spatialunderstandingandpreferences,as
Identifyandcomparethedifferentcriteria
Analyzefactorsthatinfluencepeople's
thatpeopleuseforratingplaces(e.g.,
preferencesaboutwheretolive(e.g.,
economicopportunities,environmental
surveysoffellowstudentsidentifying
amenities,crimerates).
choiceofresidentialareaswithinthe
communityorthecountry).
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD3
HOWTOANALYZETHESPATIALORGANIZATIONOFPEOPLE,PLACES,ANDENVIRONMENTSONEARTHSSURFACE
patternsintermsofdistance,direction,density,and
Thegeographicallyinformedpersonunderstandsthat
distribution.Oncestudentsstarttoidentifyspatial
physicalandhumanphenomenaaredistributedacross
patternsandusemapsandremotelysensedimagesto
Earthssurfaceandseesmeaninginthearrangementof
discovermorepatterns,thentheycanbegintoexplore
thingsinspace.Thinkingabouttheworldinspatialterms
whythepatternsandrelationshipsamongphenomena
(spatialthinking)meanshavingtheabilitytodescribeand
existastheydo,thatis,whatprocessesproducethe
analyzethespatialpatternsandorganizationofpeople,
places,andenvironmentsonEarth.Spatialthinkingis
patterns.Processesaretheactivitiesthatproduce
essentialtoknowingandapplyinggeographyandrequires
patterns,thedrivingforcesandunderlyingcausesofthe
studentstousespatialconcepts,geographic
patternsthatcanbeobserved.
representations(Standard1),andcriticalprocessesof
Studentsmustunderstandthemechanismsunderlying
reasoninginordertounderstandtheworldinwhichthey
processes,fromthephysicalactivitieswhichshapethe
live,tosolveproblems,andtomakedecisions.
environmenttothehumanprocessesofeconomic
Spatialconcepts,processes,andmodelsarepowerfultools
forexplainingtheworldatallscales,localtoglobal.
Geographyusuallystartswithquestionssuchas,Where?
Whatisitlikehere?andWhyisthislocatedthereand
nothere?Suchquestionsrequiregeographers(aswellas
teachersandstudentsofgeography)topayattentionto
wherethingsarelocated(Standard2)andtoconsiderthe
reasonsforandimplicationsofpeopleandthingsbeingat
theselocations.
Whenconsideringwherequestions,geographersseek
regularities,thatis,patterns,aswellasrelationships
amongphenomena(thefeaturesofEarthandactivities
thattakeplaceonEarth).Theydescribeandexplain
development,urbanization,migration,andcultural
change.Models,idealizedandsimplifiedrepresentations
ofreality,canhelpstudentsanalyzespatialorganization
by:1)demonstratingproperties;2)simplifyingthe
complexityofreality;and3)servingasasourceofworking
hypothesesinresearch.Modelsmovealongacontinuum
fromconcretereality(aglobeoradioramaofaclassroom)
tohigherdegreesofabstractionandgeneralization
(modelsofurbanstructure,spatialinteraction,and
physicalprocesses).
Standard3isorganizedaroundthreethemes:1)Spatial
Concepts;2)SpatialPatternsandProcesses;and3)Spatial
Models.Studentsusespatialconceptsinordertoexplore
thepatternsofhumanandphysicalphenomenaandthe
processesthatinfluencethesepatterns.Theyusemodels
inincreasingabstractiontounderstandgeneralizations
relatedtoEarthsspatialorganization.
10
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
1.Themeaninganduseofspatial
1.Themeaninganduseoffundamental
concepts,suchasaccessibility,dispersion,
spatialconceptssuchaslocation(point),
distance(line),direction,scale,movement, density,andinterdependence
region(area),andvolume
A.Usespatialconceptstodescribethe
spatialorganizationofpeople,places,and
A.Usespatialconceptstodescribethe
environments,asexemplifiedbybeing
geographicalorganizationofpeople,
ableto
places,andenvironments(wherethings
areinrelationtootherthings),as
Usebothpaperanddigitalgeographic
representationstoanalyzeanddescribe
spatialconcepts,suchasthedistribution
Writedescriptionsofthespatial
organizationofplacesfeaturedinstoriesor andlinkageofurbanregions(e.g.,describe
historicalaccountstoexamineconceptsof commuterflowsbetweencentralcities,
distance,direction,location,etc.(e.g.,read surroundingsuburbs,andsmallertowns;
achildrensstorysuchasLittleRedRiding
explainInterstateandrailnodesand
Hoodanddescribetherelativelocationof
connectionsbetweencitiesintermsof
thetwohouses,thedistancebetween
accessibilitytogoodsandproductsand
travelopportunities;explorewhatland
them,andthedirectionandmovementof
usesarefrequentlyneareachotheror
thewolfandLittleRedRidingHood;read
othersthatarefrequentlyfarapart,suchas
anaccountofPaulReveresRideand
describeitintermsoflocations(start,end) hotelsandrestaurants,schoolsorchurches,
movement,regionofaction,distance,
andbars).
direction,etc.).
1.Themeaninganduseofcomplexspatial
concepts(suchasconnectivity,networks,
hierarchies)toanalyzeandexplainthe
spatialorganizationofhumanandphysical
phenomena
A.Applyspatialconceptstoanalyze
relationshipsamongpeople,places,and
environments,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Constructvariousformsofgeographic
representations(hardcopyordigitalmaps,
tables,orcharts)toshowthespatial
patternsofphysicalandhuman
phenomena(e.g.,mapsthatdefineamajor
watershed,composedofsmaller
watershedsandthehierarchiesofstreams
andriverswithin;mapsthatshowthe
transportationnetworkswithinand
betweenpopulationcentersofvaryingsize
toshowhierarchiesofcities,towns,and
villageswithinaregion).
SpatialPatternsandProcesses
2.People,placesandenvironmentsare
distributedacrossEarthssurface
A.Describeandcomparespatial
2.Theprocesseswhichshapethepatterns
ofdistributionofpeople,places,and
environmentsoverspaceandtime
2.Complexprocesseschangeovertime
andshapepatternsofdistributionof
humanandphysicalphenomena
11
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
distributionsofpeople,places,and
environmentstoexaminepatterns,
sequences,regularitiesandirregularities,
A.Describetheprocesseswhichinfluence
thedistributionofhumanandphysical
phenomena,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
A.Analyzeandexplainchangesinpatterns
ofhumanandphysicalphenomenaasa
resultoftheinteractionsofmultiple
processes,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Observethedistributionoffeatureson
mapsorremotelysensedimagestoidentify
features,patterns,andassociationssuchas
therelationshipsbetweenvegetationand
settlementpatterns;therelationships
betweenthelocationoffastfood
restaurantsandroadintersections;the
relationshipsandpatternsofpopulation
distributionatarangeofscales.
Developtimelines,maps,andgraphsto
describehowchangingtransportationand
communicationtechnologyinfluencethe
distributionofhumanandphysical
phenomena(e.g.,comparehistoricroutes
West,suchastheSantaFeTrailandRoute
66withcurrentmodesandroutesoftravel
anddiscusshowthesehaveinfluenced
settlement;maptheflowofemigrantsto
theU.S.byethnicgroup,date,factors
causingemigration,portsofentry,and
settlementpatterns,comparingearly
immigrationtocurrentimmigration;
considerthechangingfocusand
developmentofnewtechnologiesto
identifyenergyresourcesandmeetenergy
needs).
Describehowthehumanandphysical
characteristicsofregionshavechanged
overtimebecauseoftheinteractionof
processes(e.g.,localeconomicpatterns
shiftasinternationaltraderelationships
evolvebecauseofglobalsocialevents;local
populationsofparticularspeciesriseorfall
becausechangesinclimateaffectthe
viabilityofaregionforotherspecies.
SpatialModels
3.Modelscanrepresenthumanand/or
physicalfeaturesandsystems(e.g.,
hydrologiccycle(waterbudget),urban
growth)
3.Modelscanrepresentspatialprocesses
whichshapehumanandphysicalsystems
A.Usemodelstoillustrateanddescribe
theprocessesthatdrivehumanand
physicalsystems(e.g.,diffusion,
A.Usesimplemodelsofhumanand/or
migration,andplatetectonics),as
physicalsystemstodescribetheir
properties,asexemplifiedbybeingableto exemplifiedbybeingableto
3.Modelsareusedtounderstandthe
structureanddynamicsofgeographic
processesdrivinghumanandphysical
systems
A.Usemodelsofhumanand/orphysical
systems(e.g.,urbanstructure,sediment
transport,andspatialinteraction)to
12
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Createamodel(asimplifieddepictionofa
realobject)ofEarthtodescribeitsshape,
size,keyfeatures(land,oceans)and
mechanismsusedtoapportionEarth
(equator,poles,PrimeMeridian);createa
modelofthecommunityinwhichstudents
livetoidentifydifferentlanduses,
characterizeregions(residential,industrial;
retail)anddiscussprocessesofchange(old
partsoftown;newpartsoftown,
transitionsbetween).
Usemodelstotracediffusion,movement,
andmigration,suchasusingavirtualglobe
toplotpoints,showingthespreadof
culturaltraits(e.g.,language,religion,or
customs)fromoneculturetoanother;
usinga3Dmodeltoshowanddescribe
Earthsphysicalprocesses(e.g.,flowof
water,platetectonics,glacialactionand
deposition);diagrammingthespatial
spreadofacontagiousdiseasethrougha
population(e.g.,spreadofcholerain
EnglandinmidnineteenthCentury,AIDSin
Asiainthe1990s,H1N1(swineflu)globally
in2009).
analyzeandexplainthespatialfeatures,
processes,andorganizationofpeople,
places,andenvironments,asexemplified
bybeingableto
Usemodelstoexplainhowphysicaland
humanfeaturescanreflecttheinfluence
thosespatialprocesseshaveonthem(e.g.,
howurbanizationmightreflecttheimpact
oftransportation;howhousingpricesin
neighborhoodsmightreflectthedistance
andimpactofenvironmentalamenities
suchaswaterbodies,parks,orvistas;how
vegetationgradientsmightreflectchanges
ingrowingconditions).
13
EssentialElement:PlacesandRegions
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD4
THEPHYSICALANDHUMANCHARACTERISTICSOFPLACES
Peopleslivesaregroundedinparticularplaces.Wecome
fromaplace,weliveinaplace,andwepreserveand
exhibitfierceprideoverplaces.Placesusuallyhavenames
andboundaries,andincludecontinents,islands,countries,
regions,state,cities,neighborhoods,villages,and
uninhabitedareas.Placesarehumancreationsandthe
geographicallyinformedpersonmustunderstandthe
genesis,evolution,andmeaningofplaces.
Placesarejointlycharacterizedbytheirphysicaland
humanproperties.Theirphysicalcharacteristicsinclude
landforms,climate,soils,andhydrologywhilethingslike
language,religion,politicalsystems,economicsystems,
andpopulationdistributionareexamplesofhuman
characteristics.Placeschangeovertimeasbothphysical
andhumanprocessesmodifythecharacteristicsofaplace.
Placeschangeinsizeandcomplexityaswellasaresultof
newknowledge,ideas,humanmigrations,climatic
changes,orpoliticalconflicts.Placesdisappearandare
renamed(e.g.,CzechoslovakiabecomingtheCzech
RepublicandBombaybeingrenamedMumbai).
influenceshowpeopleunderstandotherpeoples,cultures,
andregionsoftheworld.
Standard4includesthreethemes:1)Physical
Characteristics;2)HumanCharacteristics;and3)Places.
Studentsmustunderstandhowphysicalcharacteristicand
humancharacteristicsdefineorgivemeaningtoplaces.
Theyneedtounderstandthatthesecharacteristicsvary
fromplacetoplaceandchangeovertime.Understanding
thesethreethemesenablesstudentstocomprehendand
appreciateboththesimilaritiesanddifferencesofplaces
intheirowncommunity,state,country,aswellasthe
planet.
Knowingthephysicalandhumancharacteristicsoftheir
ownplacesinfluenceshowpeoplethinkaboutwhothey
are,becausetheiridentityisinextricablywoundupwith
theirplaceinlifeandtheworld.Personalidentity,
communityidentity,andnationalidentityarerootedin
andattachedtoaplace.Knowingaboutotherplaces
14

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendof grade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
1.Placeshavephysicalcharacteristics
A.Describeandcomparethephysical
characteristicsofplacesatavarietyof
scales,localtoglobal,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Createandlabelmodelsofdifferentland
formsand/orbodiesofwater(e.g.,lakes,
islands,peninsulas,mountains,valleys).
1.Physicalprocesseschangethe
characteristicsofplaces
A.Analyzephysicalprocessesthatchange
places,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
1.Physicalcharacteristicsofplacespresent
bothopportunitiesandobstaclesfor
people
A.Analyzephysicalcharacteristicsthat
resultinopportunitiesforpeople,as
Compareandcontrastphysicalfeatures
mapsanddigitalimagestodeterminethe
Comparearidandhumidclimateregions
typeoferosion(e.g.,watererosionina
rivervalley,winderosionwithdunes,ocean regardingtheirsuitabilityfordifferenttypes
coastline).
ofagriculture(e.g.,herding,cotton,rice,
wheat).
B.Analyzephysicalcharacteristicsthat
resultinobstaclesforpeople,as
Evaluatephysicalsiteandsituationfactors
whichcouldlimitormakeimpossiblethe
buildingofvariousprojects(e.g.,airport,
dam,windmillfarm).
HumanCharacteristics
2.Thehumancharacteristicsofplaces
A.Describeandcomparethehuman
characteristicsofplacesfromlocalto
global,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Analyzeavarietyofvisualmaterials,data
2.Humangroupsalterplacesindistinctive
ways
2.Thathumancharacteristicsofplaces
changeovertime
3.Thatsocial,cultural,andeconomic
processesshapethehumancharacteristics
ofplaces
A.Identifythewayshumansmodifythe
landscapebyanalyzingthehuman
15
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendof grade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
sources,andnarratives,suchas
photographs,pictures,tables,charts,and
newspaperstories,todescribethehuman
characteristicsofplacesatavarietyof
scales(e.g.,populationpatterns,typesof
buildings,settlementpatterns,languages,
ethnicgroups,andreligiousbeliefs).
Examinedigitalimagesandexplainthe
changesthathumanshavemadetoa
landscape(e.g.,landuse,irrigatedfarming;
buildings,transportation).
A.Describethewaysplaceschangewith
thediffusionofpeopleandideas,as
Analyzeurbanandrurallandscapesusing
digitalimagesand/ormapstocompare
changesovertime(e.g.,foodpreferences,
culturalvalues,religiousinstitutions,
linguisticpatterns).
B.Explainthatplaceschangewiththe
introductionofhumanprocesses,as
Comparechangesintransportation,
economicandproductpatternsinplaces
withgeographicsiteandsituation
characteristics(e.g.,northeasternUnited
StatesandsoutheasternCanadabeforeand
afteropeningtheSt.LawrenceSeaway;
SingaporeasaFreeTradeZone).
Places
3.Peopleattachspecialmeaningtoplaces
A.Identifythehumancharacteristicsofa
placethatgiveitspecialmeaning,as
Collectnamesofplacesthatpeopleholdin
specialregardandcomparetheplacesfor
similaritiesanddifferences(e.g.,parks,
placesofworship,homesoffriendsand
3.Humanandthephysicalcharacteristics
ofplacesaffectpeoplesattachmenttoa
place
4.Peopleshapethehumancharacteristics
ofplacesandplacesinfluencetheviewsof
people
4.Theroleoftechnologyinshapingthe
5.Humansusetechnologytomodifythe
physicalcharacteristicsofplacestomore
closelymeettheirrealandperceiveduses
oftheenvironment
A.Identifyphysicalcharacteristicofa
placethatarehelpfulorattractiveto
people,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Examinetheeffectsofnewtechnologies
16
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendof grade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
relatives,icecreamparlor,fishingspots).
Usedigitalimagesandmapstoidentify
andlocatethephysicalbenefitsor
attractionsofaplace(e.g.,farmfields,
nationalpark,streams,mountainvalley,
beaches).
ontherateandintensityofchange
B.Describethephysicalcharacteristics
thatgiveaplacespecialmeaning,as
Analyzetheeffectsofinformationavailable
throughinteractivetechnologiestoattract
(pull)ordiscourage(push)peoplefromone
placetoanother(e.g.,useoftheinternet
Compareandcontrastnatural
B.Identifyhumancharacteristicsofaplace andcellphonestoacquireinformationon
settings/landformsthatholdsignificant
thatarehelpfulorattractivetopeople,as thedesirabilityofadestination).
meaningfordifferentculturalgroups.
B.Describehowpeopleusetechnologyto
C.Examinethewaystechnologychangesa
modifytheenvironmenttomeettheir
Classifyexamplesfoundonthewebor
place,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
othermediaofhumancharacteristicsthat
needs,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Analyzethewaystechnologyisusedto
appearhelpfulorattractivetopeoplewho
shapetheenvironment(e.g.,underground
Evaluatetheprosandconsofsystems
liveinorvisitaplace(e.g.,community
sprinklers,airconditioning,airportsetc.).
developedbypeople(e.g.,watersystems
organizations,employmentinformation,
developedinthedesertsouthwestofthe
recreationalfacilities,publicservice
UnitedStatestoaccommodategrowing
agencies).
populationwiththeenvironmentalimpacts
ofthesedevelopments;effectsontheAral
C.Evaluatehowhumansinteractwith
physicalenvironmentstoformattachment Seaofwaterdiversionsystemsfromrivers
toplaces,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
forirrigatedagriculture).
Analyzetheattachmentbypeopletoa
naturalplaceortoahumanmadeplace
(e.g.,thephysicalsiteofareligious
pilgrimage,suchastheGangesortoaplace
constructedbyhumanssuchasashopping
mall).
D.Explainhowpeoplechangeplacesusing
differenttechnologies,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Analyzetheimpactthatdifferent
technologiescouldhaveonthe
environmentonaplace,suchasaforest,
17
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendof grade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
urbanenvironment(e.g.,humanpowered
handtools,animalpoweredtools,small
mechanicaltools,andlargemachinesused
forconstructionortoclearthelandof
naturalvegetation).
18
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD5
THATPEOPLECREATEREGIONSTOINTERPRETEARTH'SCOMPLEXITY
Regionisaconceptthatisusedtoidentifyandorganize
Aseconddefinitionisthefunctionalregion.Itisorganized
areasofEarthssurfaceforvariouspurposes(e.g.,
aroundanodeorfocalpoint,withthesurroundingareas
understanding,management,planning,etc.).Aregionhas
linkedtothatnodebytransportationsystems,
certaincharacteristicsthatgiveitameasureof
communicationsystems,orothereconomicassociations
cohesivenessanddistinctivenessandthatsetitapartfrom
involvingactivitiessuchasmanufacturingandretail
otherregions.Regionsarehumanconstructswhose
trading.Chicagoisafocalpointfortransportationinthe
boundariesandcharacteristicsarederivedfromsetsof
northcentralregionoftheUnitedStateswithitshighways,
specificcriteriaandwhosefunctionistoorganizeEarths
railways,GreatLakesshipping,airlines,and
complexsurfaceonthebasisofthepresenceorabsence
telecommunications.Onefunctionalregionforglobal
oftheselectedphysicalandhumancharacteristics.They
businessisLondon,UKwithitsbankingandlarge
canvaryinscalefromlocaltoglobal;overlaporbe
corporateheadquarters.
mutuallyexclusive;benestedintoahierarchy(e.g.,
Thethirdtypeofregion,theperceptualregion,isbasedon
counties,states,countries);exhaustivelypartitionthe
humanfeelingsandattitudesaboutareasandistherefore
entireworldorcaptureonlyselectedportionsofit.
definedbypeoplessharedsubjectiveimagesofthose
areas.Thus,southernCalifornia,Dixie,theupperMidwest,
Geographersdefineregionsinthreebasicways.Thefirst
typeistheformalregioncharacterizedbyacommon
theRiviera,andAustralianOutbackareperceptualregions.
humanproperty,suchasthepresenceofpeoplewho
Thesespatialunitsarewithoutprecisebordersoreven
commonlyacceptedregionalcharacteristicsandnames.
shareaparticularlanguage,religion,nationality,political
identityorculture,orbyacommonphysicalproperty,
Standard5isbasedonfourorganizingthemes:1)Regions,
suchasthepresenceofaparticulartypeofclimate,
2)Regionalchange,3)Connectionsbetweenregions,and
landform,orvegetation.TheRockyMountainregion,the
4)Regionsasplacesforgeographicstudy.Studentsmust
Cornbelt,andKurdistanortheKurdishregioncovering
understandhowgeographersuseandanalyzeregionsto
partsofIran,Iraq,SyriaandTurkeyareallexamplesof
interpretandmanageEarthscomplexity.
formalregions.
19

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Places
1.Theconceptofregionasanareaof
Earth'ssurfacewithunifyinggeographic
characteristics
1.Thatregionsarewaystoorganizeand
analyzeareasofEarth'ssurface
1.Criteriaareusedtoorganizeregions
A.Explaincriteriathatcanbeusedto
A.Identifythecriteriausedtomapformal, organizearegion,asexemplifiedbybeing
A.Describeregionsbyusingphysical
functional,andperceptualregions,as
ableto
characteristicsascriteria,asexemplified
Identifycriteriaandconstructdifferent
bybeingableto
Arrangeaseriesofmapsshowingdifferent mapsofaregion(ormapsofmultiple
Usephysicalmapsandwebbased
regionsintoformal,functional,and
regions)usingdifferentdatasets(e.g.,
aerial/satelliteimagestoidentifyphysical
perceptualclassifications(e.g.,physical
schoolathleticconferences;marketregion
regions(e.g.,mountains,plains,river
featuresmapsasformal;weathermapsas foramallorotherbusiness;French
languageregioninCanada;climaticregion;
valleys,lakes,plateaus,peninsulas,islands). functional;holidaydestinationmapsas
similarplacenames).
perceptual).
B.Describeregionsbyusingthe
B.Demonstratewithmapshowregions
characteristicsofhumanactivityas
B.Constructmapsofformal,functional,
criteria,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
andperceptualregions,asexemplifiedby changeasthecriteriachanges,as
beingableto
Identifyanddescriberegionsthatarebased
onthespatialpatternsofhumanactivity
Drawmapsofregionsbasedoncriteria
Analyzetheeffectsofchangesinthe
(e.g.,placestoskiorsnowboard,vacation
(e.g.,continentalregionsuchasNorth
criteriausedforregionalmaps(e.g.,types
spots,agriculture,Chinatown).
Americaisformal,politicalregionsuchasa ofeconomicactivities,placenames,ethnic
groups,agriculturalproducts,regional
countryorstateisformal;newspaper
circulationareaandcommuterroutesinto foods,naturalvegetation,climate).
citiesarefunctionalregions,sunny
Californiaisaperceptualregion).
RegionalChange
2.Thewaysinwhichregionschange
A.Describechangesinthephysicaland
2.Theprocessesandreasonsforregional
changes
2.Consequencesofchangeswithin
regions
20
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
humancharacteristicsofregionsthat
occurovertimeandidentifythe
consequencesofsuchchanges,as
A.Analyzespatialandhistoricalchanges
thataffectregions,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
A.Analyzethechangingcharacteristicsof
regions,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Createtwomuralscontrastinglifeina
regioninthepastwithlifeinthesame
regioninthepresent(e.g.,populationsize,
ethniccomposition,culturalcharacteristics
suchaslanguage,economicactivities,
transportation,cuisine,ormeansof
recreation;changesinlanduseasaregion
transformsfromruraltosuburbanto
urban;changesinthetrafficpatternsafter
amajormallorattractionisintroduced,
suchasathemepark).
Compareandcontrastprimarysource
documents,maps,airphotos,andweb
basedimagesshowingaplacebeforeand
afteraparticularevent(e.g.,changingland
use;migration,buildingofacityor
subdivision;developingfarmland;building
roadways).
B.Identifyandexplainthehumanand
physicalfactorswhichresultinchanges
withinregions,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Compareandcontrasttheconsequencesof
changeonregions(e.g.,heavyindustrial
beltstorustbelts;pristineregionsto
environmentaldegradation;transformation
fromanagriculturaltoamanufacturingand
servicebase;remoteplacesintroducing
sustainableadventuretourism).
Compareandcontrastphotographs,maps,
andwebbasedimagesofthechangesin
regionsasaresultoftheactivitiesof
peopleandnaturalprocesses(e.g.,
increasesordecreasesinpopulation;
naturaldisasterssuchasdroughtorriver
flooding;activitiessuchasdeforestation).
ConnectionsbetweenRegions
3.Regionscanbeconnected
3.Thespatialconnectionsandinteractions 3.Thewaysinwhichphysicalandhuman
regionalsystemsareinterconnected
amongregions
A.Discussthedifferentwaysregionsare
connected,asexemplifiedbybeingableto A.Analyzehowandwhyregionsinteract,
Createillustratedmapstoshowtheways
Usedatatablestoexplaintheinteractions
regionsareconnected(e.g.,highways,
rivers,railways,oceangoingshippinglines, amongregions(e.g.,theamountoftradein
A.Compareandcontrastthedynamic
connectionswithinandamongthepartsof
aregionalsystem,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
21
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
airways,telephone,andinternet).
monetaryortonnagedata;migrationof
peopleamongregions;Internet
connectionsamongregions).
Explainhowphysicalandhuman
environmentsformwebsofinteracting
systemswithinandamongregions(e.g.,the
waythatriversystemsconnectdifferent
regionssuchastheMississippi,Yangtze,
NileRivers;Europeanrailwaysystem;
navigationcanals).
RegionsasPlacesforGeographicStudy
4.Geographicissuesoccurwithinregions
A.Identifyissueswithinaregion,as
Selectandmapinformationfrom
newspapersandwebnewssourcesto
identifyandlocateregionalissues(e.g.,the
sharingofwaterresources,garbage
disposal,transportation,landuses).
4.Regionsareusedtoorganizeand
explaingeographicissues
4.Regionsareusedasthebasistoanalyze
globalgeographicissues
A.Compareandcontrastgeographic
issuesindifferentregions,asexemplified
bybeingableto
A.Explainhowglobalgeographicissues
impactregionsindifferentways,as
Analyzereportsonissuesinseveralregions
toidentifyandexplainwaystheyaresimilar
anddifferent(e.g.,landusechangein
tropicalforests;thegrowthofmegacities;
populationmigrationwithincountries;
coastalandriverflooding;natural
disasters).
Generatepossibleeconomicoutcomesfor
differentregionsasaresultofpossiblerises
inoceanlevels(e.g.,lossoffinancial
centersalonglowlyingcoastalareassuch
asNewYorkCity,lossofentireislandstates
suchasVanuatu).
22
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD6
HOWCULTUREANDEXPERIENCEINFLUENCEPEOPLE'SPERCEPTIONSOFPLACESANDREGIONS
Peoplehaveuniqueperceptionsofplacesbasedontheir
Someplacesandregionsholdgreatsignificanceforcertain
interpretationofaplaceslocation,extent,characteristics,
groupsofpeople,butnotforothers.Forexample,for
andsignificanceastheseviewsareinfluencedbytheirown
MuslimsthecityofMeccaisthemostholyofreligious
cultureandlifeexperiences.Ingeography,thereisalways
places,whereasfornonMuslimsithasonlyhistoricaland
amixtureofobjectiveandsubjectiverealmsanda
culturalsignificance.Cultureandexperienceshapebelief
geographicallyinformedpersonneedstounderstandthe
systems,whichinturninfluencepeoplesperceptionsof
roleofbothrealmsandhowtheyrelatetoeachother.This
placeandregionsthroughouttheirlives.Studentsmust
combinationofcultureandlifeexperiencesplaysavital
understandthefactorsthatinfluencetheirownperception
ofplacesandregions,payingspecialattentiontothe
roleintheperceptionsthatanindividualhasaboutplaces
effectsthatpersonalandgrouppointsofviewcanhaveon
andregions.
theirunderstandingtheworldsofothergroupsand
Sharedbeliefsandactionstiedtoculture,language,
cultures.
ethnicity,race,andreligionreflectthefactthatindividuals
liveinsocialandculturalgroups.Thevaluesofthese
FourthemesorganizethegeographycontentofStandard
groupsareusuallycomplexandcoversubjectssuchas
6.Thefourthemesare:1)Personalperception;2)Cultural
ideology,religion,politics,socialstructure,andeconomic
influences;3)Icons,symbols,andstereotypes;and4)
structure.Theyinfluencehowthepeopleinaparticular
Multiplememberships.Throughanunderstandingofhow
groupperceiveboththemselvesandothergroups.The
peopleperceiveplacesandregions,studentscanincrease
significancethatanindividualorgroupattachestoa
theirunderstandingofothergroupsaswellasavoidthe
particularplaceorregionmaybeinfluencedbyfeelingsof
dangersofegocentricandethnocentricstereotypingin
belongingoralienation,asenseofbeinganinsideror
ordertoengageinaccurateandsensitiveanalysisofplaces
outsider,asenseofhistoryandtraditionorofnoveltyand
andregions.
unfamiliarity.
23

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
PersonalPerception
1.Personalexperiencesaffectour
perceptionofcommunities
1.Perceptionsaffectthewaypeopleview
placesandregions
1.Reasonsforchangingperceptionsof
placesandregions
A.Describetheirownplaceorregionin
differentways,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
A.Explainwhydifferentindividualsand
A.Examinethewaysinwhichpeople
peopleviewplacesandregionsdifferently, changetheirviewsofplacesandregionsas
aresultofcultural,economicandpolitical
conditions,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Compareandcontrasttheviewspeople
haveofplacesandregionsbasedon
Analyzetheeffectsofincome,longerlife
experiences(e.g.,studentsmayhaveviews expectancyandattitudesthatinfluence
wherepeoplechoosetolive(e.g.,aging
ofalocalplace,suchasapark;viewsofa
BabyboomersintheU.S.choosetolivein
placewherestudentsgatherinschool;
recreationalfields;placeswherestudents
condominiumsorapartmentswherethey
havetraveled,suchasanothercity,state,
donothavetomaintainyards,landscaping,
country).
etc.;retirementcommunitiesinArizona
andFlorida;travelandentertainment
opportunities).
Createaposter,collage,ormaptoreflect
thestudent'sperceptionoftheir
communityorregion(e.g.,myhometown,
historicsites,recreationareas).
CulturalInfluences
2.Peopleviewplacesindifferentways
basedontheirsocialandcultural
preferences
2.Peopleofdifferentethnicitiesand
genderhavedifferentperceptionsof
placesandregions
A.Compareandcontrastthewayspeople
viewdifferentplacesintheircommunity,
Makeandexchangedrawingsandsketch
mapswithclassmatestocompareand
2.Peopleviewplacesandregionswithin
culturalandsocialcontexts
A.Explainhowindividualsviewplacesand
A.Comparethewaysinwhichpeopleview regionsonthebasisoftheirstageoflife,
gender,socialclass,ethnicity,values,
andinteractwithplacesandregions,as
beliefsystems,andaccesstotechnology,
Compareandcontrasttheinfluencesof
culturaloriginsonperceptionsofplaces
Analyzeandexplainwhysomeplaceshave
24
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
contrastperceptionsoftheircommunityor
region(e.g.,similaritiesanddifferencesin
detailsremembered,emphasesdepicted,
positiveornegativereactions).
andregions(e.g.,religionandplacesof
worship,suchasIslamandmosques;rural
peoplehaveadifferentviewofcitiesthan
dourbanresidents;insomeculturesplaces
wherewomensocializearedifferentfrom
placeswheremensocialize).
manyfemalespresent(e.g.,suburbsinthe
1950sand1960swerehighlyfeminine
duringthedaysuchashusbandswereat
workinthecities,childrenwereatschool,
mostwomenwerehomebeing
homemakers;Africanvillageswhere
womenandchildrenremaininvillages
whilethemenmigratelongdistancesfor
employment).
Icons,Symbols,andStereotypes
3.Placesandregionsserveascultural
symbols
3.Stereotypesaffectpeoplesviewsof
placesandregions
A.Identifyculturalsymbolswithintheir
ownplaceorregion,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
A.Explainthatstereotypesinfluencea
group'sbeliefsaboutanotherplaceor
region,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Definestereotypingandprovideexamples
ofviewsofplacesandregionsthatare
basedonstereotypes(e.g.:stereotyping
preventspeoplefrombeingobjectiveabout
placesandregion,suchasdesertsare
alwayshot;rainforestsarealwaysinthe
tropics;citiesaremoredangerousthan
otherplaces;peoplelivingincertainplaces
arelesscapableofeconomicdevelopment)
Examinephotosofculturalsymbolsinthe
communityandexplainhoweachsymbol
helpstodefinetheplaceorregion(e.g.,
sportsstadium,communitylibrary,train
station,temple,placesofworship).
B.Describeculturalsymbolsfromother
regions,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Usetechnologytocompareand
contrastculturalsymbolsfoundinother
regionswiththosefoundinthelocalregion
(e.g.,Fastfoodrestaurants,architectural
styles,agriculturalpractices,modesof
transportation).
B.Explainthaticonsandsymbolsmay
leadtostereotypingofpeopleandplaces,
Identifyexamplesofsymbolsassociated
withpeopleandplacesthatleadto
3.Empathyincontrasttoethnocentrismis
importanttothestudyofplacesand
diversecultures
A.Discussempathyandethnocentrismin
thestudyofplacesandcultures,as
Discussthesimilaritiesbetweencurrent
andhistoricalissuesindifferentplaces
(e.g.,apartheidinSouthAfricawiththe
castesysteminIndia;indenturedworkers
intheearlyAmericancolonieswith
sweatshopsintheUSinthe2000s;arrival
andsuccessionofdifferentethnicgroupsin
urbanregions).
B.Discussdifferentperspectivesonissues
andhowthoseperspectivesdifferfrom
thestudentsown,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
25
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
stereotyping(e.g.,Chinesestraw"coolie
hats"areseldomseeninChina,butis
describedasacommongarment;ILuvNY
symbolizestheattractivenessofNewYork
City).
Examineacurrentissueorissuesusing
bothethnocentrismandculturalrelativism
(e.g.,popculturepracticessuchaswearing
bluejeans,usingmobilephonesordrinking
alcoholcomparedtofolkgroups[Amish,
Mennonites]whorejectthesepractices).
MultipleMemberships
4.Themultiplelayersofcitizenshipfor
4.Theroleandresponsibilitiesof
citizenshipwithinspatialboundariesofthe peoplelivingwithinsupranationalregions
community
A.Discussthevariouscitizenshiprolesthat
A.Identifythespatialboundariesinwhich resultfromcultural,economic,and
civicparticipationtakesplace(home,
politicalintegration,asexemplifiedby
school,neighborhood,etc.),asexemplified beingableto
bybeingableto
Explainthatapersonlivinginacommunity
Compareandcontrasthowcitizenship
isalsoacitizenofdifferentlayersofregions
responsibilitieschangeaswemovefrom
(e.g.,theresidentofBarcelona,Spainis
alsoacitizenofCatalonia,Spain,the
onespatialboundarytoanother(e.g.,
helpingtocleantheirhome,participationin EuropeanUnion,andEurope,witheach
aschoolbeautificationproject,becominga rolebeingdifferent;throughthedayand
memberofaserviceclubinthecommunity, weekapersonisamemberofahome,
recycling).
school,workplace,shoppingcenter,
Internetcommunity).
B.Explaintheeffectsofglobalizationon
theconceptofglobalcitizenship,as
Explainglobalization'simpactoncommon
idealsforpeopleinallregions(e.g.,quality
oflife;sustainability;foodsecurity,
4.Citizenshiprolesmaychangeduetothe
forcesofsupranationalismanddevolution
A.Identifythevariousregionalandglobal
supranationalisticmembershiproles
(NATO,NAFTA,EU,AU,LAS,ASEAN,etc.),
Explainthereasonsforthechanging
membershipandindividualcitizenshiproles
oftheregionalandglobalsupranational
organizations(e.g.,countriesjoiningthe
EuropeanUnionforeconomicreasons;
plansformembershipgrowthintheFree
TradeAgreementoftheAmericas;regional
variationinsupportofandoppositionto
supranationalisticmemberships).
B.Contrastandcontrastexamplesof
devolution,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Examinetheregionalvariationin
devolutionmovementsandexplainhow
theseprocessesmayplayoutinother
regions(e.g.,howdevolutiondifferedin
26
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
internationalcooperation;global
investmentstoimprovehealthcare).
WalesfromYugoslavia;Swazilandand
SouthAfrica;Chechnya,Kashmir).
C.Analyzeandexplainhowglobalization
andinterdependencehaveshapednew
cultural,economic,andpoliticalentities,
andaffecteddifferentfunctionsof
citizenship,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Examineinterdependentrelationshipsand
changingcitizenshipcharacteristicsamong
andbetweenpoliticalentities(e.g.,one
passportformembersoftheEuropean
Union;generallyfreeflowofpeopleand
goodsbetweentheU.S.andCanada;dual
andmultiplepassportsholders).
D.Identifyandexplainexamplesof
benefitsandresponsibilitiesforcitizensof
supranationalorganizations,as
Compareandcontrastthemembership
requirementsandresponsibilitiesofvarious
supranationalorganizations(e.g.,issuesfor
prospectiveEuropeanUnionmember
statesmayincludehumanrightslaws,
democraticproceduresofhowpolitical
bodiesandpositionsareelected,economic
solvency).
27
EssentialElement:PhysicalSystems
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD7
THEPHYSICALPROCESSESTHATSHAPETHEPATTERNSOFEARTH'SSURFACE
Thephysicalenvironmentisthestageforallhuman
buildingstheyconstruct,thetravelnetworkstheydevelop,
andhowtheygenerallyconducttheirlives.Giventhe
activity.Physicalsystemscreate,maintain,andmodifythe
featuresthatconstituteEarthssurface.Thegeographically
uncertaintrajectoryandeffectsofglobalclimatechange,
informedpersonmustunderstandthatfoursystems
knowledgeaboutthefactorsthatinfluenceweatherand
generatethosefeatures.Theycanbegroupedinto
climateisimportantforbothpersonalandgovernmental
categories:theatmosphere,thebiosphere,the
decisionmaking.Itbecomesapublicpolicyissuethat
hydrosphereandthelithosphere.Recognizingthe
mustbeaddressedbygovernments,resultinginactions
interactionswithinandamongthesefourcomponents
thatdeterminethesafetyandeconomicwellbeingof
offersinsightsonhowEarthservesasthehomeofall
millionsofpeopleacrosstheglobe.Thus,reasonedand
responsiblepoliticaldecisionsmustderivefromaclear
livingthingsplants,animals,andhumans.
understandingoftheinteractionsamongofhowEarths
AlmostallofEarthsenergycomesfromthesun.The
physicalsystemswork,aswellastheprocessescreating
synchronizedEarthSunrelationshipisessentialforthe
them.
planettobehabitableandcapableofsupportinglifeaswe
knowit.Earthspositionrelativetothesunaffectsevents
Standard7isorganizedaroundthreethemes:1)the
andconditionsineverypartoftheworld.Theamountof
componentsofEarthsphysicalsystems,2)EarthSun
solarenergyaplacereceivesdependsonthecyclically
relationships,and3)physicalprocesses.Together,this
changinganglesoftheSunsrays.Theseasonsresultfrom
geographycontentprovidesthebasicunderstandingof
thetiltofEarthanditsrevolutionaroundtheSunwhich
thephysicalforcesshapingtheplanetweinhabitandmust
resultsinvariableheatingpatterns,andthussignificantly
sustain.
influencesclimateandweatheraswellashumanactivity.
Understandinghowphysicalsystemsworkcanimpactthe
choicespeoplemakeaboutwheretheylive,thetypesof
28
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
ComponentsofEarthsPhysicalSystems
1.ThecomponentsofEarth'sphysical
systems(theatmosphere,biosphere,
hydrosphere,andlithosphere)
A.IdentifythecomponentsofEarth's
differentphysicalsystems,asexemplified
bybeingableto
Identifythedifferentpartsofthe
lithosphereandexplainhowtheEarth's
crustmovesandchangesovertime(e.g.,
volcanoes,mountainbuilding,andocean
ridgespreadingresultingincontinental
movement).
1.ThefourbasiccomponentsofEarths
physicalsystems(theatmosphere,
biosphere,hydrosphere,andlithosphere)
areinterdependent
1.TheinteractionsofEarth'sphysical
systems(theatmosphere,biosphere,
hydrosphere,andlithosphere)arevariable
acrossspaceandtime
A.Explainpatternsintheenvironment
A.DescribethewaysinwhichEarth's
thatresultfromEarth'sphysicalprocesses, physicalprocessesaredynamicand
interactive,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Describetheoceancirculationsystemand
thewayitaffectsclimate(e.g.,North
AtlanticDriftandthemildclimateof
WesternEurope;climaticeffectsofElNino
orLaNina).
B.Analyzeresultingpatternsofphysical
featuresduetoEarthsphysicalprocesses,
Comparemapsofthetectonicplatesand
selectedmountainrangesandpredict
locationsofothermountains(including
volcanic)basedontheplateboundaries.
Identifytheconditionsthatcausechanges
inclimateandtheconsequenteffectson
oceanlevels,agriculturalproductivity,and
landuse.
B.Describehowphysicalprocessesaffect
differentregionsoftheworld,as
Describethephysicalprocessesthatoccur
indryenvironments(e.g.,desertification
andsoildegradation,flashfloods,dust
storms,sandmovement,soilerosion,and
saltaccumulationinthesoil).
EarthSunRelationships
2.EarthSunrelationsaffectconditionson
Earth
2.EarthSunrelationshipsaffectphysical
processesandpatternsonEarth
A.DescribehowEarth'spositionrelative
totheSunaffectsconditionsonEarth,as
A.ExplainhowEarthSunrelationships
affectEarth'sphysicalprocessesand
A.ExplainhowvariabilityinEarthSun
createphysicalpatterns,asexemplifiedby relationshipsaffectEarth'sphysical
2.EarthSunrelationshipsarevariable
overtimeresultinginchangesintheroleit
playsinphysicalprocessesonEarth
29
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
beingableto
Shinealightdirectlyontheequatorofa
globenotingthechangeinthelocation(on
thetropiclines)andangleoftheraysasthe
globeismovedtorepresentthedifferent
seasonsandexplaintheresultsofuneven
heatingonEarth'ssurface.
Locateandexplaintheoccurrencesof
weatherphenomenaduetoannual
changesinEarthSunrelationships(e.g.,
hurricanesinthefallinsubtropicalareas;
monsoonrainfall;tornadoesinthemid
latitudesduringthespringandsummer).
processesovertime,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
ExplainhowcyclicchangesintheEarth's
orbitresultinchangesinheatingwhich
resultinclimaticchangessuchasaniceage
andglaciationofEarth'ssurface.
PhysicalProcesses
3.Physicalprocessesshapefeatureson
Earth'ssurface
3.Physicalprocessesgeneratepatterns
acrossEarth'ssurface
3.PhysicalprocesseschangeEarths
surfaceatdifferentrates
A.Explainhowphysicalprocesseshelp
shapethepatternsoffeaturesonEarth's
surface,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Locateandanalyzethepatternsthat
occuronEarth'ssurfaceasaresultof
physicalprocesses,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
A.Predicttheresultingchangesofa
specificphysicalprocessoperatingon
Earth'ssurface,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Providepicturesoflandformssuchas
canyons,mesas,anddeltasandidentifythe Locatelakesresultingfromglaciationinthe Locateandexplainthephysicalprocesses
U.S.ortheriftvalleyinEastAfricaand
physicalprocesswhichshapedthe
formingislands(e.g.,HawaiianIslands)or
landform.
explaintheresultingpatternswhichoccur. increasingtheelevationofmountains(e.g.,
HimalayanMountains)duetoplate
tectonics.
30
EssentialElement:PhysicalSystems
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD8
THECHARACTERISTICSANDSPATIALDISTRIBUTIONOFECOSYSTEMSANDBIOMESOFEARTHSSURFACE
droughts,orbysuchhumaninterventionsasovergrazing
Ecosystemsandbiomesaredefinedbyspecificplantand
animalcommunitiesinteractingwiththephysical
grasslandsandclearingrainforestswithoutan
environmentandareunevenlydistributedonEarths
understandingandthereforeregardfortheenvironmental
surface.Bothareintegralpartsofthebiosphereand
consequences.
interactwiththeatmosphere,hydrosphere,and
Knowinghowecosystemsandbiomesfunctionwillenable
lithospheretoformareasvaryinginsize,shape,scaleand
studentstomakeinformeddecisionsaboutthe
complexity.Anecosystem,forexample,mightbeassmall
sustainableusesofthenaturalworldinthefuture.
asastandofoaktreesorapond,oraslargeandcomplex
Becausehumaninducedglobalclimatechangeisareality
asavastdesertorrainforest.Ecosystemsthatshare
withthepotentialofinflictingunimaginedoutcomeson
similarcharacteristicsofclimateandvegetationcanbe
theplanet,thedegreetowhichpresentandfuture
groupedtogethertoformglobalscaleregionsknownas
generationsunderstandthecriticalroletheymustplayin
biomes.ThesebiomesincludeEarth'stropicaland
maintaininghealthyecosystemsandbiomeswill
temperateforests,savannasandscrublands,grasslands,
determine,inlargemeasure,thequalityofhumanlifeon
deserts,tundra,andocean.
Earth.
Allelementsoftheenvironment,includingthehuman,are
Standard8isorganizedaroundthreethemes:1)the
partofmanydifferentbutnestedecosystemsandthe
componentsofecosystems,2)thecharacteristicsand
biomesofwhichtheyareapart.Changesinone
distributionofecosystems,and3)thecharacteristicsand
ecosystemhavearippleeffect,withvaryingdegreesof
distributionofbiomes.Becausethewebofecological
impact,asitreachesouttootherecosystemsultimately
interdependenceisfragile,studentsmustunderstandthe
affectingthestructuresofthelargerbiomes.While
principlesofecosystemsandbiomestoformulate
ecosystemsandbiomesprovidebothstabilityandbalance
managementprogramsdesignedtosustainthe
onEarthssurface,theycanbealteredbylargescale
environment.
naturaleventssuchasvolcaniceruptionsorlongterm
31

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
ComponentsofEcosystems
1.Thecomponentsofecosystems
A.Identifythecomponentsofvarious
ecosystems,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Identifyandcomparecommunitiesof
plantsandanimalsandthephysical
environmentsinwhichtheylive(e.g.,
grasses,insects,birds,andmammalsina
grassland;giantkelp,crustaceans,fish,and
mammalsinoceankelpbeds).
B.Explaintheinteractionwithin
ecosystems,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Illustrateafoodchainorwebsoffood
chainsbysequentiallyarrangingpicturesor
samplesofavarietyoflivingthings(e.g.,
fungi,insects,plants,animals).
1.Componentsinecosystemsarecyclic
andinterdependent
1.Ecosystemsrespondtochangesinthe
physicalenvironment
A.Describehowthecomponentsof
ecosystemshavelifeorenergycycles,as
A.Explainhowphysicalprocesses
influenceecosystems,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Explaintheflowofenergyandthecycling
ofmatterthroughanecosystem(e.g.,the
foodchainorthehydrologiccycle).
Explainecosystemsintermsoftheir
characteristicsandabilitytowithstand
stresscausedbyphysicalevents(e.g.,a
riversystemadjustingtothearrivalofan
introducedinvasiveplantspecies;changes
inforestfloraandfaunaafterafire).
B.Explaintheinterdependenceof
componentsinanecosystem,as
Constructaflowcharttoillustratethe
interactionsofcomponentswithinan
ecosystem(e.g.,watercycle;oxygenand
carbondioxideexchange;producers,
consumers,anddecomposers).
CharacteristicsandDistributionofEcosystems
2.Thecharacteristicsanddistributionof
ecosystems
2.Physicalprocessesdeterminethe
distributionandcharacteristicsof
ecosystems
A.Identifyanddescribethecharacteristics
A.Explainhowphysicalprocesses
anddistributionofecosystems,as
influencethedistributionofecosystems,
2.Physicalprocessesimpactthe
distributionandcharacteristicsof
ecosystemsandcausechangesovertime
A.Predicthowphysicalprocessescan
causechangeovertimeinthedistribution
andcharacteristicsofecosystems,as
32
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Drawpicturestoillustratedifferentplants
andanimalsinvariouslocalecosystems
(e.g.,apond,forest,orcitypark).
Identifythesimilarityoflocations(e.g.,
latitude)andconditionsthatresultin
desertregionsaroundtheworld.
Analyzetheimpactofrisingsea
temperaturesonthedistributionand
survivalofcoralreefecosystems.
B.Evaluateecosystemsintermsoftheir
biodiversityandproductivity,as
Evaluateecosystemsfortheirlevelof
biodiversityandproductivity(e.g.,thelow
productivityofdesertsandthehigh
productivityofmidlatitudeforestsand
tropicalforests)anddescribetheir
potentialvaluetoalllivingthings(e.g.,asa
sourceofoxygen,foodandrawmaterials).
CharacteristicsandDistributionofBiomes
3.Thecharacteristicsanddistributionof
biomes
3.Thedistributionofbiomesis
determinedbyclimateandvegetation
patterns
A.Identifythecharacteristicsofbiomes,as
A.Explainwhylatitudeandelevation
influencewherebiomesoccur,as
Comparethetemperature,precipitation,
andvegetationcharacteristicsofvarious
biomes,(e.g.,deserts,grasslands,savannas, Combineadiagramshowingelevationand
temperateforests,tropicalforests,arctic
temperaturewithphotographsof
tundra).
vegetationtoconstructamodelof
altitudinalzonationforamountainlocated
B.Identifythedistributionofbiomes,as
neartheequator(e.g.,MountKilimanjaro
inTanzania,MountChimborazoinPeru).
Locatephotographsofdifferenttypesof
3.Physicalprocessesimpactthe
distributionandcharacteristicsofbiomes
andcausechangesovertime
A.Explainhowphysicalprocessescan
influenceandchangethedistributionof
biomesovertime,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Predicthowrisingglobaltemperatures
causechangesinvariousbiomes(e.g.,
meltingArcticseaice;shifting
desertificationandgrassification;risingsea
levels).
33
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
vegetationontheappropriateportionsofa
worldclimatemap(e.g.,cactiand
succulentsonadesertclimate;tropical
foresttreesonatropicalclimate;coralin
shallow,tropicalmarinewaters).
34
EssentialElement:Human Systems
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD9
THECHARACTERISTICS,DISTRIBUTION,ANDMIGRATIONOFHUMANPOPULATIONSONEARTH'SSURFACE
andmovementsofhumanpopulations.Thedistribution
Humanpopulationisadynamicforceontheplanet.
anddensityofEarthspopulationreflecttheplanets
Advancesinagriculture,sanitation,andhealthcarehave
topography,soils,vegetation,andclimatetypes
contributedtoadramaticincreaseinhumanpopulation
(ecosystems);availableresources;andlevelofeconomic
overthelastfewcenturies.Thegeographicallyinformed
development.Peoplemovefromplacetoplaceasaresult
personmustunderstandthatthegrowth,distribution,and
ofvoluntary,unavoidable,andinvoluntaryreasons.Pull
movementsofpeopleonEarthssurfacearedrivingforces
factorsmaymakeanotherplaceseemmoreattractiveand
behindnotonlyhumaneventssocial,cultural,political,
andeconomicbutalsophysicaleventslargescale
beneficialtoconvincepeopletomigrate.Pushfactors
flooding,resourcedepletion,andecologicalbreakdown.
areoftenunpleasantorlifethreateningconditionsthat
forcepeopletomovetonewlocations.Movementoccurs
Populationischaracterizedbygrowthandmortalityrates
onmanyscalessuchasafamilymovingtoasuburbora
aswellasdemographicconceptssuchasfertilityand
newcityortomassmigrationsofpeopleduetofamineor
mortality,crudebirthanddeathrates,naturalincrease
politicalunrestoroverdistancesfromafewmilesto
anddoublingtime,andpopulationstructure(ageandsex
thousandsofmiles.
distribution).Apopulationpyramidordiagramshowsthe
ageandgendercharacteristicsofapopulation.These
ThefourthemesorganizingStandard9are:1)Distribution
illuminatetheimpactwarsorfamineaswellaseducation
ofpopulation,2)characteristicsofpopulation,3)
levels,religion,orpopulationpolicieshaveonthe
migration,and4)consequencesofmigration.Students
populationinacountryorregion.
mustunderstandhowthecharacteristics,distribution,and
movementofhumanpopulationchangesandisa
Theinteractionbetweenhumanandenvironmental
considerationinunderstandingsocial,political,and
factorshelpstoexplainthecharacteristics,distributions,
ecologicalissues.
35

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
DistributionofPopulation
2.Someplaceshavemanypeopleand
othershavefewpeopleandthisresultsin
differencesinthespatialdistributionof
thepopulation
1.Placesthatprovideopportunitiestend
tobemoredenselypopulatedthanplaces
withfeweropportunities
1.Thatpopulationdistributionresultsfrom
historical,environmentaland
technologicalfactors
2.Urbanregions,coasts/shorelines,and
rivervalleysarewheremostpeopleare
located
2.Populationdistributionanddensity
indicatetheroleofhumansinchanging
thefaceofEarth
Therefore,thestudentisableto
A.Identifyvariousplacesthatpeoplelive,
A.Identifythereasonsthatsomeplaces
havemorepeoplethanotherplaces,as
A.Examinedemographicdataandpredict
trendsinthespatialdistributionof
population,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
1.Thatpeopleliveinmanydifferent
placesonEarth
Usemaps,photos,demographicdatato
describethedifferentplacesthatpeople
live(e.g.,coastalareas,alongrivers,valleys
andplains).
B.Describethespatialdistributionof
population,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Describewherepeopleliveinthestateand
localcommunity(e.g.,farms,cities,small
towns,regionsofstate,largestcity).
Describegeographicqualitiesofplacesthat
thriveandareattractivetoliveincompared
tootherplacesthatpeopleleaveoravoid
(e.g.,placeswithopportunitiessuchas
naturalresources,touristdestinations,and
citiespullpeopletowardsthemwhile
placeswithfeweropportunitiespush
peopleaway;citiesarecentersof
opportunityandpeoplemigratetotake
advantageofthem).
Selectdataandpredictdemographicshifts
inparticularpopulationsandregionswhich
willcausechangesinfutureelectoral
politicsofstatesorregions(e.g.,Hispanic
populationgrowthandthedeclineinwhite
fertilityratesintheUnitedStates,growth
ofMuslimpopulationsintheEuropean
Union,growthofAsianpopulationsin
Australia).
B.Identifyanddescribethepatternand
B.Analyzepopulationissuesandpolicies
densityofpopulationrelativetourban
toaddresssuchissues,asexemplifiedby
regionsandterrainfeature,asexemplified beingableto
bybeingableto
Examinepronatal(e.g.,Germany,Russia,
France)andantinatal(e.g.,China,India)
Explainpopulationpatternsbyanalyzing
policiesofdifferentcountriesandevaluate
theirdistributionanddensity(e.g.,usea
theeffectivenessandappropriatenessof
maptoidentifypopulationpatterns,such
36
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
aseasternChina,northernIndia,theNile
Valley,anddescribereasonsforthe
locationsofthesepopulationcenters).
eachpolicy.
CharacteristicsofPopulation
3.Thecharacteristicsoflocalpopulations
A.Describeandcomparethe
characteristicsoflocalpopulations
Collectandgraphdataaboutpeopleliving
inthelocalcommunity(e.g.,age,ethnic
origin,languagesspoken).
3.Thedemographicstructureofa
population
A.Interpretthestructuresofpopulations
throughtheuseofkeydemographic
concepts
Constructandinterpretpopulation
diagrams(pyramids)fordifferentcountries
andprojectthepopulation20and40years
intothefuture(e.g.,comparethemaleand
femalesidesofthepopulationdiagramfor
theirshapes;projectagegroups20and40
yearsintothefuture).
3.Theeffectsofcultural,economic,and
politicalinfluencesonthedemographic
structureofdifferentpopulations
A.Analyzetheeffectsofgovernmental
policiesonpopulationcharacteristics
Analyzepopulationpoliciesenactedby
countriesandevaluatetheeffectivenessof
thosepolicies(e.g.,China'sOneChild
Policycreatedfamilieswithasinglechild,
theconsequencewasnobrothers,sisters,
aunts,uncles,cousins;paymentof
"kindergeld"orchildmoneytoparentsin
Germanytoencouragemorechildren;birth
controlinitiativesofIndonesiaandIndia).
Migration
4.Thecharacteristicsoflocalpopulations
A.Describeandcomparethe
characteristicsoflocalpopulations,as
Collectandgraphdataaboutpeopleliving
inthelocalcommunity(e.g.,age,ethnic
origin,languagesspoken).
4.Thedemographicstructureofa
population
4.Theimpactofmigrationonhuman
systems
A.Interpretthestructuresofpopulations
throughtheuseofkeydemographic
concepts,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Explainthecultural,economic,and
politicalfactorsthatcontributetohuman
migration,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Constructandinterpretpopulation
diagrams(pyramids)fordifferentcountries
andprojectthepopulation20and40years
intothefuture(e.g.,comparethemaleand
Identifyandexplainthepushandpull
factorswhichcausepeopletomigrate(e.g.,
migrationofHindusandMuslimstoIndia
andPakistanduringpartition,NorthAfrican
37
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
femalesidesofthepopulationdiagramfor
theirshapes;projectagegroups20and40
yearsintothefuture).
migrationtoWesternEurope,Germany's
postWorldWarIIlawswhichallowedentry
forvirtuallyanyimmigrant).
B.Evaluatetheimpactofhumanmigration
onphysicalandhumansystems,as
Examinethecoststoenvironmentaland
humansystemsofmigrationscausedby
warorfamine(e.g.,Darfur,Chad,Uganda;
refugeesettlementsinurbanregions).
ConsequencesofMigration
5.Peoplemigratefromfamiliarplacesto
unfamiliarplaces
A.Explainthechallengesmigrantsoften
faceinadjustingtoadifferent
environmentalsetting,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Generatealistchallengesthatmigrants
mightfaceinadjustingtoanew
environment(e.g.,ruralpeoplearrivingin
anurbanenvironment;adjustingto
dramaticclimaticdifferences,etc.).
5.Migrationmayaffecttheculturaland
socialfabricofafamily,ethnicgroup,or
nationalgroup
5.Nationalgroupsandgovernments
respondindifferentwaystothedeparture
andarrivalofmigrants
6.Migrationmayresultinthe
transformationofplacesreceiving
migrants
6.Theimpactofhumanmigrationon
physicalandhumansystems
A.Describethebenefitsandchallenges
migrantsfaceinbridgingcultures,as
B.Examinethechallengesmigrantshave
inadjustingtoadifferentculturalsetting,
Describetheculturaltraitsandskillsthat
benefitmigrantsinbridgingthechanges
theyencounter(e.g.,valueofeducation;
professionalskills;closelyknitfamilyunits;
ethnicclubsandorganizations).
Useimagesandfirstpersonaccountsto
examinethechallengesmigrantshavein
B.Identifynewculturalmarkersthathave
resultedfrominmigration,asexemplified
A.Compareandcontrasttheresponseof
differentnationalgroupsandgovernments
tomigration,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Analyzeimmigrationpoliciesofcountries
andthedifferingresponsesofsubstate
unitstothosepolicies(e.g.,state
governmentsofborderstatesArizona,
California,NewMexicoandTexasmayhave
differentviewsfromstategovernmentsof
Nebraska,KansasandIowaonU.S.federal
immigrationpolicies;languagepoliciesof
38
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
adjustingtoadifferentculturalsetting
(e.g.,language,customs,religiousmajority,
methodsoftransportation,foodchoice).
bybeingableto
Francedemandingthatimmigrantsspeak
French;lawsinEuropewhichseektolimit
immigrationofpeoplefromMuslim
countries).
Describetheinfluencesthatmigrantshave
onplacesaslastingculturalmarkers(e.g.,
clothing,fashions,music,dietarychoices,
typesofbusinesses;socialclubs,cross
culturalmarriages).
B.Evaluatetheimpactofhumanmigration
onphysicalandhumansystems,as
Analyzethedailylargescaleurbanto
suburbanmigrationoncities(e.g.,
reductionofcitysalestaxrevenues,
propertytaxesforschoolsshiftedaway
fromcitytosuburbanschools,strainon
citiestoprovideservices,suchasfire,
police,streets;dailycycleofhighandlow
populationdensitiesincitiesresultingfrom
suburbancommuting).
39
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD10
THECHARACTERISTICS,DISTRIBUTION,ANDCOMPLEXITYOFEARTH'SCULTURALMOSAICS
Cultureisacomplex,multifacetedconcept.Itdescribes
culture.Language,forexample,bothrepresentsand
socialstructure,languages,beliefsystems,institutions,
reflectsmanyaspectsofaculture.Itcanbeanalyzedfor
technology,art,foods,andtraditionsofparticulargroups
cluesaboutthevaluesandbeliefsofaculturegroup.
ofhumans.Eachculturalgrouphasadistinctivewayoflife
Whatevercharacteristicofcultureisconsidered,itisclear
whichoftenresultsinlandscapesandregionswith
thatthemosaicsofEarthsculturallandscapesarenot
distinguishingfeatures.Culturallandscapesoftenoverlap,
static.Culturechangesasaresultofavarietyofhuman
thusformingelaboratemosaicsofpeoplesandplaces.
processes,migrationandthespread(diffusion)ofnew
Theseculturalmosaicscanbestudiedatavarietyof
culturaltraitslanguage,music,andtechnologythrough
spatialscales.
technologiessuchasthemediaandtheInternetto
existingculturegroups.Theprocessesofculturalchange
Astheworldbecomesincreasinglyinterdependent,
acceleratewithimprovementsintransportationand
differentculturalgroupshavegreatercontactwitheach
other.Thisincreasedcontactinfluencesthewayinwhich
communication.Eachcultureintheworldhasborrowed
peopleborrow,adopt,andadaptnewideas.Forexample,
attributesfromothercultureswhetherknowinglyornot,
setsoflaws,educationalsystems,politicalarrangements,
willinglyornot,permanentlyornot.
andthestructureofthefamilyshapeacultureregion.
ThethreethemesorganizingStandard10are:1)
Giventhecomplexityofculture,itisoftenuseful
characteristicsofculture,2)patternsofculture,and3)
especiallywhenstudyingthesubjectfromageographic
culturalchange.Asmembersofamulticulturalsocietyina
pointofviewtofocusonthelanguages,beliefs,
multiculturalworld,studentsmustunderstandthediverse
institution,andtechnologiesthatarecharacteristicofa
spatialexpressionsofculture.
40

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
CharacteristicsofCulture
1.Peopledevelopculturesovertimeand
thoseculturesshapethewayspeoplelive
1.Thewaysculturesshapethe
characteristicsofaregion
A.Identifyandcomparethecultural
characteristicsofdifferentregionsand
people,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Explainthatculturalfeaturesoften
defineregions,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Identifythecomponentsofculture(e.g.,
language,socialorganization,beliefsand
customs,formsofarchitecture,activities,
educationsystems)thencompareand
contrasttwodifferentregionsandpeople.
Useculturaltraitsasthebasisfor
explainingregionsonmaps(e.g.,significant
languagepatternsinNorthAmerica,such
asEnglish,French,andSpanish;global
distributionsofIslam,Christianity,
Buddhism,Hinduism,andJudaism;ethnic
characteristics,folkandpopularculture).
B.Describeelementsofthelandscapeasa
mirrorofculture,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
1.Thewaysthatpeopleandtheir
culturesmodifyanaturalenvironmentto
establishabuiltenvironment
A.Describeatransformationofthenatural
environmenttomeethumanneeds,as
Investigatethelanduseintheconstruction
ofcanals,seaways,anddamsandoutline
theeconomicandpopulationchangesto
citiesandregionsintheseareasafter
construction(e.g.,agriculturallanduses;
theSt.LawrenceSeawayandGreatLakes
canalsonChicago,Detroit,Buffalo,
Montreal,Quebec;theHooverDamonLas
Vegas,LosAngelesandPhoenix).
Explainthatalandscape,includinglanduse
andbuildings,reflectculturaltraitsand
preferences(e.g.,greenlandscapesinthe
desert,suchasgolfcoursesandtrees;
advertisementsonstorefrontsinSpanish,
Korean,Arabic,FrenchorEnglishspeaking
regions;religiouslanduses,suchas
mosques,cathedrals,churches,temple).
PatternsofCulture
2.PatternsofcultureacrossEarth's
surface
2.Spatialdistributionofcultureat
differentscales(localtoglobal)
2.Culturalpatternshaveconsequences
Thereforethestudentisableto:
41
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
A.Compareandcontrastpatternsof
culture,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Compareandcontrastworldcultural
regionsusingethnicity,language,religion,
dietarypatterns,architecture(e.g.,use
thematicmapsandresearchedinformation
tocreateapostcard,travel
brochure,orposter).
A.Identifywaysinwhichcultures
arespatiallydistributedamong
communities,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Describetheculturalandethnicenclaves
thatdevelopinbothurbanandrural
regions(e.g.,Amishpeopleinruralenclaves
inPennsylvania,Indiana,Iowaandother
states;Asianethnicenclavesincities;
Italianneighborhoods;AfricanAmerican
neighborhoods;MexicanAmerican
neighborhoods;Islamiccommunitiesin
Europeancities;folkandpopularculture).
A.Identifytheimpactsofculturalbeliefs
ongenderroles,race,andethnicity,as
Examinethedifferencesamongstates'laws
ongenderissues(e.g.,legalrightsfor
women,women'ssuffragelaws,roleof
womeninelectedoffices).
B.Describetheconsequencesofcultural
viewsofnatureanduseofnatural
resources,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Compareandcontrasthowbeliefsystems
affecthowpeopleviewandusethe
environment(e.g.,AmericanIndianviews
oflandownershipversusEuropeanbeliefs;
humansashavingdominionoverthe
environmentversussustainingthe
environment).
C.Comparetherolethatcultureplaysin
incidentsofcooperationandconflict,as
Identifytheculturalfactorsthathave
promotedpoliticalconflict(e.g.,religious
differencesinSudan,linguisticdifferences
inBelgium,ethnicdifferencesinRwanda,
bilingualpoliciestoaccommodatelanguage
groups).
CulturalChange
3.Cultureschangeforvariousreasons
3.Theprocessesofacculturation
A.Identifythechangesinculturefrom
technologyandmigrationofpeople,as
A.Analyzetheimpactofcultural
3.Thespatialcharacteristicsofcultural
convergenceanddivergence
A.Explainthespatialprocessesofcultural
42
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
diffusion,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Useinterviewswithparentsand
grandparentstounderstandcultural
change(e.g.,howtheroleofwomenin
societyhaschangedandhowthathas
affectedlifeintheUnitedStatesandother
regionsoftheworld;howradio,television,
electronicgames,andtheinternetchanged
leisureactivitiesintheUnitedStatesand
places).
Observeevidenceofculturaltraitsthatmay
beattributedtodiffusion(e.g.,thespread
ofIslam;Asianrestaurants;electronic
devicessuchascellphonesinAfrica;
particulartypesofmusicinmanyplaces,
suchasopera).
convergenceanddivergence,as
Evaluateexamplesofthespreadofculture
traitsthatcontributetocultural
convergence(e.g.,USbasedfastfood
franchisesinChinaandIndia,thediffusion
oftheEnglishlanguageasamajormedium
ofbusiness,scienceand
B.Describeandexplainthesignificanceof
telecommunicationsinmanyregionsofthe
culturaldiffusiononissuesofgender,race
world,thepopularizationofsushi).
andethnicity,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
B.Examinehowtransregionalalliances
andmultinationalorganizationscanalter
Describewaysthatthediffusionofideas
culturalsolidarity,asexemplifiedbybeing
affectsgenderroleswithinsocieties(e.g.,
ableto
theeffectsofGrameenbankloanson
opportunityforwomen;increased
Identifyexamplesofchangeswhichhave
participationofwomeninelectedoffice;
occurredwiththedevelopmentof
supranationalisticorganizations(e.g.,the
thevalueofeducationforwomen).
blendingofculturesandblurredsenseof
C.Examinetheadvantagesand
nationality,commoncurrency,multilingual
disadvantagesofculturalretention,as
signage,reducedbordercontrolsamong
memberstatesoftheEuropeanUnion).
Describeexamplesofculturaltraitsthatare
maintainedbygroupsandexplainhow
somemaybepositiveandothersnegative
(e.g.,thevalueofeducation;thedevotion
toadominantfaith;secularism;methodsof
doingwork;language,continuationofa
culturaldisdainforanotherethnicor
religiousgroup).
43
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD11
THEPATTERNSANDNETWORKSOFECONOMICINTERDEPENDENCEONEARTH'SSURFACE
ResourcesareunevenlydistributedonEarth,andno
local,regional,national,andinternationallevels.
countryhasalloftheresourcesitneedstosurviveand
Subsistencefarmingoftenexistssidebysidewith
grow.Thus,peoplemusttradewithothersandasaresult
commercialagriculture.Inmanydevelopingcountries,
thereareincreasinglycomplexnetworksofeconomic
peopleleaveruralareasinsearchofjobsthathavebeen
interdependencewhichchangeandevolve.Economic
relocatedfromindustrializedcountries.Technologyand
activitiesdependuponcapital,resources,powersupplies,
telecommunicationshavefreedmanyjobsfrombeingtied
labor,information,andland.Thespatialpatternsofthese
tospecificlocations.Workcanbedonecollaborativelyin
resourcescreatethenetworksoftradeandglobal
differentlocationstakingadvantageofdifferenttime
economicinterdependence.Localandworldeconomies
zonestoincreaseefficiency.
intermeshtocreatenetworks,movementpatterns,
ThethreethemesorganizingStandard11are:1)economic
transportationroutes,marketareas,andhinterlands.
systems,2)globalization,and3)networks.Asworld
Studentsmustunderstandthespatialorganizationof
populationgrows,asenergycostsincrease,astime
economic,transportation,andcommunicationsystems.
becomesmorevaluable,andasresourcesbecome
depletedordiscovered,societiesneedeconomicsystems
Theseproduceandexchangethegreatvarietyof
commoditiesrawmaterials,manufacturedgoods,
thataremoreefficientandresponsive.Itisparticularly
capital,andservicewhichconstitutetheglobaleconomy.
important,therefore,forstudentstounderstandworld
Thespatialdimensionsofeconomicactivityare
patternsandnetworksofeconomicinterdependenceand
increasinglycomplex.Rawmaterialsmaybeshippedto
torealizethattraditionalpatternsoftrade,human
locationsforprocessingandthentransportedagainfor
migration,andculturalandpoliticalalliancesarebeing
assemblyorsale.Systemsofinterdependencedevelopat
alteredasaconsequenceofglobalinterdependence.
44

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
EconomicSystems
1.Peopleearntheirlivingbyproducing
goodsandservices(e.g.,food,clothing,
householdgoodsetc.,housing;
lawnmedical,communication,public
transportationetc.)
1.Economicactivitieshavespecific
functionsandspatialpatterns
2.Thatsomelocationsarebettersuited
thanotherstoprovidecertaingoodsand
services
A.Identifywhichbusinessesproduce
goodsandwhichbusinessesproduce
services,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Collectdataaboutthetypesofjobsinthe
localareaandgraphhowmanyjobs
producegoodsandhowmanyproduce
services.(e.g.,goodsmanufacturing,
powerplants,greenhouses;services
restaurants,hospitals,movietheaters).
B.Describethewayseconomicactivities
arelinkedbynetworksofcommunication
andtransportation,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
2.Economicactivitiesareinterdependent
3.Changingpatternsoftrade
A.Defineandclassifyeconomicactivity
intoprimary,secondary,andtertiary,as
Classifyalistofeconomicactivitiesintothe
categoriesofprimary(e.g.,forestry,copper
mining,andgrowingcoffee)secondary
(e.g.,producingcopperwire,furniture
making,andgrindingcoffeebeans),and
tertiary(e.g.,furnituresales,sellingcopper
wire,andsellingcoffeelatte).
B.Compareandcontrastthemeritofone
locationoveranotherforproductionof
goodsandservices,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Useaphonebookandmapofthelocal
communitytolocateclustersofrelated
businessesorothereconomicactivitiesand
Drawasketchmapofstreetmapsoflocal
thensuggestwhytheyarelocatedwhere
areaandcomparetowebmapoflocalarea
theyare(e.g.,medicalsupplyanduniform
thendiscusshowstreetsallowthe
stores,laboratories,anddoctors'offices
movementofgoodsandservicesto
nearahospital;warehousesandindustries
differentareas.(e.g.,emergencyresponse
nearmajortransportationroutes;clusters
1.Globaleconomicsystemsimpactthe
spatialpatternsofproductionand
consumption
2.Economicsystemschangeasaresultof
manyforces
3.Theclassificationofeconomicactivity
intoquaternaryandquinarycategories,as
wellasprimary,secondary,andtertiary
activities
A.Describethechangesinthespatial
distributionandpatternsofproduction
andconsumption,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Constructmapsshowingtheproduction
andconsumptionofselectedgoodsand
servicessince1990(e.g.,CocaCola,
Internetconnections,cellularphones,
boutiquecoffeeandtea,computers).
B.Classifyanddescribethespatial
distributionofmajoreconomicsystems
andevaluatetheirrelativemeritsinterms
ofproductivityandthesocialwelfareof
workers,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Distinguishbetweentraditional,command
andmarketeconomicsystemsanddescribe
howsuchsystemsoperate(e.g.,Burkina
45
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
vehicles,pizzadelivery,icecreamtrucks,
postaldelivery).
ofcardealershipsonmajorhighways;fast Faso'slargelytraditionaleconomy,North
Korea'scommandeconomy,Germany's
foodrestaurantsinhighlyaccessible
locationsclosetopopulationconcentration, marketeconomy).
farmer'smarkets).
C.Explaintherelationshipsbetween
C.Explainthewayspatternsoftradehave variouseconomicactivities,asexemplified
bybeingableto
changedovertime,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Examineandmaptherelationships
Compareandcontrastthepasttrade
betweenprovidersofcomponentsin
patterns,importsandexports,among
differentmanufacturingindustries(e.g.,
automobiles,suchasglass,tires,sheet
countriesatseveraltimeswithcurrent
metal;computers,suchascircuitboards,
patterns(e.g.,tradeinautomobiles,
software,electricalcomponents,wireless
energy,food,consumeritems,suchas
chips).
computers,electronicmedia).
Globalization
3.Peopleandcountriesusegoodsthatare 4.Economicinterdependenceand
globalizationimpactmanycountriesand
producedinothercountriesandregions
theirpopulations
4.Tradebetweencountriesoccurswhen
consumersinonecountryneedsomething 5.Agreementsbetweenandamong
producedinanother
countriesthatencourageglobalization
4.Changingeconomicinterdependenceof
theworld'scountries
A.Examinewheregoodsareproduced
andconsumed,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
A.Explainthateconomicinterdependence
andglobalizationdependonsystemsthat
delivergoodsandserviceswithinand
betweenregions,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
6.Globalizationhascultural,economic,
andpoliticalconsequences
CollectDataonwhereitemsinthehome
originateoraremanufactured(e.g.,
appliances,fooditems,clothing)thenmap
theselocationsandanalyzewhytheitems
weremadeorgrowninthatlocation.(e.g.,
goodsoilandclimateconditions,raw
Comparethespatialvariationsinthe
productionofgoodsandserviceswiththe
variationsinthedemandforgoodsand
servicesandtheresultinginterdependence
5.Theroleofinternationallabor,
management,andtransnational
corporationsintheglobalizationprocess
A.Identifyandanalyzethehistoricaland
contemporarypatternsofmovementof
people,goods,andservicesandtheir
relationshipstoeconomicactivity,as
Comparethelocationsofwhere
46
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
materialsneededforproduction,
transportationhubs).
(e.g.,animalantibioticsproducedinEurope
andusedinAfrica;seedcorninIowa
plantedinSouthAmerica;siliconcomputer
chipsmadeCalifornia,installedina
computermanufacturedinChina,and
purchasedinAustralia).
settlementswerebuilthistoricallytothose
oftodaybaseduponeconomicproduction
(e.g.,oiltownsinTexasandOklahoma,
hightechcorridorsofcitiesinIndia,textile
milltownsofNorthandSouthCarolina).
Compareandcontrasttheadvantagesand
identifypossibledisadvantagesthat
accompanyglobaltradeagreementsamong
countries(e.g.,thechangesinemployment
indifferentregions;environmentalissues
thataccompanytrade;carbonfootprintin
movingproductsgreatdistances).
Examinethefactorsofsiteandsituation
whichenhanceeconomicopportunities
(e.g.,Singapore'sdeepwaterports,major
sealaneatStraitofMalacca,relative
locationtoothermarkets).
B.Describeitemsproducedintheirregion
andshippedforconsumptioninanother
region,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Generatealistofitemsproducedintheir
localregionandmaptheplaceswherethey
areshipped(e.g.,agriculturalproductsboth
rawandprocessed,paperproducts,
furniture,carpets,tires).
B.Describefactorsthatinfluencethe
B.Explainwhycountriesenterintoglobal locationandspatialdistributionof
tradeagreements,asexemplifiedbybeing economicactivities,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
ableto
C.Discussconsequencesofglobalization,
bothpositiveandnegative,asexemplified
bybeingableto
Discusstheflowofgoodsbetweenand
amongcountriesandmakejudgmentsasto
whetherthisispositiveornegative(e.g.,
consumerslikeinexpensivegoods,U.S.
workersmaylosetheirjobsdueto
outsourcing,tradeimbalancesbetweenthe
U.S.andChina).
Networks
5.Transportationandcommunication
networksusedindailylife
6.Networksoftransportationand
communicationsareusedtomove
6.Transportationandcommunication
networksconnectgoodsandserviceswith
consumers
7.Transportationnetworksmovegoodsby
7.Improvementsintransportationand
communicationnetworksreducethe
effectsofdistanceandtimeonthe
distributionofgoodsandservices
47
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
information,products,andpeople
air,sea,andland
8.Cultural,economic,andpolitical
consequencesofglobaltransportationand
communication
A.Identifythemodesoftransportation
andcommunicationusedtomovepeople,
products,andideasfromplacetoplace,as
A.Analyzeglobalmarketnetworksand
identifyhowperishableandluxury
productsarebroughttomarkets,as
Listanddescribetheadvantagesand
disadvantagesofdifferentmodesof
transportationforspecificproducts,
purposes,andideas(e.g.,bargesandtrains
forbulkyheavyitems,airplanesforhigh
costperishables;pipelinesforliquidsand
gases,telephonesorinternetforideas).
Distinguishbetweenthetransportation
usedforperishableandluxuryproducts
anddescribethemarketnetworkstheyuse
(e.g.,freshvegetablesrequiretimely
deliverybeforetheyperishandairplaneor
trucktransportationareusedtodistribute
toallconsumers;luxurygoods,suchas
expensivesportscars,aredistributedby
oceangoingships,trains,andtrucks;
diamondsareluxurygoods,butsmallin
volumeandmass,andareshippedbyairto
severalurbanmarketswhichinturn
redistributethemtoothermarkets).
B.Compareandcontrastadvantagesand
disadvantagesofdifferentformsofglobal
transportation,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Compareandcontrastthetimeand
distancerequiredtotransportproducts
globally(e.g.,shipsareleastexpensive,
requirelargecargoesandtakelonger;
trainsareconfinedtorailwaytracks,are
relativelyfast,andlessexpensiveforlong
haulsthantrucks;truckshaveaccess
9.Transportationandcommunications
networksaddvaluetogoodsandservices
A.Examinetheeffectsoftechnological
changesincommunicationsand
transportationontime/distancedecay,as
Explainhowtimespacecompressionhas
changedmodernlocationaldecision
making(e.g.,therolesofinternet
connections,satellitecommunications,
mobilephones).
B.Explainconsequencesofthecurrent
globaltradesystemsforsustainability,as
Assessthesustainabilityofthecurrent
consumptionofproductsandservicesto
meetthedemandsofglobalmarkets
(e.g.,sustainabilityofseafoodsuchas
BluefinTunaforsushi,trawlcaughtshrimp,
AtlanticCod;impactsoftourismonlocal
ecosystemsandeconomicinfrastructure).
C.Explaininteractionbetweenthe
deliveryofgoodsandservicesand
transportationandcommunications
networks,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
48
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
everywherethereareroadways,arefast
fordelivery;airplanesarethemost
expensiveandareusedtotransportgoods
withhighvalueandsmallmass/weight;
InternetandWorldWideWebreducethe
timeandcostoftransportinginformation).
Examinesystemsforthedeliveryofgoods
andservices(e.g.,hubandspokesystems,
acquisitionofgoodsviatheWorldWide
Web,U.S.mail,UPSandFedExuse
airplanes,largetrucks,andsmalltrucksfor
globaldeliverydependingonthesizeand
weightofthecargoanditsoriginand
destination;airplanesforcontinentaland
intercontinentaltransport,trucksfor
interstateandintrastatedelivery,andsmall
trucksforlocaldelivery).
49
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD12
THEPROCESSES,PATTERNS,ANDFUNCTIONSOFHUMANSETTLEMENT
Peopleseldomliveinisolation.Mostresidecollectivelyin
largestanddensesthumansettlements,arethenodesof
settlements,whichvarygreatlyinsize,composition,
humansociety.Citiesthroughouttheworldaregrowing
location,arrangement,andfunction.Theseorganized
rapidly,butnonesorapidlyasthoseindevelopingregions.
groupingsofhumanhabitationarethefocusofmost
Thisurbanizationischangingthecurrentpatternsofboth
aspectsofhumanlife:economicactivities,transportation
ruralandurbanlandscapesaroundtheworld.
systems,communicationsmedia,politicaland
SettlementsandthepatternstheyetchonEarthssurface
administrativesystems,cultureandentertainment.
providenotonlydataoncurrenteconomicandsocial
Becausesettlementisanessentialactivityofhumans,the
aspectsofhumanexistence,butalsoahistoricalrecord.
Todayssettlementpatterns,evidentonamap,provide
patterns,processesandfunctionsofsettlementacross
informationaboutpastsettlementandlandusepatterns.
Earthssurface.
Inallsuchcases,thesurvivingevidenceofpast
settlementscanandshouldbeamplifiedbythestudents
ThepatternsofsettlementacrossEarthssurfacediffer
useofresearchmaterialstodevelopafullerunderstanding
markedlyfromregiontoregion,placetoplace,andtime
totime.Ofgreatimportancetounderstandinghuman
ofhowsettlementsrelatetotheirphysicalsettingsand
existence,therefore,arethespatialrelationshipsbetween
contextsovertime.
settlementsofdifferentsizes:theirspacing,their
Standard12isorganizedaroundthefollowingthemes:1)
arrangement,theirfunctionaldifferences,andtheir
settlementtypesandpatterns,2)settlementprocesses,3)
economicspecialties.Thesespatialrelationshipsare
urbanization,and4)urbanformandfunction.Students
shapedbytradeandthemovementsofrawmaterials,
mustunderstandthespatiallyorderedwaysinwhichEarth
finishedproducts,people,capital,andideas.Cities,the
hasbecomethehomeofpeople.
50

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
SettlementTypesandPatterns
1.Typesofsettlement
2.Settlementoccurswherelocation
providesanadvantage
A.Describethetypesofsettlementinthe
localcommunity,state,andtheUnited
States,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
1.Spatialpatternsofsettlementin
differentregionsoftheworld
1.Changingfunctions,sizes,andspatial
patternsofsettlements
2.Reasonsforsizesandpatternsof
settlementswithinaregion
2.Thechangingdistributionoflargeor
megacities
A.Describeandanalyzepatternsof
settlementindifferentregionsofthe
world,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Compareandcontrastthechanging
functions,sizesandspatialpatternsof
urbanregions,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Analyzephotosandimagesfromgeospatial
technologytodevelopdescriptionsoftypes Useinformationfrommapsand
ofsettlements(e.g.,rural,urban,suburban, photographstosketchmapsofthe
wilderness).
differenttypesofsettlementpatterns
observedacrossregions(e.g.,linearrural
B.Explainwhysomelocationsarebetter
settlementalongroadways,railways,and
forsettlementthanothers,asexemplified
rivers;urbancenterthatspreadfroma
bybeingableto
centralnode;villageclustersorrural
Usegeospatialtechnologytoidentify
landscapes;seaportsettlementsthatare
clustersofdensesettlementandrelate
interruptedbywater,suchasawaterbody
themtoreasonsforsettlement(e.g.,fertile oralargeriver).
soil,goodtransportation,andavailabilityof
B.Compareandcontrastthesizesand
waterintheOhioRiverValley;employment
patternsofsettlementswithinaregion,as
opportunities).
Compareandcontrastmapsandimagesat
differentscalestoidentifysettlement
patterns(e.g.,usetheEarthAtNightto
identifyregionsoftheworldaslargeurban,
smallerurban,andruralsettlementsbased
onlightsources,butnaturalgasflaresinN.
Analyzechangesinurbanpatternsand
functions(e.g.,edgecities,megalopoli,
gentrifiedneighborhoods,morespecialized
servicesinsuburbanareas,greater
availabilityofthesameservices,urban
sprawl).
B.Describethechangingdistributionof
megacities,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Identifyandmapthelocationsof
megacitiesfortwoperiodsandanalyzethe
changesintheirdistributions(e.g.,usethe
world's10largestcitiesin1950andthe
current10largestcities,maptheir
locations,andcomparethechangesinthe
patternconsideringsizeandlocation).
51
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Africaarenotlargesettlements;use
highwaymapsoranatlastocompareand
contrastthepatternofcities,towns,and
villagesintworegions;usetopographic
mapstocompareandcontrastthepattern
ofsettlementinalocalregion).
SettlementProcesses
3.Naturalfeaturesandresourcesaffect
wherepeoplesettle
3.Humanactivitiesandfavorable
locationsledtothedevelopmentofcities
3.Patternsofsettlementresultin
connectionsbetweenandamongpeople
4.Thatpeoplederivebenefitsfromliving
insettlements
4.Citiesaremajordestinationsforpeople
andactivities
4.Inequitiesandlevelsofopportunity
withinsettlements
A.Explainthesuccessesofsome
settlementscomparedtothefailureof
others,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Explainthehumanactivitiesthat
resultedinthedevelopmentofcities,as
Tracethereasonsforthegrowthand
declineofsettlements(e.g.,boomtownsto
ghosttownsinminingareas;growthof
townsalongwaterways;thehistoryof
companyorsingleindustrytownsin
periodsofprosperityorrecession).
Describehumanactivitiesatspecific
locationsthatleadtotheemergenceof
cities(e.g.,citieshavedevelopedasaresult
oftrade,politicalimportance,oravailable
naturalresources,includingagricultural
landandwater;Chicagoisatthesouthern
regionofLakeMichiganandbecamea
transportationcenter;Pittsburgwasa
transportationandmanufacturingcenter
nearlargedepositsofcoal;Singaporeis
locatedalongoneoftheworld'smajor
oceantransportationcorridors).
A.Describethecommunicationnetworks
thataresetupbetweenandamong
settlements,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
B.Analyzethebenefitsgainedbylivingin
settlements,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Listanddescribethemanyservices
availableinatownorcitycomparedtoa
ruralarea(e.g.,movietheaters,hospitals,
B.Describetheopportunitiesthatattract
religiouscenters,schools,banks,museums,
peopletourbansettlements,as
Explaintherelationshipsbetweentransport
technologiesandurbanregions(e.g.,city
lightrailsystems,interurbanrapidtransit
systems,intercityairplaneshuttles,the
peoplemover).
B.Compareandcontrastinequitiesand
levelsofopportunitywithinsettlements,
Compareandcontrastneighborhoodsina
cityortownandexplainwhysomeareas
areaffluent,middleclass,orlowincome
(e.g.,typesofemploymentopportunities,
ethnicsequenceoccupancy,arrivalofnew
52
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
libraries).
Explainreasonspeoplesettleincities(e.g.,
employment,educational,andcultural
opportunities;sportscenters;health
services,andtransportationalternatives).
immigrants,propertyvalues,and
perceptionofareasthatareconsidered
"theothersideofthetracks").
Urbanization
5.Urbanregionsprovidemorejobsand
servicesthanotherplaces
5.Thedynamicnatureofurbanplaces
providesopportunitiesandchallenges
6.Urbansettlementsarenodesofcontact
forsurroundingregions
A.Identifyjobsandservicesavailablein
urbanareas,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Examinephotosandelectronicimagesof
urbanareasforinformationaboutthekinds
ofjobsandserviceslocatedthere(e.g.,
medicalbuildings,foodservices,
entertainmentareas,manufacturing
facilities,repairshops,transportation
relatedjobs).
B.Comparejobsandservicesinurbanand
ruralareas,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Createamuralthatcomparesandcontrasts
jobsandservicesavailableinurbanand
ruralareas(e.g.,hospitalversusmedical
clinic;servicejobsversusagriculture;Movie
TheaterversusDVDathome;delivery
serviceslikepizza,availabilityofchain
restaurants,educationservices).
5.Processesthatchangetheinternal
structureandfunctionofurban
settlements
6.Consequencesofurbanization
A.Explainwhyurbanplacesareconstantly A.Explainhoweconomic,social,political
changing,asexemplifiedbybeingableto andenvironmentaltransitionsimpactthe
internalstructureofurbanplaces,as
Describeurbanplacesasdestinationsfor
diversegroupsofpeoplewhobringnew
Compareandcontrasttheurban
ideasandexpectations(e.g.,new
morphologiesofcitiesbeforeandafter
arrivalsintroduceademandfornew
productsandservices;citieshavefinancial gainsorlossesofindustries(e.g.,gainof
resourcesforinvestment;peopleincities
automanufacturinginSpartanburg,South
aretrendsettersinthediffusionprocess). Carolina,lossofsteelmanufacturingin
Birmingham,England,gainofahightech
B.Describewaysinwhichurbanplaces
corridor,lossoftextilemanufacturingasa
influencesurroundingregions,as
resultofoutsourcingandoffshoring).
B.Describehowglobalizationhaschanged
Diagramandanalyzetheinteractionof
thefunctionsofcities,asexemplifiedby
urbanplaceswiththeirsurroundingregions
beingableto
(e.g.,theflowofpeoplefromthenearby
regionasdailycommuters;
Explainthechangesinglobal
communicationscentersinurbanplaces
communicationsthathaveaffectedthe
53
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
thatservicenearbyanddistantlocations
withTV,radio,Internet,andcableservices;
theflowoffoodproductstocentral
marketsfromotherplaces;regional
specializationinservicesorproduction,
suchasinsuranceinIndianapolis,digital
productsinBangalore,India,andbankingin
London,UK,andfilmproduction,suchas
Bollywood).
functionsofcities(e.g.,justintime
delivery,advancesintelecommunications
technologiessuchasinternetandworld
wideweb,reducedfrictionofdistancesuch
ascallcentersinBangalore,India).
C.Discusstheadvantagesand
disadvantagesofurbanplaces,as
Analyzeandcompareurbanplacesand
regionsintermsofadvantagesand
disadvantages(e.g.,transportationroutes,
physicalbarriers,zoningregulations,
populationdensityanddistribution,
congestion,culturalopportunities,costof
living,commutingtime).
UrbanFormandFunction
6.Landincitiesisusedfordifferent
purposes
7.Urbanregionshavebothgeneraland
specificfunctions
7.Landmaybeusedfordifferentpurposes Therefore,thestudentisableto:
indifferentcities
Compareandcontrastthefunctionsof
citiesindifferentpartsoftheworld(e.g.,all
citiesfunctiontomeettheneedsoftheir
A.Describethedifferentwaysthatlandis
residentswithfood,services,andshelter;
usedinthecommunity,asexemplifiedby
citiesdevelopspecialfunctionssuchas
beingableto
seaports,landandairtransportationhubs,
Usetheinformationfromdirect
medicalservices,financialservices,
observationsandcommunitymapstomake agriculturalproductprocessing).
atabletoshowhowlandisused(e.g.,
parksandrecreation,shoppingareas,
medicalfacilities,placesofworship,
7.Urbanmodelsareusedtoanalyzethe
growthandformofurbanregions
8.Urbanplaceshaveinternalstructures
basedonlanduses,bidrents,ethnic
enclaves
9.Urbanformschangeinresponseto
economicandsocialpressures
A.Identifyandanalyzetheinternalspatial
structuresofcities
Identifythecomponentsofurbanplacesin
comparisontogeneralmodelsof
54
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
educationalinstitutions,parkinglots,
manufacturing,transportation).
urbanization(e.g.,concentricrings;sectors;
specializedfunctions,walledcities.)
B.Compareandcontrastlandusein
differentcommunities,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
B.Compareandcontrastthedifferent
urbanmodels,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Useinformationfrommapsandgeospatial
technologytographthedifferentwaysthat
landisusedintwocommunities(e.g.,parks
andrecreation,shoppingareas,medical
facilities,placesofworship,educational
institutions,parkinglots,manufacturing,
transportation).
Usevariousurbanmodelstoexplainthe
structuresandpatternsincities(e.g.,the
mallinLatinAmericancitiesmodel,
developmentpatternsalongtransport
routesinHoyt'ssectormodel,
decentralizationfromtheCBDinUrban
Realmsmodel).
C.Evaluatethephysicalandhuman
impactsofemergingurbanformsinthe
world,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Describetheculturalimprintsand
environmentalchallengesofincreasing
urbanization(e.g.,increasingnumbersof
ethnicexclavesinurbanareas,growthin
numberandsizeofsquattersettlementsor
homelesspersonsincities,thestrainon
urbangovernmentstoprovideenough
cleanwater,housingandotherutilities).
D.Proposesolutionstourbanissues,as
Usingmapscreateaproposedcityplanthat
addressesandsolvescommonurbanissues
(e.g.,sprawl,efficienttransportation,urban
services,andhousing).
55
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD13
HOWTHEFORCESOFCOOPERATIONANDCONFLICTAMONGPEOPLEINFLUENCETHEDIVISIONANDCONTROLOFEARTH'S
SURFACE
Eventsofthetwentiethcenturyillustratethatthedivision
CompetingforcontroloflargeandsmallareasofEarths
ofEarthssurfaceamongdifferentgroupspursuingdiverse
surfaceisauniversaltraitamongsocietiesandhas
goalscontinuesunabatedatallscalesofhumanactivity.
resultedinbothproductivecooperationanddestructive
Worldwars,regionalwars,civilwars,terroristattacks,and
conflictbetweengroupsovertime.Thegeographically
urbanriotsoftenaremanifestationsoftheintensityof
informedpersonhasageneralunderstandingofthe
natureandhistoryoftheforcesofcooperationand
feelinghumansholdfortherighttodivideandownEarth
conflictonEarthandtheresultingspatialpatterns.This
accordingtotheirparticularperceptionsandvalues.
understandingenablestheindividualtoperceivehowand
Traditionally,mostterritorialdisputeshavebeenoverthe
whydifferentgroupshavedivided,organized,andunified
landsurface,butwiththeincreasingvalueofresourcesin
theoceanandevenouterspace,politicaldivisionofthese
areasofEarthssurface.Conflictsovertrade,human
migrationandsettlement,andexploitationofmarineand
spaceshasbecomeatopicofinternationaldebate.
landenvironmentsreflecthowEarthssurfaceisdivided
Cooperationandconflictwilloccurinallofthesespatial
intofragmentscontrolledbydifferentformalandinformal
contexts.
politicalandeconomicinterestgroups.
TheprimarypoliticaldivisionofEarthisbystate
territorialdivisions,2)cooperation,and3)conflict.
sovereigntyaparticulargovernmentisrecognizedby
Studentsmustunderstandtheevolution,structure,power,
othersashavingsupremeauthorityoveracarefully
andpervasivenessofthesedivisionsaswellaswaysin
delimitedterritoryandthepopulationandresources
whichdivisionsresolveconflictsordecidetocooperateto
withinthatspace.Regionalalliancesamongnationsfor
appreciatetheirrolewithinaworldthatisbothglobally
military,political,cultural,oreconomicreasonsconstitute
interdependentandlocallycontrolled.
examplesofcooperationonEarthssurface.
56

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
TerritorialDivisions
1.Multipleterritorialdivisionsofthe
student'sworld
A.Identifyandexplainreasonsforthe
differentspatialdivisionswherethe
studentlives,asexemplifiedbybeingable
to
Createachart,diagram,ormapofpublic
servicesofferedtocitizensbygovernment
agenciesandexplainstheareaservedby
each(e.g.,thehierarchyofpolice
protectionfromlocalstationtocounty
sherifftostatepolicedepartmentto
nationalagency;thehierarchyofjustice
involvingmunicipalcourts,countycourts,
statecourts,andfederaldistrictcourts).
1.Typesofterritorialdivisionsusedin
bothpastandpresenttomanageand
controlEarthssurface
1.Roleandimpactofnational,multi
nationalandinternationalorganizationsin
dividingEarthssurface
A.Compareandcontrasttypesof
territorialdivisionsusedtocontrolEarths
A.DescribeandanalyzewaysthatEarth's
surfaceisdividedandcontrolled,as
Usemapsanddocumentstocompareand
contrastthedifferenttypesofpowerand
influenceusedtodivideandcontrol
territory(e.g.,political;military;cultural;
economic;changingterritorialdivision
withinregions,suchasschooldistricts,
nationalboundaries,andExclusive
EconomicZones).
Analyzetheimpactsofregionalalliances
intendedforpolitical,military,cultural,or
economicdivisionandcontrol(e.g.,the
politicalintegrationoftheEUcountries;the
militarydivisionoftheKoreanPeninsula;
theculturalimpactofQuebec;the
economicimpactofNAFTA).
B.Identifypoliticalboundariesthatare
basedonphysicaland/orhuman
characteristics,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
B.Explainchangesthatareoccurringin
theorganizationofcultural,economic,and
politicalentities,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
DescribethefunctionsoftheUnited
Nationsanditsspecializedagenciesin
dealingwithvariousglobalissues
(e.g.,peacekeeping,diseaseprevention,
emergencyaid,climatechange,
education).
Describetheuseofbothphysicaland
humancharacteristicstoestablishpolitical
boundaries(e.g.,streetsaspolitical
boundariesbetweenlocalunitsof
government;riversasboundariesbetween
countries;watersheddividesasboundaries;
boundariesdelimitedbypolitical
agreement;militaryfrontiersas
57
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
boundaries,suchasJammuandKashmir).
Cooperation
2.Therolecooperationhasindividing
Earthssurface
A.Explainwaysthatpeoplecooperatein
dividingandusingEarth'ssurface,as
Useamaptoexaminestateboundaries
thenresearchwhyregionsoftheUnited
Stateshavedifferentkindsofboundaries
(e.g.,theeasternstatelinesreflectmetes
andbounds,theMidwesthasbaselinesof
latitudeandlongitudeandwater
boundaries,thewestfollowsterrain
featuresandlatitudeandlongitude).
B.Analyzelocalandnationaleventsto
findexamplesofcooperation,as
Useeventsinthelocalcommunityorin
communitiesinotherregionstowrite
storiesaboutwaysinwhichpeoplesolve
problemsbycooperating(e.g.,workingin
groupstopickuptrashalongaroad,
participatinginaneighborhoodcrime
watchgroup,orparticipatingincommunity
housebuildingprojects).
2.Cooperationindividingandcontrolling
2.Cooperationinfluencesthespatial
distributionofcultural,economic,and
spacemayhavelastinginfluenceson
politicalspacesonEarthatdifferentscales placesandregions
3.Thattreaties,laws,andagreementsare
formedtopromotecooperationamong
A.Analyzehowcooperationinfluencesthe
countriesregardingcontrolofEarths
developmentandcontrolofcultural,
surface
economic,andpoliticalentitiesonEarth's
Identifyandanalyzetheeffectsof
cooperationincontrollingterritories
(e.g.,Antarcticaisgovernedbyan
internationaltreatyforscientificpurposes;
GreatLakesenvironmentalissuesare
cooperativelymanagedbytheUnited
StatesandCanada;UNHeritagesitesare
cooperativelymaintainedbytheUNand
hostcountries;locallandusepoliciesare
developedtopromotecooperation;
regionalairportandportzonesresultin
cooperation).
B.Describecooperationthatfocuseson
solvinghumanandenvironmentalissues,
Examinearticles,maps,andmediareports
todescribethewaysthatcountries,states
andagenciescooperatetosolve
contemporaryissues(e.g.,migrationacross
A.Identifyhistoricalandmodern
examplesofdividingandcontrollingspace,
Compareandcontrastthespatialextent
andorganizationalstructureofimperial
powersandneocolonialism(e.g.,Roman
Empire,HanDynasty,U.S.spheresof
influence,multinationalcorporations,
controllingenergysourcestoone's
neighborsorglobalmarkets).
B.Explainthesignificanceandchallenges
offormalpoliticalagreementsindividing
andcontrollingspaceonEarth,as
Examinethetermsofpoliticalagreements
andevaluatethelingeringmoderneffects
(e.g.,TreatyofVersaillesontheboundaries
ofEurope,theLouisianaPurchaseonthe
boundariesoftheU.S.,theBerlin
58
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
borders;pollutioninriversthatcross
Conferenceof1885onAfricanStates).
borders;internationalcurrencyandbanking
exchanges;travelandtourism;Interpol).
Conflict
3.Resources/landuse,ethnic,and
4.Changeswithin,betweenandamong
3.Conflictsarisewhenthereis
disagreementoverthedivisionandcontrol nationalisticidentitycanresultinconflicts countriesregardingdivisionandcontrolof
overdivisionandcontrolofEarthssurface Earthssurfacemayresultinconflict
ofEarthssurface
A.Discussexamplesofdisagreements
overlanduseintheircommunity,as
Identifylocalissuesthathavebeenapoint
ofconflict,analyzethesituations,and
illustratethedifferentperspectivesofthe
keystakeholders(e.g.,protectionof
environmentallysensitiveareas,landuse
forcommercialpurposes,wastedisposal).
4.Therearemultiple,overlapping
divisionsbasedonterritorialclaimsto
controlEarthssurface
A.Describethewaysconflictcanerupt
overresources,landuse,ethnic,and
nationalisticidentity,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Describeindetailaterritorialconflictwhich
indicatesthatpeoplevaluetherightto
divideEarthtosatisfytheirparticular
perceptionsandvalues(e.g.,Bosnia
Herzegovina;Sudan;civilwars;ocean
fishingrights;oceanmineralrights;outer
space,alocallandusedispute;property
rights).
B.Constructamapofborderdisputes
andexplainwhyconflictsresultfrom
overlappingterritorialclaims,as
Identify,prepareamapandexplaina
territorialconflict(e.g.,Kurdistanisan
5.Organizationsareformedtoresolve
conflictwithin,betweenandamong
countriesregardingcontrolofEarths
surface
6.Politicalandsocialrevolutionsoften
involvecontrolofthelandandresources
A.Explainthewaysconflictaffectsthe
cohesivenessandintegrationofcountries,
Examinetheeffectsofinterventionist
policiesbydevelopedcountriesonlesser
developedcountries(e.g.,U.S.warinIraq,
ChinainTibet,SovietsinAfghanistan).
B.Compareandcontrastorganizations
formedtoresolveconflictsbetweenand
amongcountries,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Createamapandcompareandcontrast
thepoliciesandfunctionsofinternational
organizations(e.g.,LeagueofArabStates
59
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
ethnicterritory;JammuandKashmiris
contested;PeruandEcuador;Sudanand
Libya;Asmara;GolanHeights;Cambodia
Thailand;SpratleyIslands).
andtheAfricanUnion;SEATOandANZUS;
NATOandEU).
C.Examinethecausesandconsequences
ofpoliticalandsocialrevolutionsresulting
fromissuesofcontroloflandandnatural
Examinethegeographicaloutcomesand
consequencesofwarsandrevolutions
(e.g.,Eritreanwarofindependence,
VietnamesewarswithFranceandtheU.S.,
CzechoslovakianVelvetRevolution,1990
IraqinvasionofKuwait).
60
EssentialElement:EnvironmentandSociety
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD14
HOWHUMANACTIONSMODIFYTHEPHYSICALENVIRONMENT
Manyoftheimportantissuesfacingmodernsocietyare
theresultofhumanmodificationsofthephysical
environment.Someofthesemodificationsareintended
andpositive;othersunintendedandnegative.These
changeshavepolitical,economic,andsocialimplications
atallscales,fromtheglobaltolocal.Therefore,the
reasonsforandtheconsequencesofhumanmodifications
oftheenvironmentindifferentpartsoftheworldandhow
theyimpacthumanbehavior.
Tosurvive,peopledependonthephysicalenvironment.
Theyadaptandmodifyittosuittheirchangingneedsto
meetlifesnecessities.Intheprocess,theybring
knowledgeandtechnologytobearonphysicalsystems.
Alterationstothebalanceofnaturehavebrought
economicprosperitytosomeareasatsometimesand
createdenvironmentalcrisesinothers.Resulting
modificationsthatvaryinscope,scale,anddurationoften
placeenormousdemandsonthecapacityofphysical
systemstoabsorbandaccommodatesuchchanges.
Contrastthebenignlongtermconsequencesofterracing
hillsidestogrowriceforfoodwiththedramaticdepletion
ofArcticseaiceasaresultofglobalwarmingsincethe
IndustrialRevolution.Becauseofthesesignificant
variationsinimpact,studentsmustunderstandboththe
potentialbenefitsandthecostschangescanhaveonthe
sameenvironment.
Understandingglobalinterdependencebeginswith
awarenessthatitinvolvestheconstantmodificationof
Earthtomeethumanneeds.Whensuccessful,the
relationshipbetweenpeopleandtheirenvironmentis
adaptiveintheshortandlongterm;whenexcessiveand
irresponsible,therelationshipisfractured.Increasingly,
studentswillberequiredtomakedecisionsabout
connectionsbetweenhumanneedsandthephysical
environment.Theymustbeabletounderstandthe
opportunitiesandlimitationsofhowhumanactions
modifythephysicalenvironmentandsetthosechangesin
alocaltoglobalcontext.
modification,2)theuseoftechnology,and3)
consequences.Studentsmustunderstandthe
consequencestheiractionswillhaveonthephysical
environmentandmakeinformed,sustainablechoicesif
theychosetomodifythecurrentphysicalenvironment.
61

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Modification
1.Peoplemodifythephysicalenvironment 1.Humanmodificationsofthephysical
environmentinoneplaceoftenleadto
changesinotherplaces
A.Identifywaysinwhichhumansmodify
thephysicalenvironment,asexemplified
bybeingableto
A.Explainhowthehumaninduced
Usemaps,aerialphotograph,andgraphsto changesinoneplacecanaffectthe
illustratechangeinthephysical
physicalenvironmentinotherplaces,as
environmentofthelocalcommunityor
regionduetothedevelopmentof
Investigatehowtheconstructionofdams
agriculture,transportationnetworks,urban
andleveesonriversinoneregionaffects
growth,and/ortheintroductionofnew
placesdownstream(e.g.,wateravailability
plantandanimalspecies.
forhumanconsumptionandagriculture,
floodcontrol,electricitygeneration,aquatic
andriparianecosystems).
1.Thesignificanceoftheglobalimpactsof
humanmodificationsofthephysical
environment
A.Explaintheglobalimpactsofhuman
changesinthephysicalenvironment,as
Usemapsandphotographstoillustrateand
explainthespatialconsequences,
deliberateandinadvertent,ofhuman
activitiesthathaveglobalimplications(e.g.,
dispersalofplantandanimalspecies,fungi
anddiseaseworldwide;globalpetroleum
production,transport,andconsumption;
globalclimatechange).
TheUseofTechnology
2.Peopleusetechnologytogetwhatthey
needfromthephysicalenvironment
2.Theroleoftechnologyinhuman
modificationsofthephysicalenvironment
A.Identifyhowtechnologycancause
A.Explainwaysinwhichpeopleuse
technologytogetwhattheyneedfromthe changesinthephysicalenvironment,as
physicalenvironment,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Investigatetheenvironmental
Explainthedifferencesbetweenhow
consequencesofbothintendedand
peopleandanimalsusethephysical
unintendedoutcomesofmajor
technologicalchangesinhumanhistory
environment(e.g.,gettingaccesstowater
2.Theroleoftechnologyinthescaleof
humanmodificationofthephysical
environment
A.Evaluatethewaysinwhichtechnology
hasexpandedthescaleofhuman
modificationofthephysicalenvironment,
Evaluatehowthetechnologiesusedin
petroleumproductionandtransportation
62
andfood,keepingwarm,constructing
homes).
(e.g.,useofsteelplowsinagricultural
expansion,coalfiredpowerplantsand
industry,useofpetroleumtopower
automobiles,nuclearwasteandpotential
hazardsofnuclearpowerplants).
haveexpandedthescaleoftheindustry
fromlocalorregionaltoglobaloverthelast
century(e.g.,offshoreoildrilling,oilsands,
supertankers,pipelines).
Consequences
3.Thephysicalenvironmentcanboth
accommodateandbeendangeredby
humanactivities
A.Identifytheimpactofhumanactivities
onthephysicalenvironment,
3.Theconsequencesofhuman
modificationsofthephysicalenvironment
3.Humanimpactonthephysical
environmentcanbemitigated
A.Analyzetheconsequencesofhumans
changingthephysicalenvironment,
A.Identifypossiblesolutionstoscenarios
ofenvironmentalchangecausedbyhuman
modificationofthephysicalenvironment,
Usemapsandphotographstoillustratethe
Identifyandcompareplantsandanimals
environmentaleffectsofhumanactionson
thatusedtobefoundinthelocal
theatmosphere(e.g.,urbanheatislands,
communityorregionwiththosenowfound globalclimatechange,ozonedepletion),
lithosphere(e.g.,landdegradationand
thereandsuggestreasonsforthese
changes(e.g.,expandingagriculture,urban erosion,soilsalinizationandacidification),
growth,waterpollution,theintroductionof hydrosphere(e.g.,surfaceand
groundwaterpollution,desiccation,
invasiveplantandanimalspecies).
saltwaterintrusion,oceanpollution),and
biosphere(e.g.,deforestation,
grassification,desertification,reduced
biodiversity).
Designanillustratedbrochureorwebsiteto
explainthecausesandpossiblesolutions
forahumancausedenvironmental
problem,suchasacidrain(e.g.,coalwith
lowersulfurcontent,scrubberson
smokestacks,energyefficientblast
furnaces,useofalternativeenergies)or
urbanheatislands(e.g.,greenroof
construction,increasedpublic
transportation,energyefficientbuildings).
63
EssentialElement5:EnvironmentandSociety
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD15
HOWPHYSICALSYSTEMSAFFECTHUMANSYSTEMS
Regardlessofspatialscale,Earthssurfacepresentsimages
ofphysicaldiversitythatrelatetoclimates,vegetation,
soils,underlyinggeology,andtopography.Thatdiversity
offersarangeofenvironmentalcontextswherepeople
canliveandwork.Thegeographicallyinformedperson
mustunderstandhowsuccessfullyhumansareabletolive
invariousphysicalsettings,andtherolethephysical
featuresofthosesettingsplayinshapinghumanactivity.
However,physicalsystemsandenvironmental
characteristicsdonot,bythemselves,determinethe
patternsofhumanactivity.
Toliveinanyphysicalenvironment,nomatterhow
accommodatingorhowchallenging,peoplemustdevelop
patternsofspatialorganizationthattakeadvantageofits
opportunitiesandminimizeitsrisks.Iftheincentivesare
greatenough,peopletypicallyadapttotheharshestof
environments,oftenregardlessofcostorrisk.
Aconceptcentraltounderstandingenvironmentsisthe
ideaofcarryingcapacity:themaximumnumberofanimals
and/orpeopleagivenareacansupportatagiventime
underspecifiedlevelsofconsumption,withoutincurring
significantenvironmentaldeterioration.Environments
varyintheircarryingcapacities.Failuretorecognizethat
realitycanleadtoenvironmentaldisaster.Increasingly,
peoplearerecognizingtheirresponsibilitytomanagethe
worldinwaysthataresustainableforfuturegenerations.
Humansemployevolvingtechnologieswhenpossibleto
reducethenegativeeffectsofphysicalsystemsonhuman
activities.However,therearetradeoffsthatresultin
unintendedconsequences.Dambuildingtocontrolriver
floodingisacaseinpoint.Insomepartsoftheworld,it
hasproduceddiminishedsoilreplenishment,increased
watersalinity,andriverbankerosion.Naturalhazardssuch
ashurricanes,tornadoes,andearthquakesalsotaketheir
tolldespiteearlywarningsystems,improvedbuilding
design,andpubliceducationprograms.
Standard15containsthethemesof1)adaptationtothe
environment,2)environmentalopportunities,3)
environmentalconstraints,and4)environmentalhazards.
Studentsmustunderstandthecharacteristicsofphysical
environmentsinalltheircomplexity.Whetheritisanissue
ofmitigatinganaturalhazardorrecognizingthecarrying
capacityofagivenarea,studentsmustbeabletoenvision
thephysicalprocessesandpatternsofaplaceasa
potentialhomeforpeople.Recognizingtherearelimitsto
growth,studentsmustalsoweighthechallengesof
environmentalopportunitiesandconstraintswhenthey
measuretheimpactofphysicalsystemsonhumanactivity.
64

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
AdaptationtotheEnvironment
1.Humansadapttovariationsinthe
physicalenvironment
1.Humansrespondtovariationsin
physicalsystems
A.Describehowpeopleadaptto
variationsinthephysicalenvironment,as
A.Analyzewaysinwhichhumansystems
developinresponsetoconditionsinthe
physicalenvironment,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Identifyanddiscussexamplesofhow
peopleadapttothephysicalenvironment
throughchoiceofclothing,housingstyles,
foodchoices,recreationalactivities,and
landuse,andhowthesevaryindifferent
locations.
Compareandcontrastagricultural
productionsystemsindifferent
environmentalregions(e.g.,terraced
farming,aquiferirrigation,slashandburn
plots)asexamplesofadaptation.
1.Humansocietiesuseavarietyof
strategiestoadapttochangesinthe
physicalenvironment
A.Predicthowsocietiesadapttoreduced
capacityinthephysicalenvironment,as
Examinehistoricalexamplesofhow
societiesadaptedtoreducedcapacityin
thephysicalenvironment(e.g.,migration,
limitingpopulationgrowth,building
aqueductsandcisterns)andpredict
susceptiblelocationswhereadaptation
strategiesmightberequiredinthefuture.
EnvironmentalOpportunities
2.Thephysicalenvironmentprovides
opportunitiesforhumanactivity
A.Identifyexamplesofopportunitiesthe
physicalenvironmentprovidesforpeople,
Describethecharacteristicsofthe
communitysphysicalenvironmentthat
firstattractedpeopleatdifferenttimes
whichenabledthemtothriveandprosper
(e.g.,climate,water,soilorlandforms).
2.Characteristicsofdifferentphysical
environmentsprovideopportunitiesfor
humanactivities
2.Strategieshumansusetotake
advantageofopportunitiesinthephysical
environment
A.Describehowthecharacteristicsof
differentphysicalenvironmentsoffer
opportunitiesforhumanactivities,as
A.Explainandevaluateexamplesof
strategiespeopleusetotakeadvantageof
opportunitiesinthephysicalenvironment,
Giveexamplesofwayspeopletakeaspects
oftheenvironmentintoaccountwhen
decidingonlocationsforhumanactivities
Evaluatetheadvantagesanddisadvantages
ofdamconstruction(e.g.,AswanDam,
ThreeGorgesDam,GlenCanyonDam).
65
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
(e.g.,locatingawaterwheelatariversfall
lineforpower,locatingaskiresort,farming
onfertilefloodplains).
EnvironmentalConstraints
3.Thephysicalenvironmentconstrains
humanactivities
3.Characteristicsofdifferentphysical
environmentsplaceconstraintsonhuman
activities
A.Identifywaysinwhichhumanactivities
areconstrainedbythephysical
A.Explainhowthecharacteristicsof
environment,asexemplifiedbybeingable differentphysicalenvironmentsaffect
to
humanactivities,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Explainhowhumanactivitiesarelimitedby
landformssuchasfloodplains,deltas,
Comparemapsofarablelandareaand
mountains,andslopesinchoicesofland
populationdensitytodeterminethe
use(e.g.,agriculture,humansettlement,
amountoflandareathatisleftforfarming.
transportationnetworks).
3.Strategieshumansusetorespondto
constraintsinthephysicalenvironment
A.Analyzetheconceptof"limitsto
growth"tosuggestwaystoadapttoor
overcometherestrictionsimposedon
humansystemsbyphysicalsystems,as
Identifyphysicalenvironmentsinwhich
limitstogrowtharesignificant(e.g.,
extremelycold,arid,ortropicalclimates
andmountainousorcoastalenvironments),
describetheconditionsthatmaythreaten
humansintheseenvironments(e.g.,rises
inpopulationthatplacepressureon
marginalareas),andthendevelopplansto
alleviatesuchstresses.
B.Predicthowchangesinthephysical
environmentcancausemajorsocietal
disruptionsamongpopulationsatavariety
ofscales,
Comparehistoricaland/orcontemporary
casestudiesinwhichchangesinthe
physicalenvironmentreducedthe
environmentsabilitytosupporthuman
66
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
populationsandresultedinsocietal
disruption(e.g.,theDustBowl,theIrish
potatofamine,theAfricanSahel,
salinizationofsoilinCaliforniasCentral
Valley).
EnvironmentalHazards
4.Environmentalhazardsaffecthuman
activities
A.Describeandlocateenvironmental
hazardsinthephysicalenvironment,
Mapthelocationsofoccurrencesof
tornadoes,earthquakes,andhurricanesin
theUnitedStatesandoverlayamapof
populationdensityandidentifylocations
wherepeopleandhazardsareboth
located.
B.Describetheeffectsofenvironmental
hazardsonhumanactivities,
Describehowpeoplechangetheir
behaviorsinresponsetoenvironmental
hazard(e.g.,knowingevacuationroutes,
buildingastormshelter,practicing
earthquakeortornadodrills).
4.Thetypes,causesandcharacteristicsof
environmentalhazardsatavarietyof
scalesfromlocaltoglobal
4.Humansperceiveandreactto
environmentalhazardsindifferentways
A.Explainthewaysinwhichindividuals
A.Identifythetypesandcharacteristicsof andsocietiesholdvaryingperceptionsof
environmentalhazardsindifferent
naturalhazardsinthephysical
environmentsandhowtheydetermine
environment,
levelsoflivingwithacceptablerisk,
Usemapstoidentifythelocationsof
Usefloodmapstodeterminewhereand
earthquakes,volcanoes,hurricanes,mud
slides,andtornadoesandidentifythetypes whypeoplehavedecidedondifferent
ofthreatstohumansettlement(e.g.,wind levelsofacceptableriskfordifferentland
destruction,fires,flooding,collapseof
uses(e.g.,farmlandversusanairportora
residentialarea).
structures).
B.Explainthecausesandlocationsof
varioustypesofnaturalhazards,
Identifythephysicalenvironmental
conditionsthatcreateorresultindifferent
naturalhazards(e.g.,platetectonics
causingearthquakes,seasurface
temperaturescontributingtohurricane
developmentintheAtlantic,extremecold
frontsinthunderstormsspawning
tornadoes).
B.Explainhowenvironmentalhazards
affecthumansystems,havedifferentways
ofreactingtothem,
ExplainhowhurricanesintheGulfof
MexicoandAtlanticcoastimpactbeaches,
buildings,anddailyhumanactivities
(includingtheeconomicsofinsurance,
rebuilding,andlifestylechoices).
67
EssentialElement:EnvironmentandSociety
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD16
THECHANGESTHATOCCURINTHEMEANING,USE,DISTRIBUTION,ANDIMPORTANCEOFRESOURCES
Aresourceisanyphysicalmaterialconstitutingpartof
resultingfromtherelationshipbetweenresourcesand
employmentchangeasneedsandtechnologieschange.
Earthwhichpeopleneedandvalue.Threebasicresources
land,water,andairareessentialtosurvival.Any
Newtechnologyaltershowpeopleappraiseresources,
naturalmaterialbecomesaresourcewhenhumansvalue
influenceswheretheyliveandwork,anddetermineshow
it.Aresourceisaculturalconcept;therefore,usesand
economicsystemsadapt.
valueschangefromculturetocultureandovertime.Thus,
Itisessentialthatstudentshaveasolidgraspofthe
thegeographicallyinformedpersonmustdevelopan
understandingofthisculturalconceptandthechangesin
differentcategoriesofresources,whytheyarevalued,
thespatialdistribution,quantity,andqualityofresources
whytheyarethecauseoffiercecompetitionamong
atanygiventimeandlocation.
countries,andhowresourcesaredistributedacross
Earthssurface.Inaddition,theymustrecognizethat
maintainingrenewableresourcesatasustainablelevelisa
Thecharacteristicsandquantityofaresourceare
determinedbywhetheritisarenewable,nonrenewable,
globalresponsibility.Sustainabilityisthewisehumanuse
orflowresource.Renewableresourcescanbereplenished
ofresourcesdesignedtoreducestressonthephysical
iftheirenvironmentremainsintact.Nonrenewable
environment.Thus,itisthekeyissueunderpinningall
industrialrelatedecologicalproblems.Asaresult,
resourcescanbeextractedandusedonlyonce.Flow
resources,suchaswater,wind,andsunlight,mustbeused
studentswillbechallengedthroughtheirknowledgeof
whenandwheretheyoccurbecausetheyareneither
geographytoaddressthisquestionthroughouttheir
renewablenornonrenewable.
lifetimes:Canourpresentindustrybasedandconsumer
orientedlifestylecontinuewithoutcausingirreversible
Resourcelocationinfluencesthedistributionofpeople
ecologicaldamageandperhapsevenecologicalcollapse?
andtheiractivities.Peoplesettlewheretheycanmakea
livingandwheretheresourcestheyneedareavailable
fertilesoils,potablewater,fuelsources,andadequate
buildingmaterials.Thepatternsofpopulationdistribution
68
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Types&MeaningsofResources
1.Thecharacteristicsofrenewable,
nonrenewable,andflowresources
1.Peoplehavedifferentviewpoints
regardingresourceuseandvalue
1.Resourcedevelopmentandusechange
overtime
A.Identifyexamplesofhowculturesdiffer A.Describehowchangingtechnologies
intheirdemandanduseofresources,as
thathaveleadtoglobalizationcanaffect
thedevelopmentanduseofresources,as
Createachartwhichidentifiesrenewable, Discussexamplesofresourcesthathave
nonrenewable,andflowintermsofnatural beenhighlyvaluedinoneperiodbutless
Discusswhymassconsumptionassociate
resources.
valuedinanother(e.g.,theuseofsaltand
withglobalizationrequiresenormous
amountsofnaturalresourcesworldwide
spicesforthepreservationoffoodbefore
(e.g.,China'semergenceastheworld's
refrigeration,freezing,anddehydration;
largestconsumerofcoalandcars;India's
therejectionofpetroleumasanuisance
growingcarcultureandemergenceasa
productknownasgroundoilbeforethe
inventionoftheinternalcombustion
consumerorientedsociety).
engine).
B.Explaintherelationshipbetween
resourcesandtheexploration,
colonization,andsettlementofdifferent
regionsoftheworld,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
A.Identifythecharacteristicsof
renewable,nonrenewable,andflow
DescribethepostColumbiangeographic
consequencesofthedevelopmentof
mercantilism,imperialism,andcolonialism.
LocationandDistributionofResources
2.Thespatialdistributionofresources
A.Identifythelocationsofexamplesof
eachtypeofresource,asexemplifiedby
2.Thespatialdistributionanduseof
resources
2.Thespatialdistributionofresources
affectspatternsofhumansettlement
A.Identifythelocation,use,and
A.Analyzetherelationshipsbetweenthe
69
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
beingableto
distributionpatternsofmajorresourcesin
theworld,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
spatialdistributionofsettlementand
Usingastate,country,orworldmap,locate
examplesofvarioustypesofrenewable,
Describehowpatternsofsettlementare
nonrenewable,andflowresources.
associatedwiththelocationofresources
(e.g.,theorganizationoffarmingactivities
aroundagglomeratedsettlementsin
SoutheastAsia;thespatialarrangementof
villages,townandcitiesintheNorth
Americancornbelt).
Describehowsettlementpatternsare
alteredasaresultofthedepletionof
humanresources(e.g.,theshrinkingofthe
AralSea,theexpandingAfricanSahel,oil
boomtownsinRussiaorAlaska).
B.Describethepositiveandnegative
consequencesofresourceuseinthe
contemporaryworld,asexemplifiedby
B.Describethephysicalprocessesthat
influencetheformationanddistributionof beingableto
renewable,nonrenewable,andflow
Identifyhowthedemandforresources
acrosscountriesdrivesglobaltrade,
conflict,andsocialjustice,andevaluatethe
Explainhowaphysicalprocess,suchas
consequencesoftheseactions.
tectonicactivity,playedaroleinthe
formationandlocationoffossilfuelssuch
ascoalandpetroleum.
SustainableResourceUse&Management
3.Thesustainableuseofresourcesindaily 3.Humanscanmanageresourcesto
life
sustainorprolongtheiruse
A.Identifystrategiesdevelopedatthe
locallevelthatsupportsanequitableand
sociallyefficientallocationofresources,as
A.Explainhowrenewableresourcescan
becontinuouslyreplenishedthrough
sustainableuse,asexemplifiedbybeing
ableto
Describethebenefitsofcommunity
programsdesignedtocurbpollutionand
conserveresources(e.g.,reusingand
recyclingpaperandplasticgrocerybagsin
Investigateandexplainhowsustainable
managementtechniquescanbeappliedin
farming,forestry,andfishing.
3.Policiesandprogramsthatpromotethe
sustainableuseandmanagementof
resourcesimpactpeopleandthe
environment
A.Evaluatethecostsandbenefitsofusing
varioustypesofrenewable,
nonrenewable,andflowresources,as
Createachartshowingtheadvantagesand
disadvantagesofusingvariousresources
70
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
localsupermarketsandfooddistribution
centers;settingupcollectioncentersfor
usedcomputers,brokenmicrowaves,and
obsoletetelevisionsets).
B.Identifyhowhumanscanuse
technologytoprolongtheuseof
nonrenewableresourcesandutilizeflow
andthenrankthembasedonvarious
criteria,suchasavailability,sustainability,
pollution,andexpense
B.Identifythewaysinwhichresourcescan Explainhowthedevelopmentanduseof
bereusedandrecycled,asexemplifiedby technologicaladvances,suchashybrid
beingableto
enginesincars,canextendthesupplyof
nonrenewableresources.
Listtheadvantagesanddisadvantagesof
recyclingandreusingmaterialsmadefrom
resourcesthatpeoplevalue.
B.Evaluatesustainabilitypolicydecisions
regardingtheuseofresourcesindifferent
regionsandatdifferentspatialscalesin
theworld,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
EvaluatestrategiesoftheUnitedNations
andothergovernmentalandnon
governmentalinternationalagenciesin
theireffortstobringsustainable
developmentintothemainstream(e.g.,
UNsponsoredCommissiononEnvironment
andDevelopment,theInternationalSolar
EnergySociety,PartnershipsforChanges,
etc.).
C.Analyzehowthedemandforresources
inrapidlydevelopingcountries&
supranationalorganizationsimpacts
economies,populationdistribution,and
technologicaldevelopment,asexemplified
bybeingableto
Examinetheimpactofgovernmentand
privatesectorpolicydecisionsasthey
relatetoresourcedegradationand
depletionacrosstheworldfromavarietyof
perspectives(e.g.,theargumentfor
"bottomup"policymaking;thecriticism
thatsustainabledevelopmentis
oxymoronic;thepositionthatpovertyisthe
basiccauseofEarth'secologicalproblems,
71
Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
etc.).
72
EssentialElement:TheUsesofGeography
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD17
HOWTOAPPLYGEOGRAPHYTOINTERPRETTHEPAST
Thegeographicallyinformedpersonunderstandsthe
importanceofbringingthespatialandenvironmental
perspectiveofgeographytobearontheeventsofhistory
andviceversa,andthevalueoflearningaboutthe
geographiesofthepast.Anunderstandingofgeography
informsanunderstandingofhistory.Thegeographiesof
pasttimescarryimportantmessagesforunderstanding
theworldoftoday.Theeventsofhumanhistoryhave
playedoutonavastandcomplexgeographicstage;
countlessgenerationshavetriedtomakethebestofwhat
Earthhasprovidedintheformofclimate,landandwater
resources,plantsandanimals,andtransportationroutes.
Allofthesethingsareshapedbytheongoinginteractions
ofphysicalandhumansystemsandhavecreatedthe
contextsinwhichhistoryhasunfolded.
Standard17isorganizedaroundthreethemes:Change,
Perception,andtheInfluenceofGeographicContexton
History.Historyisaboutchangeovertime,spaceand
environment.Theeventsofhistorytakeplacewithin
geographiccontexts(Standard4).Studentsneedto
understandthefundamentalprocessesofchangeinthese
geographiccontexts.Eventsareinfluencedbypeoples
perceptionsofgeographiccontexts(Standard6).
Byknowingwhattheworldwaslikeinthepast,howitwas
perceivedbydifferentpeopleandgroupsatagivenplace
atagiventime,andhowitchanged,studentsmaybe
betterabletointerpretandunderstandmajorhistorical
issues.Todothisrequiresunderstandingthespatial
organizationoftheworld(Standard3)inthepast;
consideringthewaysinwhichdifferentpeopleunderstood
andassessedthephysicalandhumangeographical
featuresoftheirspatialandenvironmentalcontexts;and
payingattentiontothebeliefsandattitudesofpeoplein
thepastregardingtheenvironment,humanmigration,
landuse,andtheirownrightsandprivilegesversusthose
ofothers.
73

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Change
1.Places,regions,andenvironments
changeovertime
A.Describehowplaces,regions,and
environmentschangeovertime,as
Prepareatimelineillustratingchangesin
landuse,settlement,housing,and
economicactivitiesinacommunityor
regionanddescribefactorsthathave
contributedtothechanges(e.g.,migration,
demographicchanges,economic
conditions,etc.).
1.Thewaysinwhichgeographic
characteristicsandspatialorganizationof
places,regions,andenvironments
changedinthepast
1.Theprocessesthatcausedchangeinthe
geographiccharacteristicsandspatial
organizationofplaces,regions,and
environmentsinthepast
A.Describehowgeographiccharacteristics
andspatialorganizationofplaces,regions,
andenvironmentshavechangedinthe
past,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
A.Explaintheprocessesthathavecaused
changesinthegeographiccharacteristics
andspatialorganizationofplaces,regions,
andenvironmentsinthepast,as
Describeandcomparepopulation
settlementpatternsduringdifferent
historicperiodsandindifferentregions
(e.g.,contrastreasonsforandlocationsof
ancientcultureswithcontemporary
settlementpatterns;tracechangesinthe
internalstructure,form,andfunctionof
medievalEuropeevolvingintomodern
Europe;discussdifferencesbetween
colonialsettlementpatternsinNorth
America;useIGISwebsites,suchas
NationalAtlas,totracethewestward
expansionoftheU.S.throughacquisitions
andgovernmentincentivesandtocorrelate
U.S.expansiontothephysical
environment).
Tracethediffusionofaphenomenonand
theeffectsithashadonregionsofcontact
(e.g.,thespreadofparticularillnessessuch
asbubonicplagueorspeciessuchasthe
Africanhoneybee;diffusionofcellphone
technology;themigrationofurbandwellers
tothesuburbsin20thcenturyAmerica).
Perception
74
2.Perceptionsofpeople,places,regions,
andenvironmentschangeovertime
A.Describehowperceptionsofpeople,
places,regions,andenvironmentschange
overtime,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Readstoriesineitherprimaryorsecondary
documentsaboutchildreninthepast,
describetheirattitudestowardtheplaces
inwhichtheylived,andcomparethose
attitudeswiththeattitudesofchildren
today.
2.Changesinperceptionsofpeople,
2.Pastperceptionsofpeople,places,
regions,andenvironmentsaffectedevents places,regions,andenvironmentsaffected
history
andconditions
A.Describehowpastperceptionsof
people,places,regions,andenvironments
affectedeventsandconditions,as
A.Describehowchangesinperceptionsof
people,places,regions,andenvironments
haveaffectedhistory,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Explainhowgeographicperceptions
impacteddecisionsofandactionsbyan
individual,agroup,oranation(e.g.,outline
howattitudesaboutaplacewere
influencedbyadvancementsintechnology,
therebyaffectingsettlementpatternsinthe
UnitedStates,suchasperceptionsofliving
inFlorida,thedevelopmentoftheprairie,
andcontinuingreappraisalofAlaskaasa
placetosettle;explainhowprimary
documents,suchasletters,promotional
literature,advertisements,andnewspapers
innineteenthcenturyAmericashaped
perceptionsoftheAmericanWest,
includingpush/pullfactorsleadingto
settlement;explainhowdiffering
perceptionsoflocal,regional,national,and
globalresourceshavestimulated
competitionfornaturalresources,suchas
theconflictsbetweenNativeAmericans
andcolonists,theInuitandmigrantsto
Alaskasince1950,andthedevelopmentof
theNationalParkSystem).
Tracechangesinattitudesaboutagroup,a
location,orageographicfeature,andthe
impactofthosechangesovertime(e.g.,
perceptionsaboutindigenouspeoplesas
expressedbyotherculturegroups;ideas
aboutthevalueofanenvironmental
elementsuchasawaterfall,orfire;
attitudestowardwetlandsintheUSfrom
1700totoday).
75
Influenceofgeographyonhistory
3.Theeffectsofgeographiccontexts
3.thewaysinwhichthegeographical
(characteristicsofplacesand
contexthasfundamentallyshapedevents
environments)onthespatialorganization, andconditionsofhistory
conditions,andeventsinthepast
A.Analyzeandmakegeneralizationsabout
A.Identifytheinfluenceofgeographic
thewaysinwhichphysicalandhuman
contextsoneventsandconditionsinthe
A.Analyzetheinfluenceofthe
past,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
geographicalcontextonhistoricevents
characteristicshaveinfluencedthe
andconditions,asexemplifiedbybeing
developmentofhistoricalevents,
Usemapsandnarrativeaccountstotrace
ableto
movements,andconditions,as
historiceventsinaspatialcontext,(e.g.,
Locateandanalyzethesignificanceof
readaccountsofPaulReveresrideand
physicalfeaturesthathaveinfluenced
Evaluatethephysicalandhumanfactors
followtherouteonamapnotingtherole
historicalevents(e.g.,evaluatetheroleof
thathaveledtolargescalechangesinlocal
physicalandhumangeographyplayedin
humanpopulationsovertime(e.g.,famines
theevent;describetheinfluenceofthesite hydrologicfeatures,suchasthefallline,
andconflictsthathaveyieldedlarge
ofabattleonthecourseoftheconflict).
CumberlandGap,theOhioRiver,the
populationshift,interaction,andsocial
OgallalaAquifer,orartesianwellsofthe
GreatPlainsinthesettlementoftheUnited change;politicalandsocialperspectives
States;investigatethelocationandlevelof thatledtowidespreadmovementof
successinusingmountainpassesinmilitary "explorers",andthetechnological
campaigns,relatephysicalgeographic
innovationsthatsupportedthese).
featuresandlevelsoftechnologytothe
courseandoutcomeofbattlesandwars,
forexample,weatherconditionsatValley
ForgeandtheoutcomeoftheAmerican
Revolution,weatherandbeachfeatureson
DDayduringWorldWarII;tracetheroleof
oceancurrentsandprevailingwindsin
explorationbyColumbus,theforced
transportofAfricanstoNorthandSouth
America,thetravelsofMarcoPolo).
3.Geographiccontexts(characteristicsof
placesandenvironments)influenced
conditionsandeventsinthepast
76
EssentialElement:TheUsesofGeography
GEOGRAPHYSTANDARD18
HOWTOAPPLYGEOGRAPHYTOINTERPRETTHEPRESENTANDPLANFORTHEFUTURE
perspectivestoidentifypossiblesolutions,predicttheir
Thegeographicallyinformedpersonunderstandsthat
geographyisforlife,nowandinthefuture,andnotsimply
consequences,andimplementthebestsolutions.
anexerciseforitsownsake.Astheworldbecomesmore
Standard18isorganizedaroundthreethemes:Change,
complexandinterconnectedasaresultofglobalization,
Perceptions,andtheInfluenceofGeographicContexton
improvementsintransportationandcommunication
thePresentandFuture.Studentsneedtounderstandthat
technologies,changesinphysicalsystems,andincreased
theworldinwhichtheyliveisdynamicandthataction
cooperationandconflicttheneedforgeographic
theytakecanhelptoshapethefuture.Theyalsoneedto
knowledge,skills,andperspectivesincreasesamongthe
understandtheirperceptionsofspatialpatternsand
worldspeople.WhileStandard17focusesonthe
contexts(connectionsandmovementsbetweenplaces;
importanceofgeographytounderstandingtheeventsof
theintegrationoflocal,regional,national,andglobal
thepast,Standard18emphasizesthevalueandpowerof
scales;diversity,andsystems)andphysicalpatternsand
geographyincomprehendingcurrenteventsandplanning
processes(evolvingphysicalsystems;interconnections
forthefutureingeographicallyappropriateand
betweenlocalandglobalenvironments;impactsofpeople
sustainableways.
onthephysicalenvironment)influencestudentsabilities
Geographyisakeytonations,peoples,andindividuals
toposeandanswergeographicquestionsabouttheworld
inwhichtheyliveandtheworldinwhichtheywishtolive
beingabletodevelopacoherentunderstandingofthe
causes,meanings,andeffectsofthephysicalandhuman
inthefuture(whatisnowandwhatoughttobe).
eventsthatoccurandarelikelytooccurinthefuture
Finally,studentsneedtounderstandthatgeographic
onEarth.Consequently,thepracticalapplicationsof
contextplaysaroleincreatingtheworldinwhichtheylive
geographyneedtobefosteredinallstudentsin
andthatthroughadeepunderstandingofgeographyand
preparationforlifeastheresponsiblecitizensandleaders
applicationofthespatialandenvironmentalperspectives
oftomorrow.Creatingeffective,ethical,andlasting
ofgeography,theycansolvesignificantproblems,make
solutionstotheworldspressingproblemsrequiresthat
reasoneddecisions,andtakepositiveactiononavarietyof
todaysstudentsmatureintoadultswhocanmakeskilled
issues.
andinformeduseofgeographicknowledge,skills,and
77

Bytheendofgrade4,
Bytheendofgrade8,
Bytheendofgrade12,
Change
1.Thedynamiccharacterofplaces,
regions,andenvironments
A.Identifyandpredictthewaysinwhich
places,regions,andenvironmentschange
todayandpredicthowtheymaybe
differentinthefuture,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Evaluateafamiliarplace,answerthree
questions:Iwillkeep;Iwillchange;
andIwillremove;toconsiderhowto
planforthesustainedfutureoftheplace,
anddrawcartoonstripsormakestory
bookstoillustratetheplans.
1.Theinteractionofphysicalandhuman
systemsshapesconditionstodayandin
thefuture
1.Theprocessesthatcausechangesin
geographiccontext(physicalandhuman
conditionsinaplace)
A.Describeandpredictthewaysinwhich
theinteractionofphysicalandhuman
systemsshapesconditionstodayandis
likelytointhefuture,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
A.Explaintheprocessesthroughwhichthe
geographiccontext(physicalandhuman
conditionsofaplace)isconstantly
changing,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Analyzetheinteractionbetweenphysical
andhumansystemstounderstandpossible
causesandeffectsofcurrentconditionson
Earthandtospeculateonfuture
conditions,forexample,onaTchart,
comparelifetodayinavarietyofcitiesin
thedevelopingworld(economic,political,
social,andenvironmentalconditions)to
whatthefuturemaybeasdevelopment
continues;explainandshowhowincreasing
demandforwaterresourcesimpactsthe
physicalenvironmentandhuman
conditionsandsuggestwaysto
replenish/preservewaterresources,such
asLakeChad,AralSea,LakeMonoinCAon
abeforeandafterdiorama;preparean
editorialtocommentabouttheimpactof
usingfossilfuelsandthepotentialfor
enhancedenergyrecoveryandothernew
Analyzeprocessesthroughwhichphysical
andhumancharacteristicsofaplace
changeandpredictlikelyconditionsforthe
future(e.g.,distributionofaninvasive
speciesonarelativelysmallislandlikeone
inHawaii,alargerislandlikeAustralia,and
alargecontinentlikeNorthAmerica;
populationsofdifferentlowlyingcoastal
regions,andtheviewsoftheseresidents
andtheircountrymenaboutclimate
change;causesandeffectsoffluctuations
intradebetweentworegions,including
ripplesaffectingotherregionsand
feedbackloopsthatreduceorintensify
issues
78
energyalternativeresourcesinthefuture.
Perception
2.People'sperceptionsofcurrent
geographiccontexts(humanandphysical
characteristics)affecttheirexpectations
forconditionsinthefuture
2.People'sperceptionsaffecttheirviews
ofthepresent,anddecisionsaboutthe
future
2.People'sperceptionsaffecttheirviews
ofcontemporaryissuesandwaysto
addressthem
A.Describehowperceptionsaffect
A.Evaluatetheroleperceptionplaysin
planningforthepresentandthefuture,as people'sviewsofcontemporaryissuesand
evaluationofstrategiesforaddressing
them,asexemplifiedbybeingableto
Integratemultiplepointsofviewtoanalyze
Analyzesourcesofimpactonpeople's
andevaluatecontemporarygeographic
viewsoncurrentgeographicissuesand
issues,e.g.,writeaskit,play,ordialogue
Comparethelivesofchildrenindifference fortwopeoplewithdifferentpointsofview theirexpectationsforthefuture(e.g.,
exploretheproductionanddisposalof
onthesamegeographicissue,suchasa
societiesintermsoftheirattitudesand
municipalsolidwasteanditsvarious
feelingsaboutpersonallife,education,life foresterandaconservationistcreatinga
impactsondifferentpartsofthesociety;
strategicplanfortheuseofanational
goals,genderrelations,andthe
mapandanalyzepatternsofwater
environmentandhavestudentsidentifythe forestoramanandawomandiscussing
consumptionandpriceindifferentpartsof
rolethesedifferencesplayindailydecision genderbaseddivisionsoflaborina
nearbycommunities;mappublicprotests
developingnation.
making.
accordingtosize,topic,anddurationin
contemporaryUnitedStates).
A.Describehowperceptionsofpeople,
places,regions,andenvironmentsinthe
presentaffectpeoplesworldviewsand
plansforthefuture,asexemplifiedby
beingableto
Influenceofgeographyonthepresentandfuture
3.Thegeographiccontext(physicaland
humanconditionsinaplace)influences
currentconditionsandeventsandplans
forthefuture
3.Thegeographiccontext(physicaland
humanconditionsinaplace)playsarole
inproblemsolvingnowandplanningfor
thefuture.
A.Analyzethegeographiccontextto
explaincontemporarysocialand
environmentalissues,asexemplifiedby
A.Identifyalternativewaysofaddressing
thegeographicnatureofcurrentand
futuresocialandenvironmentalissues,as
3.Strategiesformakinggeographically
informeddecisionsaboutcurrentand
futureissues
A.Evaluatestrategiesderivedfrom
differentperspectivesforaddressingthe
geographicnatureofcurrentandfuture
socialandenvironmentalissues,as
79
beingableto
Describeacurrentsocialorenvironmental
issueandthewayshumansandthe
environmentinteracttoaffecttheissue
bothpositivelyandnegatively.
Workingroupstodevelopspecific
recommendations,illustratedbymaps,to
identifyandaddresscurrentgeographic
issues,suchasbuildingadamand
reservoir,revitalizationofadeclining
downtownarea,orboundarydisputes,
havingeachgrouppresentitsstrategiesfor
innovativealternatives.
Identifyaspectrumofviewsregarding
contemporarysocialandenvironmental
challengesandassessthegeographic
factorsinfluencingthestakeholders(e.g.,
visionsfromlocalcitizensabouttherelative
importanceofprivacyversussecurity;
opinionsfromresidentsofmultiplestates
aboutasharedresourceandaboutthe
mechanismsidentifiedforseeking
resolution;viewpointsfromaroundthe
worldabouttherelationshipsbetween
economicdevelopment,resource
consumption,population,and
environmentalalteration).
80
THEROLEOFPARENTSINGEOGRAPHYEDUCATION
Parentsplayaveryimportantroleintheeducationoftheir
children.Theycanreinforcetheconceptsandskillslearnedin
school.Childrensattitudestowardschoolandschoolsubjects
reflecttheirparentsattitudes.Researchindicatesthepositive
effectonlanguageacquisitionwhenparentsreadwiththeir
children.Thesamemaybetrueforgeography.Parentscan
readmapsandlookatatlaseswiththeirchildren.Theycantalk
aboutplacesvisited,wherethingssuchasclothesandfruit
comefrom,andhowgeographyisalwaysinandonthenews.
Parentalinterestinwhatchildrenaredoingintheclassroom
sendsapowerfulmessagetobothchildrenandthecommunity
atlargeabouttheimportanceofschooling.
TheNationalGeographyStandardswillenablestudentstouse
theirgeographicknowledgeinreallifesituationsandasabasis
forlifelonglearning.Eachofthestandardshaspractical
applicationsthatencouragestudentstoknowandunderstand
geographicconcepts,andtousetheskillsofgeographicinquiry
indecisionmakingthroughouttheirlives.Thestudyof
geographyisaninterpretiveendeavorthatdrawsonthenatural
andsocialsciencesandthehumanitiestohelpstudentsdevelop
aninformedworldview.Asacoresubject,studentswillbe
expectedtodemonstrategeographiccompetenceinarangeof
learningbehaviors,including:
Recallingrelevantcontentfromthesubjectmatterof
geographyaspresentedintheNationalGeographyStandards
Understandingtherichanddiversecharacteristicsofpeople,
placesandenvironmentsacrosstheworld
Interpretingmaps,globes,andothergeospatialtoolsand
technologiessuchasaerialphotographs,satelliteproduced
images,GeographicInformationSystems(GIS),andtheGlobal
PositioningSystem(GPS)
Understandingthatspaceandspatialrelationshipsare
fundamentalcomponentsofhumaninterdependenceonthe
local,regional,andglobalscales
Recognizingthespatialrelationshipsbetweenpeopleand
theirenvironments
Distinguishingfactfromopinion,relevantfromirrelevant,and
reliablefromunreliableinformation
Accessinggeographicinformationfromavarietyofprintand
electronicsources
Solvingproblemssystematicallyusingthemethodsof
geographicinquiry
GeographyforLifeencouragesparentstobecomeinvolvedwith
theirchildrenseducationandtosupportschoolprogramsthat
teachgeography.Thefollowingactivitiesarepractical
applicationsofthesubjectmatter,skillsandperspectives
featuredintheNationalGeographyStandards.Allofthe
activitiesareintendedtobebothinterestingandenjoyable.
Sometaskscallforparentsandtheirchildrentodogeography
together.Othertasksaredesignedforchildrentocompleteon
theirown.Alloftheseactivitiesmaybeusedasanindicationof
howwellstudentsarelearninggeographyandmayinspire
parentalinterestaswell.Theyexemplifythepowerof
geographyasawayofunderstandingEarthasthehomeof
humankind.
81
WhatDoesYourFourthGraderKnow?
CANYOURCHILD
>Giveclearandconciseverbaldirectionstoyoudescribinga
routebetweenhomeandschool?
>Describethepurposeoflatitudeandlongitudeand,usinga
worldmaporaglobe,identifytheabsolutelocationofsome
specificplaces(e.g.,Chicago,Illinois,ortheCapeofGood
Hope)?
>Locatethesevencontinentsandfouroceansonaworldmap,
andpointtoandidentifyseveralcountriesinSouthAmerica,
Europe,Africa,andAsia?
>Describetherelativelocationofyourlocalcommunityin
termsofitssituationinyourstateandregion(e.g.,Mytownis
halfwaybetweenthestatecapitalandthelargestcityinthe
state.MystateisinthesouthcentralpartoftheUnited
States.)?
>Measurethestraightlinedistancebetweentwoplacesonan
interstatehighwaymapusingthebarscale?
>LocatespecificphysicalfeaturesonamapofNorthAmerica
(e.g.,theOzarkPlateau,theCentralValleyofCalifornia,the
SusquehannaRiver,andLakeOkeechobee?
>LocatespecifichumanfeaturesonamapofNorthAmerica
(e.g.,thecornbelt,NewEngland,thecapitaloftheUnited
States,andwheretheDeclarationofIndependencewas
signed)?
>Citespecificexamplesfromanywhereintheworldtoillustrate
environmentalissues(e.g.deforestationandairandwater
pollution)?
>Explainhowthelocalphysicalenvironmenthasaffectedthe
waypeopleliveinyourcommunity(e.g.,howithasinfluenced
choicesofbuildingmaterials,housingstyles,andtypesof
flowersandvegetablesgrown)?
>Findananswertoageographicquestionusingan
encyclopedia,worldatlas,gazetteer,computerdatabase,or
otherresources?
>Tellastoryaboutwhatitisliketotraveltoorliveinanother
regionofthecountryortheworld?
>Takeyouforawalkinafamiliarenvironmentanddescribe
someofthephysicalandhumanfeaturesofthelandscaper?
>Describeinhisorherownwordswhatgeographyisabout?
WhatDoesYourEighthGraderKnow?
CANYOURCHILD
>Describethelocationandsomeofthephysicalandhuman
characteristicsofplacesmentionedinoneofthedays
newscasts?
>Drawandmapandgivedetailedinstructionsonhowtogetto
yourhomefromspecificpointsinthecommunitythatcouldbe
usedbypeoplewhowishtovisit?
>Frommemorydrawamaponasinglesheetofpaperand
outlineandlabelthemajorphysicalfeatures(e.g.,continents,
82
oceans,majormountainranges,significantdesertregionsand
riversystems)andimportanthumanfeatures(e.g.,majorcities
oftheworld,imaginarylinessuchasthePrimeMeridianand
theEquator)?
>WritealettertoapeerinanotherpartoftheUnitedStatesor
worldexplainingthephysicalandhumancharacteristicsofyour
community?
>Explainthecausesandconsequencesofseasonstoyounger
sisters,brothers,orfriends?
>Usearoadatlasorothersourcesofinformation,suchas
travelbrochuresandguidebooks,toplanapersonaltripand
identifypointsofinterestalongtheroute?
>Watchatelevisionshowormoviewithyouanddiscussthe
geographicaspectsofit?
>Explainwhymanyofthefreshfruitsandvegetablesinthe
supermarketinJanuarycomefromcountriesintheSouthern
Hemisphere?
>Describethestagesofhistoricaldevelopmentandcultural
landscapeofanethniccommunityinyourareaornearby
community?
>Discussthedescriptionsofdifferentplaces(theirgeography)
fromabookyouhavebothread?
>Explaininafewsentencesthemeaningofagraph,chart,map,
ordiagramprintedinanewspaper,newsmagazine,or
textbook?
>AnswerthekindsofquestionsthatareaskedintheNational
GeographyBeeortheInternationalGeographyOlympiad?
>Useanalmanacorothersourcestoanswerquestions
concerningageographictopic(e.g.,populationoftheworld;the
lowesttemperatureeverrecorded;grossdomesticproduct
{GDP}statisticsforselectedcountriesinSoutheastAsia;the
crimeratesinworldcitieswithpopulationsinexcessofthree
millionpeople)?
>Writeasetofinstructionsonwhatyourfamilyshoulddoin
caseofanaturaldisaster(e.g.,hurricane,earthquake,mud
slide,fire,tornado,blizzard,flood)?
>Describe,inhisorherownwords,whatgeographyisabout?
WhatDoesYourTwelfthGraderKnow?
CANYOURCHILD
>Locateonaworldmapsomeoftheplacesmentionedona
televisionorradionewsbroadcastanddescribethecultural,
political,andeconomiccharacteristicsofthoseplaces?
>Namethreelocationsinyourcommunityorregionthathave
beenaffectedbypollution,identifythesourcesandtypesof
pollution,andexplainhoweachtypeaffectsthepeopleliving
there?
>Drawfrommemoryamapoftheworld,outlinesignificant
nations,andusethemaptoexplainpatternsofthestandardof
livingintodaysworld?
83
>Planatourofyourcommunityforavisitingforeignexchange
studentorsistercitygroupthathighlightthecommunitysmost
significantphysicalandhumangeographiccharacteristics?
>Useabusschedule,subwaymap,orcitymaptoplanatrip
fromhometoasportsarena,theater,orotherpointofinterest
usingpublictransportation?
>Exchangepointsofviewwithaseniorcitizenaboutchangesin
yourcommunityoverthepastseveraldecadesandlikely
changesinthefuture?
>Holdaconversationwithyouonthegeographicdifferences
betweendevelopinganddevelopedregionsoftheworldand
discusstheconsequencesofthesedifferences?
>Useatopographicmaptolayoutafivemilehikethroughthe
countrysideorlocalcommunity,noticingsuchitemsas
elevation,slope,distance,direction,andgeographicfeatures
alongtheroute?
>Explainthegeographicreasonsforthenaturalhazardsinthe
PacificRimregion(e.g.,platetectonicsandsubductioncausing
earthquakesandvolcaniceruptionsandcyclonicwindpatterns
causingtyphoons)?
>UsesuchregionalallianceidentifiersasOPEC(Organizationof
PetroleumExportingCountries),NATO(NorthAtlanticTreaty
Organization),andOAS(OrganizationofAmericanStates)
comfortablyinaconversationaboutthechanginggeopolitical
realitiesofthepostColdWarworld?
>Talkaboutcollegeandjoboptionsafterhighschoolinterms
ofsuchgeographicfeaturesasclimate,accessibility,proximity
tomajormetropolitanareas,ordistancefromhome?
>Describetheeconomicconditionsintheareawhereyoulive
andexplaintheareaslinkagestootherpartsoftheword?
>ExplainhowjobopportunitiesindifferentpartsoftheUnited
Statesarerelatedtotradewithothercountries?
>Describe,inhisorherownwords,whatgeographyisabout?
84

Glossary
absolutelocationthelocationofapointonEarth'ssurface
whichcanbeexpressedbyagridreference(e.g.,latitudeand
longitude).
accessibilitytherelativeeasewithwhichaplacecanbe
reachedfromotherplaces.
acculturationtheprocessofadoptingthetraitsofacultural
group.
acidprecipitation(rainorsnow)precipitationwithapHvalue
of5.6orlower(7isneutral,lessthan7increasinginacidity,and
greaterthan7increasinginalkalinity).Precipitationbecomes
excessivelyacidicwhenoxidesofsulfurandnitrogenreleased
bycombustionoffossilfuelscombinewithmoistureinthe
atmospheretoformacids.
aerialphotographaphotographofpartofEarth'ssurface
usuallytakenfromanairplane.
agribusinessthestrategyofapplyingbusinesspracticestothe
operationofspecializedcommercialfarmsinordertoachieve
efficiencyofoperationandincreasedprofitmargins.
alluvialfanasemiconicallandformthatoccurswherea
canyonexitsamountainrange.Itiscomposedofstreamand
debrisflowmaterialsthataredepositedasflowspreadsoutand
slowsdownonceitexitsthecanyon.
AntarcticCirclelatitude66.5Sthatencirclesthecontinentof
Antarctica.FromthislatitudetotheSouthPole,daylightlasts
fortwentyfourhoursonthewintersolstice,usuallyDecember
22;whereasonthesummersolstice,usuallyJune22,
continuousdarknessprevails.
aquiferanundergroundpermeablerocklayerwithinwhich
waterisstoredandcanflow,andfromwhichwatercanbe
extractedforuseatthesurface.
arablelandanareasuitableforgrowingcrops.
archipelagoachainofislands.
artifactsthematerialmanifestationsofaculturesuchastools,
clothing,andfoods.
assimilationtheacceptance,byoneculturegroupor
community,ofculturaltraitsnormallyassociatedwithanother.
atmospheretheenvelopeofgases,aerosols,andother
materialsthatsurroundsEarthandisheldclosebygravity.The
gasesaredominatedbynitrogen(78.1percent),oxygen(20.9
percent),argon(0.93percent),andcarbondioxide(0.03
percent)andincludemuchsmallerpercentagesofhelium,
methane,andhydrogen.Watervapor,clouds,dust,meteor
85
debris,saltcrystals,andpollutantsalsocontributetothe
atmosphere'smass,whichisconcentratedwithinalayerthat
extendsabouttwelvemilesfromEarth'ssurface.
atmosphericpressurecellsareasoftheatmospherewith
relativelyhighorlowbarometricpressurereferredtosimplyas
"highs"and"lows."WindsonEartharecausedbyairmovement
fromareasofhighpressuretoareasoflowpressure.Large
areasofpermanenthighandlowpressureexistinginbandsor
beltsaroundEarthinfluenceworldclimatepatternsandocean
currents(e.g.,theSiberianHighandtheIcelandicLow).
balanceofpowerageopoliticaltermidentifyingeffortsonthe
partofnationstomaintainanequilibriumofeconomicand
militarypowerasameansofcheckingthepredominanceofone
nationorcoalitionofnations.
balanceoftradeaneconomictermidentifyingthedifference
invalueoveraperiodoftimebetweenacountry'simportsand
exportsofgoodsandservices;afavorablebalanceoftrade
resultsinatradesurpluswhileanunfavorableoneresultsina
tradedeficit.
barrierislandalong,narrowoffshoreislandbuiltbydeposits
fromwaveactionandseparatedfromalowlyingcoastal
mainlandbyabodyofwater.
biomesverylargeecosystemsmadeupofspecificplantand
animalcommunitiesinteractingwiththephysicalenvironment
(climateandsoil);usuallyidentifiedwiththeclimateandclimax
vegetationoflargeareasofEarth'ssurface(e.g.,theEquatorial
andTropicalRainForestBiome).
biofuelfuelderiveddirectlyfromorganicmatter(e.g.,afuel
blendmadepartiallyfromcornorsugarcane).
biospheretherealmofEarthwhichincludesallplantand
animallifeforms.
birthrateseecrudebirthrate.
boundarythelimitorextentwithinwhichasystemexistsor
functions,includingasocialgroup,astate,orphysicalfeature.
butteanisolatedanddetachedhillwithsteepsidesandaflat
toprisingfromaplain.
capitaloneofthefactorsofproductionofgoodsandservices.
Capitalcanbegoods(e.g.,factoriesandequipment,highways,
informationandcommunicationssystems,etc.)and/orfunds
(investmentandavailablemoneyforoperatingexpenses)used
toincreaseproductionandwealth.Otherfactorsareland,
water,andlabor.
carbonfootprintthescaleandmeasurabletotalityofthe
impactofpeopleontheenvironment.
cardinaldirectionsthefourmainpointsofthecompassnorth,
east,south,andwest.
carryingcapacitythemaximumnumberofanimalsand/or
peopleagivenareacansupportatagiventimeunderspecified
levelsofconsumptionwithoutimpairingrelevantecosystems.
86
cartographerapersonwhodesignsandcreatesmapsand
othergeographicrepresentations.
cartographythescienceofmakingmaps.
censusanofficialcountofapopulationconductedbya
governmentatsetintervals;typicallyrecordsdetailsandtrends
amongindividualsandgroupsinthepopulation.
centralplaceavillage,townorcitywhichprovidesservicesto
asurroundingregionfunctionallytiedtoit.
centralplacetheorytheconceptualframeworkthatexplains
thesize,spacing,anddistributionofsettlementsandtheir
economicrelationshipswiththeirhinterlands.
choroplethmapshowsdifferencesbetweenareasbyusing
colorsorshadingtorepresentdistinctcategoriesofqualities
(suchasvegetationtype)orquantities(suchasthepercentage
graduatingfromhighschool,populationdensity,orbirthrate).
cirqueahalfopensteepsidedhollowexcavationsatthehead
ofavalleyoronamountainsideresultingfromglacialerosion;
oftenamphitheatershaped.
civilizationacomplexandwellorganizedpoliticalandsocial
orderwhoseprogressismeasuredintermsofmaterial,
scientific,andartisticadvancement.
climatelongtermtrendsinweatherelementsand
atmosphericconditions.
climatechangelongtermsignificantmodificationsinthe
averageweatherconditionsoftheworld'sregionscausedeither
bynaturalorhumaninducedprocesses(e.g.,alterationsinthe
physicaldynamicsofEarth'satmosphereorbysuchhuman
practicesasburningfossilfuels).
climategraph(climograph)agraphwhichcombinesaverage
monthlytemperatureandprecipitationdataforaparticular
place.
climaxvegetationastablecommunityofplantsestablished
overtimeandatapointwhereitcansustainitself.
cognitivemapseementalmap.
colonyanareaoftheworldunderthefullorpartialpolitical
controlofanothercountry,andtypicallyoccupiedbysettlers
fromthatcountry.
commandeconomyaneconomywhereproduction,
investment,prices,andincomesaredeterminedcentrallyby
thenationalgovernment(e.g.,economiesincommuniststates:
formerSovietUnion,People'sRepublicofChina,Socialist
RepublicofVietnam).
commercialagricultureaformofagricultureinwhichcrops
arecultivatedforsaleratherthanforpersonalconsumptionor
subsistence.
commercialeconomyasystempromotingprofitsthrough
efficientmethodsofproductionanddistributiontoensurethe
maximumutilizationofresourcesforthebenefitofall.
CommonMarketseeEuropeanUnion(EU).
87
comparativeadvantagethespecializationbyagivenareain
theproductionofoneorafewcommoditiesforwhichithas
particularadvantages,suchaslabororproductioncosts.
complementaritythemutuallysatisfactoryexchangeofraw
materials,manufacturedproducts,orinformationbetweentwo
regionstofilltheneedsandwantsofeach.
concentricgrowthreferstothezonalmodelofurbansocialor
economicgrowth,whichstatesthatacitygrowsoutwardfrom
acentralareainaseriesofconcentricringsorzonesthatare
occupiedbydistinctivesocialgroupsorlanduses.
continentaldriftseeplatetectonics.
contourmaparepresentationofsomepartofEarth'ssurface
usinglinesalongwhichallpointsareofequalelevationaboveor
belowafixeddatum,usuallysealevel.
conurbationseemegalopolis.
costdistancetheamountofmoneynecessaryforpeople,
objectsorinformationtotravelbetweentwoplaces.
countryunitofpoliticalspace,oftenreferredtoasastate.
crudebirthratethetotalnumberoflivebirthsinayearfor
every1000peopleinapopulation.
crudedeathratethetotalnumberofdeathsinayearfor
every1000peopleinapopulation.
cryospherethefrozenareaofEarthssurface(e.g.,glaciers,ice
caps,seaice,etc.)thatisanintegralpartoftheplanetsclimate
system.
culturelearnedbehaviorofpeople,whichincludestheirbelief
systemsandlanguages,theirsocialrelationships,their
institutionsandorganizations,andtheirmaterialgoods,e,g,
food,clothing,buildings,tools,andmachines.
culturaldiffusionthespreadofculturalelementsfromone
culturetoanother.
culturehearththeplaceoforiginofaculturegrouporofa
seriesofmaterialandnonmaterialinnovations.
culturallandscapethehumanimprintonthephysical
environment;thehumanizedlandscapeascreatedormodified
bypeople.
databaseacompilation,structuring,andcategorizationof
information(printorelectronic)foranalysisandinterpretation.
deforestationthedestructionandremovalofforestandits
undergrowthbynaturalorhumanforces.
deltatriangularareaofmarshlandformedbydepositsofsiltat
themouthofsomerivers,(e,g,Mississippi,Nile,Ganges).
demographicchangechangeinpopulationsize,composition,
ratesofgrowth,density,fertilityandmortalityrates,and
patternsofmigration.
88
demographictransitionamodelshowingchangesovertimein
acountry'sbirthanddeathrates.Theearlystagesofthemodel
illustratesthehighbirthanddeathrates(slowpopulation
growth)ofapredominatelyagriculturalsociety;middlestages
showdeclinesinbothrates(deathrateinitiallyandbirthrate
later,thuscausingrapidpopulationgrowth)aseconomies
changefromagriculturetoindustry;andadvancedstages
indicatelowbirthanddeathrates(slowpopulationgrowth)
typicalofindustrializedurbansocieties.
demographythestudyofpopulationstatistics,changes,and
trendsbasedonvariousmeasuresoffertility(addingtoa
population),mortality(subtractingfromapopulation),and
migration(redistributionofapopulation).
densitythepopulationornumberofobjectsperunitarea
(e.g.,persquarekilometerormile).
depopulationasubstantialreductionofthenumbersof
peopleinapopulationresultingfromavarietyofcauses(e.g.,
deathfromdisease,warcasualties,emigration).
desalinizationprocessofconvertingsaltyseawatertofresh
water.
desertificationthespreadofdesertconditionsinaridand
semiaridregionsresultingfromacombinationofclimatic
changesandincreasinghumanpressures,suchasovergrazing,
removalofvegetation,andcultivationofmarginalland.
developedcountryanareaoftheworldthatistechnologically
advanced,highlyurbanizedandwealthy,andhasgenerally
evolvedthroughbotheconomicanddemographictransitions.
developingcountryanareaoftheworldthatischangingfrom
unevengrowthtomoreconstanteconomicconditionsandthat
isgenerallycharacterizedbylowratesofurbanization,relatively
highratesofinfantmortalityandilliteracy,andrelativelylow
ratesoflifeexpectancyandenergyuse.
devolutionthetransferofsomepowersfromthecentral
governmenttoregionalandlocalauthorities;oftena
contentiouspoliticalprocess.
diasporathescatteringofpeoplefromtheirhomelandto
distantplacesintheworld.
diffusionthespreadofpeople,ideas,technology,and
productsamongplaces.
distributionthearrangementofitemsoveraspecifiedarea.
domesticatetaminganimalsandcultivatingcropsforfarm
productionandhumanuse.
doublingtimethenumberofyearsneededtodoublea
population,givenaconstantrateofnaturalincrease.
earthquakevibrationsandshockwavescausedbythesudden
movementoftectonicplatesalongfracturezones,calledfaults,
inEarth'scrust.
ecologythestudyoftheinteractionsoflivingorganisms
betweenthemselves,theirhabitats,andthephysical
environment.
89
economicdependenceasituationresultingfromonecountrys
economicsubordinationofanotherlessdevelopedcountry
(e.g.,adevelopingcountryexportsrawmaterialtoadeveloped
countryinexchangeforcapital,manufactures,andtechnology
fromadevelopedcountry).
ecosystem(ecologicalsystem)asetofconnectedlivingparts
formedbytheinteractionofalllivingorganisms(plants,
animals,humans)witheachotherandwiththephysicaland
chemicalfactorsoftheenvironmentinwhichtheylive.
elevationheightofapointorplaceabovesealevel(e.g.,
MountEveresthasanelevationof29,035feetabovesealevel).
ElNioanirregularlyoccurringandcomplexseriesofclimate
changescharacterizedbytheappearanceofunusuallywarm,
nutrientpoorwateraffectingoceancurrentsintheequatorial
Pacificregioneveryfewyears:typicallyinlateDecember
(oppositeofLaNia).
emigrationleavingone'sowncountrytosettlepermanentlyin
another.
empireagroupofnations,territories,orpeoplescontrolledby
asingleandanothermorepowerfulauthority.
environmenteverythinginandonEarth'ssurfaceandits
atmospherewithinwhichorganisms,communities,orobjects
exist.
environmentaldeterminismthetheorythatthephysical
environmentcontrolsvariousaspectsofhumanbehaviorand
culturaldevelopment.
environmentalfootprintseecarbonfootprint.
environmentalhazardanextremeandoftendisastrous
naturaleventthatcanleadtosignificantdamageinthephysical
worldanlikelyaffecthumanactivity(e.g.,severeandprolonged
floodingresultinginchangesinariver'scourseandthe
subsequentdislocationofpopulations,oranextendeddrought
periodduetoalteredweatherpatternscausingseriousfood
shortages,etc.).
environmentaljusticeinitiativesestablishingseekingto
establishequityforgroupsbearingheavyenvironmental
burdensthroughnofaultoftheirown(e.g.,impoverished
communitieslivingwithoutaccesstocleanair,cleanwater,
sanitaryconditions,andnutritiousfood).
epidemicoutbreakofarapidlyspreadinginfectiousdisease.
Equatorlatitude0.Animaginarylinerunningeastandwest
aroundtheglobeanddividingitintotwoequalpartsknownas
theNorthernandSouthernHemispheres;thatplaceonEarth
whichalwayshasapproximatelytwelvehoursofdaylightand
twelvehoursofdarkness.
equilibriumthepointintheoperationofasystemwhen
drivingforcesandresistingforcesareinbalance.
equinoxthetwodaysduringthecalendaryear(usually
September23andMarch21)whenalllatitudeshavetwelve
hoursofbothdaylightanddarkness,andthesunisdirectly
overheadattheEquator.
ethnicenclavesareasorneighborhoodswithincitiesthatare
homogeneousintheirethnicmakeupandareusually
90
surroundedbygroupsofadifferentethniccharacter(e.g.,Little
Italy,Chinatown).
ethnocentrismthebeliefintheinherentsuperiorityofone's
owngroupandculture;atendencytoviewallothergroupsor
culturesintermsofone'sown.
EuropeanUnion(EU)anassociationofanumberofEuropean
countriespromotingfreetrade,culturalandpoliticallinkage,
andrelativelyeasyaccessamongtheirnations.Formedin1957,
theEuropeanUnionwasformerlycalledtheEuropean
Community.
eutrophicationtheprocessofnaturalaginginlakesandwater
bodies,characterizedbyincreasedamountsofsediments,
nutrients,andorganicmaterial.
expansionismagovernmentspolicytoincreaseitsterritoryor
itseconomicinfluence.
faunatheanimallifeofanareaorregion.
fertilityratetheaveragenumberofchildrenawomanwill
haveduringherchildbearingyears(15to49yearsofage).
floodplainagenerallyflatvalleyareaborderingastreamor
riverthatissubjecttoinundation;themostcommonlandarea
forhumansettlement.
floratheplantlifeofanareaorregion.
flowchartachartordiagramshowingaseriesof
interconnectedevents,actions,oritemsthatindicatethe
progressivedevelopmentofatheme,product,orother
objective.
flowmapamapwitharrowsandlinesshowinghow
somethingdiffuses(e.g.,migrationorrawmaterialstoindustrial
sites).
flowpatterntheregularmovementofmaterials,products,
peopleand/orideasalongaconsistentrouteorpath.
flowresourcesresourcesthatareneitherrenewablenor
nonrenewable,butmustbeusedas,when,andwherethey
occurortheyarelost(e.g.,runningwater,wind,sunlight).
forcethepowerorenergyinaprocess,suchasweather,which
activatesbothmovementandfriction.
formalregionaregiondefinedbytheuniformityor
homogeneityofcertaincharacteristics,suchasprecipitation,
landforms,subculture,ortypeofeconomicproduction.
fossilfuelenergysourceformedinpastgeologictimesfrom
organicmaterials(e.g.,coal,petroleum,naturalgas).
freetradeinternationalexchangeofgoodsexemptedfrom
protectiveregulations,quotas,andtariffsintendedtorestrain
tradewithothernations.
frictionofdistancetheforcethatinhibitstheinteractionof
peopleandplacesonEarth.Thefrequencyofinteraction
betweenpeopleandplacesdependsonthecostofovercoming
thisforce(e.g.,movingcommoditiesoverland).
91
frontierpartofaterritorywithexpandingsettlementthatis
beingopenedupinadvanceoffullsettlementforagricultural
andurbandevelopment;anareamarkingthelimitofsettled
landbeyondwhichlieswilderness,
functionalregionthefunctionalunityofaregionisoften
providedbyastrongnodeorcenterofhumanpopulationand
activity.Regionsthataredefinedbytheirtiestoacentralnode
areclassifiedasnodalorfunctionalregions(e.g.,banking
linkagesbetweenlargenodalcitiesandsmallercitiesand
towns).
gentrificationtheprocessinurbanareasofupperormiddle
classfamiliesmovingbackintoazoneintransition,whichoften
surroundsthecentralbusinessdistrictofacity.
geographiccontextthespatialaspectsofhumanexistence
(i.e.,sensitivitytolocation,place,scale,patternsofmovement,
andtheuseofmapsandothergraphics)includingthe
locationalcircumstancesofhistoricalandcontemporary
events.
geographicinformationsystem(GIS)ageographicdatabase
thatcontainscomputerhardware,softwareforcreating,
storing,retrieving,andanalyzinginformationaboutthephysical
andhumancharacteristicsofplacesorareas.
geographicmodelanidealizedandsimplifiedrepresentation
ofrealityrepresentingaspatialconcept;atoolforpredicting
outcomesingeography.
geographythestudyofthephysicalandhumansystems
acrossEarthssurface.
geomaticsthedisciplineofgathering,storing,processing,and
deliveringgeographicinformationaboutEarthsphysicaland
humansystemsusingsatelliteimageryandothercomputer
basedtechnologies.
geomorphologythescienceoftheprocessesthatdevelopland
forms,andthehistoryoflandformdevelopment.
geopoliticsthestudyoftheinfluenceofgeographicfactors
(i.e.,spatialfactors)onacountryspoliticsandforeignpolicy,
especiallywithrespecttodisputesoverbordersandterritorial
claims.
geospheregenerallyconsideredtobeasynonymfor
lithosphere(i.e.,theouteredgeofEarth'ssurfacecomprising
thecrustandtheoutermantle);includesthecontinentaland
oceaniccrustaswellasthevariouslayersoftheEarth'sinterior.
geospatialtechnologiescomputerhardwareandsoftware
withwhichusersproduceandevaluatedataplacesatinfinitely
variedlevels;includesthreedifferenttechnologiesrelatedto
mappingandinterpretingphysicalandhumanfeatureson
Earthssurface(i.e.,GPSglobalpositioningsystems,GIS
geographicalinformationsystems,RSremotesensing,and
geospatialvisualization).
geospatialvisualizationtheprocessofviewingordenoting
datathatisassociatedwithaparticularlocationastagged
informationonmapsorsatelliteimagery(orboth)enabling
userstodiscoveropportunitiesandotherwiseelusive
92
correlationsbetweendatasets(e.g.,theabilitytooverlay
multipledatasetsontopofageospatialmap).
globalizationtheincreasinginterconnectednessofdifferent
partsoftheworldresultingintheexpansionofcultural,
economic,andpoliticalactivitiessothattheybecome
worldwideinscopeandimpactduetotechnologicaladvancesin
communicationandtransportation.
globaleconomytheinterdependenceoftheeconomiesofthe
worldsnationscreatinganinternationaleconomicsystemfor
theexchangeofgoodsandservices.
globalpositioningsystems(GPS)asatellitebasednavigation
systemthatallowsland,sea,andairborneuserstodetermine
theirexactlocationonEarthssurface.
globalwarmingincreaseinEarthsaveragetemperaturein
recentdecadesduetothebuildupofcertaingases,including
carbondioxideandmethane,whicharereleasedbyhuman
activities.
globeascalemodelofEarththatcorrectlyrepresentsarea,
relativesizeandshapeofphysicalfeatures,distancebetween
points,andtruecompassdirection.
greenhouseeffecttheabilityofcertaingasesinthe
atmospheretoabsorbheatenergyreleasedfromEarth's
surface.gridapatternoflinesonachartormap,suchasthose
representinglatitudeandlongitude,whichhelpsdetermine
absolutelocationandassistsintheanalysisofdistribution
patterns.
gridapatternoflinesonachartormap,suchasthose
representinglatitudeandlongitude,whichhelpsdetermine
absolutelocationandassistsintheanalysisofdistribution
patterns.
GrossDomesticProduct(GDP)thetotalmonetaryvalueof
goodsandservicesproducedinacountryduringoneyear.
GrossNationalProduct(GNP)GrossDomesticProductadjusted
toincludethevalueofgoodsandservicesfromothercountries
subsequentlyusedinproducinggoodsandservicesinthehome
country.
GrossNationalProduct(GNP)GrossDomesticProduct
adjustedtoincludethevalueofgoodsandservicesfromother
countriessubsequentlyusedinproducinggoodsandservicesin
thehomecountry
groundwatersubsurfacewaterthatsaturatesthesoiland
bedrock;constitutesmostoftheworld'sfreshwater.
hemispherehalfasphere.Cartographersandgeographers,by
convention,divideEarthintotheNorthernandSouthern
HemispheresattheEquator,andtheeasternandwestern
hemispheresattheprimemeridian(longitude0)and180'
meridian.
hillslandformfeaturesthatmayhavesteepslopesbutlower
elevationsandlesslocalreliefthanmountains(e.g.,theBlack
HillsofSouthDakota).
hinterlandserviceareasurroundinganurbancenter,which
suppliesthegoods,services,andlaborneededinthatarea.
93

homogeneoussocietyahumancommunitysharingthesame,
customs,values,laws,andorganizationalstructure.
humancapitaltheskillsandknowledgeacquiredbyan
individualthroughtrainingandexperience,viewedintermsof
theirvaluetoaninstitution,organization,orcountry.
humanprocessacourseormethodofoperationthat
produces,maintains,andaltershumansystemsonEarth,such
asmigrationordiffusion.
hurricaneseveretropicalstormorlowpressurecelloflimited
area/extentintheAtlanticandeasternPacificwith
accompanyingtorrentialrainsandhighvelocitywindsusuallyin
excessof80milesperhour.Thesestormsareknownas
typhoonsinthewesternPacificandcyclonesinsouthernAsia.
hydroelectricpowerelectricalenergygeneratedbytheforce
offallingwaterwhichrotatesturbineshousedinpowerplants
indamsonrivers.
hydrologiccyclethecontinuouscirculationofwaterfromthe
oceans,throughtheair,totheland,andbacktothesea.Water
evaporatesfromoceans,lakes,rivers,andlandsurfaces,and
transpiresfromvegetation.Itcondensesintocloudsinthe
atmosphere,whichmayresultinprecipitationreturningwater
totheland.Waterthenseepsintothesoilorflowsouttosea,
completingthecycle.
hydrospherethewaterrealmofEarth,whichincludeswater
containedintheoceans,lakes,rivers,ground,glaciers,and
watervaporintheatmosphere.
immigrationtheprocessofpeopleenteringanewcountryto
establishpermanentresidence.
imperialismagovernmentspolicyofimposingitsruleand
influenceoverothercountriesorterritoriesthroughmilitary
force,economicdominance,ordiplomacy.
importthepurchaseofgoodsandservicesproducedand
developedinanothercountry.
indigenousthatwhichisnativetoaplace,(e.g.,Native
AmericansintheWesternHemispherebeforethearrivalof
Europeans,orherbssuchasoreganoandcoriandercommonto
SouthernEurope).
industrializationthegrowthofmachineproductionandthe
factorysystem;theprocessofintroducingmanufacturinginto
countriesorregionswheremostofthepeopleareengagedin
primaryeconomicactivities.
infantmortalityratetheannualnumberofdeathsamong
infantsunderoneyearofageforevery1,000livebirths;it
usuallyprovidesanindicationofthequalityofhealthcare.
infrastructurethebasicphysicalandorganizationalstructures
andfacilities(e.g.,bridges,roads,sewagesystems,power
sources,transportationnetworks,etc.)necessaryforthe
operationandmaintenanceofasociety.
interdependencepeoplerelyingoneachotherindifferent
placesorinthesameplaceforideas,goods,andservices.
94
intermediatedirectionsthepointsofthecompassthatfall
betweennorthandeast,northandwest,southandeast,south
andwest,(e.g.,NE,NW,SE,SW).
InternationalDateLineanimaginarylinethatroughlyfollows
the180meridianinthePacificOcean.Westofthislinethe
calendardateisonedayaheadofthecalendardateeastofthe
line.Peoplecrossingthedatelineinawestwarddirectionlosea
calendarday,whilethosecrossingeastwardgainacalendar
day.
interveningopportunitytheavailabilityofanopportunity
closerathandthatreducestheattractivenessofasimilar
opportunityatlocationsfartheraway,(e.g.,shoppersmay
purchasebreadatalocalbakeryratherthantravelingtoa
supermarketinamall).
isolationismagovernmentspolicyofficiallyavoiding
economicandpoliticalcontactwithothercountries.
lakedesiccationthereductioninwaterlevel(dryingout)ofan
inlandwaterbody.
landformtheshape,form,ornatureofaspecificphysical
featureofEarth'ssurface(e.g.,plain,hill,plateau,mountain).
landlockedcountryastatethatiscompletelysurroundedby
theterritoryofoneormoreothercountries,thusdenyingdirect
accesstotheseaorocean.
landdegradationthephysicalprocessthatwearsdownand
levelslandformsandcarriesawaythelooseneddebris.This
termisalsousedtodefinehumanmisuseofthelandorthe
environment(e.g.farmingonsteepslopesincreaseserosion).
landusetherangeofusesofEarth'ssurfacemadebyhumans.
Usesareclassifiedasurban,rural,agricultural,forested,etc.;
withmorespecificsubclassificationsusefulforspecific
purposes(e.g.,lowdensityresidential,lightindustrial,nursery
crops).
LaNiaaperiodicandcomplexseriesofclimatechanges
complementarytothoseofElNioandcharacterizedbythe
appearanceofcoolerthanusualoceantemperaturesoccurring
atirregulartimeintervalsalongtheEquatorbetweenSouth
AmericaandtheInternationalDateLine(oppositeofElNio).
latitudeassumingthattheEarthisasphere,thelatitudeofa
pointonthesurfaceistheanglemeasuredatthecenterofthe
EarthbetweenaraylyingontheplaneoftheEquatorandaline
connectingthecenterwiththepointonthesurface.
legendanexplanatorydescriptionorkeytofeaturesonamap
orchart.
lifeexpectancytheaveragenumberofremainingyearsa
personcanexpecttoliveundercurrentmortalitylevelsina
society.Lifeexpectancyatbirthisthemostcommonuseofthis
measure.
linkagecontactandthereforeflowofideas,information,
people,orproductsbetweenplaces.
literacyratethepercentageofacountryspopulationableto
readandwriteatacompetentlevel.
95
lithospheretheuppermostportionofthesolidEarth,including
soil,land,andgeologicformations.
lithosphericplatesseetectonicplates.
localreliefinlandforms,thedifferenceinelevationbetween
thehighestandlowestpointsinaspecifiedarea.
locationthepositionofapointonEarth'ssurfaceexpressedby
meansofagrid(absolute)orinrelation(relative)totheposition
ofotherplaces.
longitudethepositionofapointonEarth'ssurfaceexpressed
asitsangulardistance,eastorwest,fromtheprimemeridianto
180.
mapagraphicrepresentationofaportionofEarththatis
usuallydrawntoscaleonaflatsurface.
mapprojectionamathematicalformulabywhichthelinesofa
globalgridandtheshapesoflandandwaterbodiesare
transferredfromaglobetoaflatsurface.
maquiladoraanassemblyplantinMexicorunbyaforeign
companyusingspecialdutyandtariffprivilegesfortheexport
offinishedproductstootherareasoftheworld.
megacityasupercitygenerallylocatedinthedeveloping
worldwithapopulationofmorethantenmillionpeople;
characterizedbyitsrapidgrowth,erraticpatternsofpopulation
distribution,formalandinformaleconomies,andhighlevelsof
socialfragmentation.
megalopolisthecoalescenceoftwoormorelarge
metropolitanareasintoacontinuousoralmostcontinuous
builtupurbancomplex,sometimesreferredtoasconurbation.
mentalmapamapwhichrepresentsthementalimagea
personhasofanarea,includingknowledgeoffeaturesand
spatialrelationshipsaswellastheindividual'sperceptionsand
attitudesregardingtheplace;alsoknownasacognitivemap.
meridiananorthsouthlineoflongitudeusedtomeasureboth
timeanddistanceeastandwestoftheprimemeridianor
longitude0(seeprimemeridian).
metadatadataaboutdata;structuredinformation
explaining/describinganinformationresource;providesfacts
aboutthedatabeingdocumented(i.e.,who?what?when?
where?why?andhow?).
MetropolitanAreatheFederalOfficeofManagementand
Budget'sdesignationforthefunctionalareasurroundingand
includingacentralcity;hasaminimumpopulationof50,000;is
containedinthesamecountyasthecentralcity;andincludes
adjacentcountieshavingatleast15percentoftheirresidents
workinginthecentralcity'scounty.
microclimateasmall,localizedclimateareawithinalarger
climateregion,whichhassignificantlydifferentatmospheric
elements.Microclimatescanbecausedbyhumanintervention
orbylocallandformconfigurations(e.g.,"heatislands"in
centralcity'sareasofhighskyscrapersorshelteredsouthfacing
slopesofhills).
96
migrationtheactorprocessofpeoplemovingfromoneplace
toanotherwiththeintentofstayingatthedestination
permanentlyorforarelativelylongperiodoftime.
mitigationtheprocessofreducingtheseverityofanextreme
physicalorhumanconditioninastressedenvironment(e.g.,
buildingleveesalongariverbanktodiminishflooding,
developingpublicpolicyonurbanlanduseissuesincongested
neighborhoodstodiscouragegangactivity)
modelseegeographicmodel.
monoculturethepracticeofgrowingoneormorecashcrops
forexporttooneormorecountries.
monsoonawindsystemthatchangesdirectionseasonally,
producingdistinctwetanddryseasons;usedespeciallyto
describethelowsunandhighsunseasonalwindsystemsof
South,SoutheastandEastAsia.
moraineridgecomposedofanunsortedmixtureofboulders,
sand,silt,andclaythatisdepositedincontactwithaglacier;
morainesusuallyreflectaperiodwhentheglacierhasremained
stationary,asopposedtoadvancingorretreating.
mortalityrateseecrudedeathrate.
mountainshighelevationlandformfeaturescomposedmostly
ofsteepslopesandlargeamountsoflocalreliefwithina
specifiedarea(e.g.,theAlpsofEurope).
multiculturalismapluralisticsocietyinwhichtherearea
numberofsubcultures.
multinationalcorporation(MNC)corporationorenterprise
thatmanagestheproductionofgoodsordeliversservicesin
severalcountriesinvariousworldlocations;oftenwithbudgets
thatexceedthoseofmanycountries.
multinationalorganizationsorganizationsofnationsaligned
aroundacommoneconomicorpoliticalcause,suchasthe
OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries(OPEC)orthe
OrganizationofAmericanStates(OAS).
nationaculturalconceptforagroupofpeopleboundtogether
byastrongsenseofsharedvaluesandculturalcharacteristics,
includinglanguage,religion,andcommonhistory.
naturalhazardaneventinthephysicalenvironment,suchasa
hurricaneorearthquake,thatisdestructivetohumanlifeand
property.
naturalpopulationincreasethechangesinpopulationsize,
expressedasapercentage,attributablesolelytofertility
(additionbybirths)andmortality(subtractionbydeaths).
Migrationisnotconsideredinthismeasure.
naturalvegetationplantsoriginallyfoundtogetherinanarea.
Littleoftheworld'svegetationisentirelyunmodifiedbyhuman
activities.
networkapatternoflinksbetweenpointsalongwhich
movementcantakeplace(e.g.,streams,roads,or
communicationmodes).
97
nomadsagroupwithoutpermanentresidencewhomove
fromplacetoplaceusuallyonaseasonalbasicsinsearchof
grasslandsandwaterfortheiranimals(e.g.,cattle,horses,
sheep,camels).
nonrenewableresourceafiniteresourcethatcannotbe
replacedonceitisused(e.g.,petroleum,minerals).
NorthPolethegeographicpointfarthestnorthonEarth;the
northernendofEarth'saxis.Onglobesandmostmaps,itisthat
placeintheNorthernHemispherewheremeridiansconverge.
oasisafertileplaceinthedesertwhereundergroundwater
risestogroundlevel.
oblatespheroidtheshapeofEarth,whichislargerin
circumferencearoundtheEquatorthanthepoles.
oceancurrentstheregularandconsistenthorizontalflowof
waterintheoceans,usuallyinresponsetopersistentpatterns
ofcirculationintheatmosphere.
OPECtheOrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountriesisan
internationalcarteloftwelvenationsdesignedtopromote
collectivepricingofpetroleum,unifiedmarketingpolicies,and
regulationofpetroleumextraction;controlsmostoftheworlds
oilreserves.
overpopulationasituationinwhichtheexistingpopulationis
toolargetobeadequatelysupportedbyavailableresourcesat
currentlevelsofconsumption.Thisshouldnotbeconfusedwith
densepopulation.
ozonelayeralayerinthestratosphereatanaltitudeoftwelve
totwentyonemilesthathasahighconcentrationofozone(03)
andprotectstheloweratmosphereandEarth'ssurfaceby
absorbingmuchoftheultravioletradiationthatreachesEarth
fromthesun.
PacificRimcountriesborderingthePacificOcean.
pandemicadiseasethatspreadthroughoutanentire
populationandinmanydifferentcountries;canextend
worldwide.
parallelaneastwestlineoflatitudeusedtomeasureangular
distancenorthandsouthoftheEquatororlatitude0.
perceptualregionanareaofEarth,suchastheMiddleWest,
identifiedbyexpressionsoffeelings,attitudesandimages.
physicalfeatureanaspectofaplaceorareathatderivesfrom
thephysicalenvironment.
physicalprocessacourseormethodofoperationthat
produces,maintains,oraltersEarth'sphysicalsystems,suchas
glacialprocesseserodinganddepositinglandforms.
physiographythestudyofEarth'ssurfaceanditsphysical
features,includingrelationshipsbetweenair,land,andwater.
physiologicalpopulationdensitytherelationshipbetweenthe
totalpopulationofacountryandthequantityoflandclassified
asarableorpermanentpasture.
98

placeslocationshavingdistinctivecharacteristicswhichgive
themmeaningandcharacteranddistinguishthemfromother
locations.
plainslandformfeaturescharacterizedbyamaximumof
gentleslopesandminimumlocalreliefwithinaspecifiedarea
(e.g.,thepampasofArgentina).
plantationagricultureatypeofagricultureinvolvinglarge
landholdingsthatproducecashcropssuchastea,rubber,
coffee,sugarcane,orcocoa.
plateauslandformfeaturescharacterizedbyhighelevation
andgentleuplandslopes(e.g.,theGrandCanyonareaofthe
UnitedStates).
platetectonicsthetheorythatEarth'ssurfaceiscomposedof
rigidslabsorplates(seetectonicplates).Thedivergence,
convergence,andslippingsidebysideofthedifferentplatesis
responsibleforpresentdayconfigurationsofcontinents,ocean
basins,andmajormountainrangesandvalleysystems.
pollutionthedirectorindirectprocessresultingfromhuman
actionbywhichanypartoftheenvironmentismadepotentially
oractuallyunhealthy,unsafe,orhazardoustothewelfareofthe
organismswhichliveinit.
populationdensitythenumberofindividualsoccupyingan
areaderivedfromdividingthenumberofpeoplebythearea
theyoccupy(e.g.,2,000peopledividedbytensquaremiles=
200peoplepersquaremile).
populationpyramidabargraphshowingthedistributionby
genderandageofacountry'spopulation.
populationstructuretheageandgendermakeupofa
population,usuallydepictedonpopulationpyramids.
prevailingwindsthedirectionfromwhichthewindusually
blowsataparticularlocation(e.g.,thewesterliesinthemiddle
latitudesofNorthAmerica).
primaryeconomicactivitytheproductionofnaturallyexisting,
orculturallyimprovedresources,(e.g.,agriculture,ranching,
forestry,fishing,extractionofmineralsandores).
primatecitythemostimportantcityinacountrywhichoften
hasapopulationthreeorfourtimesthesizeofthesecond
rankedcity.
primemeridian(Greenwichmeridian)0;thestandard
meridianfromwhichlongitudeismeasured.Theprime
meridiancrossesGreenwichinLondon,England,thesiteofthe
RoyalNavalObservatory.
principalmeridianstheprimemeridian(Greenwichmeridian)
andtheInternationalDateLine.
principalparallelstheEquator,theTropicsofCancerand
Capricorn,andtheArcticandAntarcticCircles.
pullfactorsinmigrationtheory,thesocial,political,economic,
andenvironmentalattractionsofnewareasthatdrawpeople
awayfromtheirpreviouslocation.
99
pushfactorsinmigrationtheory,thesocial,political,
economic,andenvironmentalforcesthatdrivepeoplefrom
theirpreviouslocationtosearchfornewones.
rainshadowareasonleewardsidesofmountainranges
characterizedbymuchlowerprecipitationandhumiditythan
thewindward(rainy)side.
regionanareawithoneormorecommonphysicalorcultural
characteristicsorfeatures,whichgiveitameasureof
homogeneityandmakeitdifferentfromsurroundingareas.
regionalizationthepartitioningofareasonEarthusinga
varietyofcriteriaforthepurposeoforganizingelementsina
complexspace.
relativehumiditytheamountofmoistureactuallyintheair
comparedtotheamounttheaircanholdatagiventimeatthe
sametemperature(e.g.,85percent).
relativelocationthelocationofaplaceorregioninrelationto
otherplacesorregions(e.g.,northwestordownstream).
remotesensinginformationgatheringaboutEarth'ssurface
fromadistance(usuallyreferringtotheuseofaerial
photographyorsatelliteimages).
renewableresourcearesourcethatcanberegeneratedif
usedcarefully(e.g.,fish,timber).
resourceanaspectofthephysicalenvironmentthatpeople
valueandusetomeetaneedforfuel,food,industrialproduct,
orsomethingelseofvalue.
resourcebasetheavailableresourcesinagivenareaatagiven
time.
ruralrelatingtoorcharacteristicofthecountrysiderather
thancities.
salinizationtheprocessbywhichhighsaltcontentinsoilsis
formedinaridareaswhereevaporationratesarehigh.
satelliteimageanimageproducedbyavarietyofsensors,
suchasradar,microwavedetectors,andscanners,which
measureandrecordelectromagneticradiation.Thecollected
dataareturnedintodigitalformfortransmissiontoground
receivingstations.Thedatacanbereconvertedintoimageryin
aformresemblingaphotograph.
scaleonmapstherelationshiporratiobetweenalinear
measurementonamapandthecorrespondingdistanceon
Earth'ssurface.Forexample,thescale1:1,000,000meansone
unit(mileorkilometer)onthemapandrepresents1,000,000
similarunitsonEarth'ssurface.Alsoreferstothesizeofplaces
orregionsbeingstudied.
scientificmethodatechniqueofadvancingknowledge
throughtheuseofaquestionusingsystematicobservation,
measurement,experimentresultingintheformulation,testing,
andmodificationofhypotheses.
100
secondaryeconomicactivitytheconversionofrawmaterials
fromtheprimaryeconomicsectorintofinishedindustrial
products(e.g.,manufacturedgoods,oilrefining,construction,
shipbuilding).
sequentoccupancethesettlementofanareabysuccessive
groups,eachcreatingadistinctiveculturallandscape.
serviceindustryabusinessthatprovidesassistancetoa
customerratherthanmanufacturedgoods(e.g.,medical
servicesinhospitals,teachingactivitiesinschools,sellingsuch
itemsasclothingandbooksinstores,anattorneyrepresenting
aclientincourt,drivingatruck,deliveringmail).
settlementpatternthespatialdistributionandarrangement
ofhumanhabitations,includingruralandurbancenters.
shiftingcultivationasystemofagricultureinwhichafieldor
plotiscleared,cropped,andharvestedandafterafewyears,
withinitialfertilityexhausted,abandonedinfavorofanew
field.Alsoknownasslashandburn,milpa,orswidden.
siltingthebuildupofsedimentsatpointsalongthecourseofa
riverwheretheflowvelocitydecreases(e.g.,upstreamofa
dam).
sitethespecificplacewheresomethingislocated,includingits
physicalsetting(e.g.,onafloodplain).
situationthegenerallocationofsomethinginrelationtoother
placesorfeaturesofalargerregion(e.g.,inthecenterofa
groupofcitiesorNewYorkssituationasaportofentryonthe
Atlanticcoast,adjacenttoheavyandlightindustries,
transportationnetworks,productiveagriculturallands,and
majormarketareas).
smogamixtureofchemicalpollutantsandparticulatematter
intheloweratmosphere,usuallyfoundinhighest
concentrationsinurbanindustrialareas.
soilunconsolidatedmaterialfoundatthesurfaceofEarth,
whichisdividedintolayers(orhorizons)characterizedbythe
accumulationorlossoforganicandinorganiccompounds.Soil
typesanddepthsvarygreatlyoverEarth'ssurface,andarevery
muchinfluencedbyclimate,organisms,rocktype,localrelief,
time,andhumanactivity.
soilcreeptheslowandgradualdownslopemovementof
massesofsoilduetogravity,incombinationwithfreeze/thaw
andwet/drycycles.
solarradiationenergyreceivedfromthesun,uponwhichall
lifeonEarthdepends.
SouthPolethegeographicalpointfarthestsouthonEarth;the
southernendofEarth'saxis.Onglobesandmostmaps,that
placeinthesouthernhemispherewheremeridiansconverge.
spatialpertainstospaceonEarth'ssurface.
spatialchangemodificationsoccurringinphysicalandhuman
arrangementsonEarthssurface.
spatialdatainformationusedtopose,analyze,andresolve
problemsaboutpatternsonEarthssurfacethatreflectphysical
andhumanprocesses.
101
spatialdistributionthespreadandplacementofphysicaland
humanphenomenaonEarthssurface.
spatialorganizationthearrangementandpositioningof
variousphysicalandhumanphenomenaonEarthssurface.
spatialpatternstheregularandintelligiblelocationofvarious
physicalandhumanphenomenaonEarthssurface.
spatialprocessesagenerallynaturalsystematicandsequential
seriesofchangesaffectingphysicalandhumanactivityon
Earthssurface.
spatialscaletheabsoluteorrelativesizeandextentofvarious
phenomenaonEarthssurface.
subsistenceagricultureaformoffarmingwithanemphasison
selfsupportinwhichcropsorlivestockarecultivatedfor
personalconsumptionratherthanforsale.
supranationalorganizationscorporationsandinternational
agenciesthathavepowerorinfluencetranscendingnational
boundariesorgovernments;typicallymassivecorporate
conglomerates.
sustainabledevelopmentthecapacityofacountrytobalance
economic,social,andinstitutionalneedsaspopulationand
societalneedschangeovertime.
sustainableenvironmentwisehumanuseofresources
designedtoreducestressonthephysicalenvironment.
sustainabilitytheintegrationofphysicalsystemswithhuman
patternsofactivitytoassurecontinuity.
systemacollectionofentitiesthatarelinkedandinterrelated,
suchasthehydrologiccycle,cities,andtransportationmodes.
systemicoforpertainingtoasystemasawhole.
tariffanofficialscheduleoftaxesimposedbyagovernmenton
importsorexports.
technologicalhazardsdisastrouseventsattributedtoafailure
oftechnologyoratechnologicalproduct(e.g.,radioactive
materialsreleasedfromanuclearpowerplantexplosionorsoil
contaminationfromachemicaldump).
technologyapplicationofscientificknowledgetomeetthe
goals,goods,andservicesneededanddesiredbypeople.
tectonicplatessectionsofEarth'srigidcrustthatmoveas
distinctunitsonaplasticlikemantleonwhichtheyrest.As
manyastwentydifferentplateshavebeenidentified,butonly
sevenareconsideredtobemajor(e.g.,EurasianPlateandthe
SouthAmericanPlate).
tectonicprocessaphysicalprocesswithinEarth(e.g.,volcanic
activity,folding,faulting)thatcreatesphysicalfeatures,suchas
mountains,onthesurface.
terracethesteplikeflatsurfacescreatedonsteephillslopes
forthepurposeoffarminglandthatissubjecttoerosionunder
normalcultivationpractices.
102
tertiaryeconomicactivitytheprovisionofservicestothe
generalpopulation(e.g.,banking,retailing,education).
thematicmapamaprepresentingaspecificspatial
distribution,theme,ortopic(e.g.,populationdensity,cattle
production,orclimatesoftheworld).
thresholdinphysicalandenvironmentalprocesses,thepoint
intheoperationofasystemwhenajumporrelativelygreat
changeoccursinresponsetoaminorinput(e.g.,massive
floodinginaregionresultingfromabriefbutintensesummer
storm);inaneconomiccontext,theminimumpopulation
neededforaservice(e.g.,autodealer)tolocateinacentral
place.
timedistancetheamountoftimenecessarytotravelbetween
twoplaces.
timedistancedecaydiminishingacceptanceofanideaor
innovationastimeanddistanceincreasefromitspointoforigin.
timezoneadivisionofEarth,usuallyoflongitude15,within
whichthetimeatthecentralmeridianofthedivision
representsthewholedivision;arangeoflongitudeswherea
commonstandardtimeisused.
topographicmapadetailedmaponalargescale(e.g.,
1:25,000or1:50,000)illustratingselectedphysicalandhuman
featuresofaplace(seealsocontourmap).
topographytheexaminationofthearrangementofthe
physicalandhumanfeaturesofanareaatanyscale.
tornadoasmall,butintensefunnelshaped,lowpressurecell
withverylowbarometricpressure,strongandviolentupdrafts,
highvelocityconvergingwinds,andresultingdestruction.
transregionalalliancespoliticalandeconomicalliances
betweenoramongnationstatesthattranscendtraditional
culturalregions(e.g.,OrganizationofAfricanUnity).
traveleffortthedifficultyinvolvedinmovingfromoneplace
toanotherasmeasuredintime,monetarycost,orphysical
distance.
TropicofCancerlatitude23.5N;thefarthestnorththesunis
directlyoverheadduringtheyear,usuallyJune22nd.
TropicofCapricornlatitude23.5S;thefarthestsouththesun
isdirectlyoverheadduringtheyear,usuallyDecember22nd.
urbanheatislandaphenomenonofurbansettlementswhere
relativelywarmeratmospherictemperaturesprevailinthemost
heavilybuiltupareasanddecreaseoutwardtowardthefringes.
urbanizationaprocessinwhichthereisanincreaseinthe
percentageofpeopleliving/workinginurbanplacesas
comparedtoruralplaces.
V
volcanismaprocessresultingintheupwardmovementand
expulsionofmolten(melted)materialfromwithinEarthonto
thesurfacewhereitcoolsandhardens.Thisprocesscreatedthe
HawaiianIslands
103
watershedthedrainageareaofariveranditstributaries.
weatheringthebreakingdown,disintegration,ordissolvingof
Earth'ssurfaceandsubsurfacerocksandmineralsbyphysical,
chemical,andorganicprocesses.
zoningasystemofsectioningareaswithincities,towns,and
villagesforspecificlandusepurposesthroughlocalordinances
(e.g.,residential,lightmanufacturing,commercialuses).
104

NatGeogStds Review2

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

NatGeogStds Review2

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

GEOGRAPHY FOR LIFE, 2ND EDITION

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHY STANDARDS

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi