Sustainable Materials and Construction

Techniques of Ancient India

A.S. Nene *
*Professor of Civil Engineering (Retd), V.N.I.T. Nagpur

Out of 125 heritage structures declared

UNESCO,

16 heritage structures are

by

located in

India.

The secrets of endurance of these heritage

structures is

hidden

in their construction

materials and construction techniques.

Ancient Indian texts related to Engineering and

technology comprise of Veda, Purana,Upanishada,

Aranyaka, Sutra, Agama and Shilpa Samhitas.
The period of such texts could be between 5000 B.C.
to 1600 A.D.
Out of more than ten thousand texts only one

thousand texts are now available in digital libraries

worldwide

It is a mis-concepection that these texts

mythological, non-scientific or irrelevant in
modern age. But these texts especially
Shilpasamhitas are directly related to engineering
sciences.
The aim of this presentation is to introduce three
ancient Indian texts, namely

Shilparatna,
Brihatsamhita
Vishnudharmpttar Purana.

A- Shilparatna (16th Centaury A.D.)

This text was composed by Shri Kumar , a Sanskrit scholar
from Kerala. The text was subsequently edited and
published in two volumes consisting of 46 and 35 chapters
respectively. Few verses from Chapter 14 of volume 1 and
Chapters 18 & 19 of volume 2 are quoted below.

1.Herbal paints for stone softening: Apply any one

of the herbal paints for softening of stone before
intricate carving.
Mix powder atis root, Hiracus and red ochre in
milk. Apply this paint to the stone and keep it
overnight.
Grind Jatamasi,Koshta, Gayaratri, Hirkus and chor
in milk. Add coconut water. Apply the solution to the
stone.
Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari in rain

water. Apply the solution to the stone.

2a Bricks and Roofing tiles: Mix extracts of barks of trees

(Pipal and Agar) in wet clay . Knead the clay daily for 30 days
and the use this clay for bricks or roofing tiles.

2b Earthen pots: Mix flour of Satu, powder of Amaksh ,Tatwasi

and coconut water to clay in a proportion of 8 parts of clay and 1
part of admixtures.

2c. Glazing of ceramic pots: Prepare a mixture of

Swesha,Guggul and Kunda grass (one sixteenth of

clay) and curd (one eleventh of clay).

Apply this

mixture to clay pot before baking in a furnace. Or

apply a mixture of Ghee, honey and Herb powder
(Kapittha, Bilwa and Niryas ) to clay pots. This process
imparts glazing to the clay pots.

2d. Coloring of Clay pots: Mix sesame powder and resins of

Kapittha and Beal trees. Add desired coloring agent (Kushta,
Red ochure, orpiment etc). Polish the pot with the mixture to

impart suitable color. Alternatively take equal parts of

Sandlewood, Karpur, Gorochan and Agaru . Add clay 6 parts to
the mixture in linseed oil. Apply this oil paint to earthen pots.
The same paint can be used for painting ivory or horns
animals.

3. Lime Mortar: Grind ripe bananas, fibers of cotton and

pulp of cactus and mix in slaked lime to make a good
quality lime mortar. Alternatively add decoction of barks

of trees( Pipal. Amla,Kadamb) and paste of black gram to

the slaked lime.

4-Lime Plasters:

4a-Sunla: - Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe

bananas, coconut and mango pulp are added to slake lime.
Plaster made of these materials is non-shrinking and

waterproof.
4b-Waterproof lime mortar: Mix Ghee, coconut water, black
gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal), milk, curd, decoction of
Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of 3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and 11
parts respectively to 100 parts of slaked lime.

4c: Leveling coat of lime plaster: Mix 3 parts of

slaked lime and 1 part of powder of dry unripe
banana. Add water to make butter like mixture.
Such leveling coat gives marble finish to the wall
surface.

Ingredient of Lime plasters: A table 1 below shows

additives for lime plasters.

7
1
0
1
3

Table 1- Herbal Ingredient for Lime plasters

Bark of Pakar
Bark of
Mahuwa (Bassia
2 tree(Ficus
3
Neem
Latifalia) flowers
Wihtiana
Green
Flowers and seeds
gram
5
6
Mustard cake
of Silk cotton tree
(Moog)
Belgiri
(aegle'p 8 Black gram (Udad )
9
Hemp fiber
ulp)
1
Jaggery
Rice husk
12 Resin of Sal tree
1
Juice of 1
Saaf flower oil
15 Half ripe Bananas
Cactus
4

B.Brihat Samhita by Varahmihir (509-577 A.D.)

Varahmihir was one of the great astrologer of India and is

famous for his text Brihat Jataka. His another work, Brihat
Samhita comprises of 107 chapters covering various diverse

subjects Rain forecasting based on astrology, precursors of an

earthquake, water divinining ,adamantine glues and binders,
gemology, perfumes, horticulture etc. Few verse from
chapter 54 (Water divining) and chapter 57 (Adamantine
glues-Vajrabandha) are described below.

1.Adamantine Glue: The subject of preparation of

adamantine glue is closely connected with construction of

temples, mansions etc. A bonding agent was very essential

for fixing idols, in wall construction, when cement and
other modern materials were unknown. Even now these
glues

known as Astabandha, are prepared in temple

premises for fixing or re-fixing images of gods. Four such

glues are described below.

First formula: The ingredients are unripe fruits of

Tinduka (Diospyros paniculata) and Kapittaka
(Feronia elephantum), flowers of silk cotton (Morus
Acedosa) seeds of Sallaki (Boswellia serrata), barks
of Dhanavana and Vaca (Orris root).
All these ingredients are boiled 256 parts of water

till the decoction reduces to an eighth of its original

volume (i.e.32 Parts).

The sediments are mixed with substances, such as. Shrivasaka (a

secretion of tree used as incense, Turpentine), Raktabola (myrrh),

Guggulu

(Commiphora

roxburghii),

Bhallataka

(Semecarpus

anacardium), Kunduruka (cunduru) extraction of Deodar tree resin Atasi

(Linum usikatissimum) and Bilva (Aegle marmelos) fruit.

The resulting paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated
and then used in construction of temple, mansions, windows, walls and
wells as well as fixing Sivas emblems and idols of gods. It was expected
to last for a million years.

Second formula:

It is composed of Lac, Kunduru,

Guggulu, soot (lamp-black collected from house), woodapple (Feronia elephanpen), Bilva kernel, fruits of Naga
(Canthium parviflorum), Neem (azadirachta indica),
Tinduka, and Madana (Randia dumetorum), Madhuka
(Cynometra ramiflora), Manjiostha (Rubia Cordifolia)
resin, myrrh and Ambalaka (Emblica officinalis). The
method of preparation is same as mentioned above.

Third formula: This variety of glue known as Vajratala

which is constituted by the horns of cows, buffalo and
goats, hairs of donkey, buffalo hide, cow hide, Neem fruits,
wood-apples and myrrh. This mixture too should be boiled
and reduced as mentioned before. In this glue some
organic substances are also included.

Forth formula: A compound of eight parts lead,

two of Bell metal, and one of iron rust, and is
known

as

compound)

Vajrasanghata

(Adamantine

Table 2- Ingredients
Sn
Sanskrit
English/ Latin
1
Tinduka
Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2
Kapittaka
Feronia elephantum
3
Shalmali
Flowers of silk cotton
4
Sallaki
Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5
Dhanavana
Barks of walnut tree
6
Vacha
Barks of Orris root
7
Shrivasaka
A tree resin used as incense
8
Raktabola
Myrrh
9
Guggulu
Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka
Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka
Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi
Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal
Fruits of Aegle marmelos

2.Tempering or hardening of stone cutting tools

Specially prepared tools such as chisels, crow bars, pick axe etc are necessary

for breaking the stones. Brihat Samhita (Chapter 54,115-117) describes some
methods of tempering of iron tools. The three steps are as below,
The first part of these methods is to heat the tool in fire till it becomes red
hot.
The second part comprises of applications of paste of certain materials and /
or dipping the red hot tool in a specific solution.
The third part is sharpening the tools.
The materials used in step two were excreta of pigeon and rat, powder of
horns of a buffalo and milk extract of a Mandar plant. In another method a
solution of butter milk and ash of banana plant was used for cooling the red
hot tool. The tool is kept immersed in the mixture overnight and then
sharpened. Such tool can cut steel also.

3.Varnish:

Extract of barks of milky trees (Vat,

Pipal, Umber, Beal and cedar trees) is mixed in

water. Mixture is boiled and sealing wax, Jatuling

and Hingul is added to the oil. Such varnish is
applied to wood for polishing and preservation.

4.Breaking of stone blocks: Brihatsamhita (Chapter 54,112115) contains information on procedure for breaking stone
blocks so that it can be used as building stones. The principle
involved in this process is "Heat and cool ". Rock is a bad
conductor of heat. When a preheated rock mass is cooled
quickly the rock breaks, along its cleavage planes due to
unequal expansion and contraction. Following methods are
mentioned. In these methods the procedure for heating rock

mass is same but the mass is cooled by three types of fluids.

2. Cooling: The fire is moved to adjacent area of rock

surface. The preheated surface is cooled down by pouring
certain types of liquids listed below.
Solution of quick lime in cold water;
Solution prepared by mixing butter milk with rice paste,
ripe berries.
Solution prepared by boiling Neem leaves and barks.
Addition of fruits of Tinduk and cow's urine to cold
solution.
The heating is continued till the color of wooden logs
becomes bright red or orange. 1. Heating: The stone block
is heated by make a pyre of wooden logs of Palash or
Tinduk trees.

C. Vishnudharmottara Purana
The ancient Indian text Vishnudharmottara Purana is a supplement or an
appendix to the Vishnu-purana. It is generally believed to be a later
insertion into Vishnu Purana. The part three of the Vishnudharmottara
gives an account of the theories, methods, practices and ideals of Indian
painting.
The main purpose of colors and paints is to enhance the aesthetics of any
structure. It also improves the durability by protecting from natural
weathering agents and insects etc.
Chitrasutra is that part of the Vishnudharmottara which deals with the art
of painting including preparation of pure and composite colors and
preparation of brushes for painting.

Basic Colors - White, yellow, red, black and blue are five basic
(pure) colors. All other composite colors are made from these
colors. Colors are described with examples i.e. white as snow,
yellow as ripe leaves, red as fire, blue as sky and black as lamp
black etc.
White color - White color is prepared from lime made of shells

or mother of pearls or from white clay (pottery clay-Kaolin).

White color is prepared by mixing resins of Neem or wood
apple tree with white soil or lime. The mixture is pulverized
and dissolved in hot water.

Yellow color - Yellow color is prepared from pounding yellow wood trees
(Haridra) and yellow soil (from hills or river banks) together. The mixture is
poured in clear water for two hours. The top yellow solution is stored in earth
pot till it dries. The dry powder is used for preparing yellow color.
Red color - Red color is prepared from Sindur (Vermilion), Gaierik (Red ochre),
Hingul (Cinnabar) or Laksharus (Shellac) to get light, medium, dark and very
dark shades respectively. Red ochre is finely pulverized and sieved through a
muslin cloth. The powder is cleaned by mixing with water. Vermillion is mixed in
water and stirred for 12 hours. Manashil is dry pulverized by pounding in mortar
with pestle. All these colors are mixed with resin of Neem.

Black color -Oil lamp is ignited in a mud pot. Inner surface

of another mud pot is smeared with powder of dry cow
dung. This pot is place on the first pot such that lamp black
is coated inside the top pot. The lamp black is cleaned with
water before application.
Blue color - Blue color is prepared by drying a mixture of
blue minerals or indigo and resin of wood apple.
Golden color - Golden color is prepared from gold foil
pulverized with fine sand. The mixture is poured in water
and top suspension is separated and mixed with
adamantine glue. The painted surface is polished with
horn (of an ox or swine)

Brushes :
Brushes (Kunchali) used for painting are of three types,

broad, medium and fine. These three types of brushes are

made from hairs of ears of calf, stomach part of sheep or
tail of squirrel respectively. A set of three brushes are

required for each color.

Composite Colors
Composite colors were made by mixing two or more basic
(pure) colors. Table 3 below shows how composite colors
were made in ancient time.

Table 3 Composite colors

Basic colors to be mixed
Composite colors
White + Red
Gour -light Pink
White + Black +Yellow
Shar color
White + Black
Elephant color
Red+Yellow
Bakul flower color
2 parts Red+1 part Yellow
flame color
Dark Red+Yellow
Fire color
2 parts Yellow +1 part white gray color
2 parts Yellow +1 part black aqua blue color
White +Yellow
skin color
Yellow +Blue
parrot green color
Shellac+Hingul
Dark Red
Shellac+black
Purple color

Conclusions:
1. It can be concluded that artisans of ancient India were

well acquainted with the basic principles of engineering

and developed eco-friendly building materials lasting for
centauries.
2. Many of these techniques may be impracticable or
irrelevant due modern products and processes, but one
must appreciate the ancient Indian wisdom.
3. Scientific laboratory investigations are necessary to study
the secret of endurance of ancient building materials.

References:
A-Print Books
Brihat Samhita of Varah Mihir (6th Centuary) Ed by Pub. by
Motilal Banarasidas. New Delhi.
Shilparatna of Shri Kumar (16th Centaury AD)). Part 1 Ed. by
T.Ganapati Shashtri, Pub. by Anantshayangranthavali,No. 92,
Chennai.1922.
Shilparatna of Shri Kumar (16th Centaury AD)). Part 2 Ed. by
K.Sambshivshashtri, Pub. by Anantshayangranthavali, No.
98, Chennai.1929
Vaze,K.V. (1924), Prachin Hindi Shilpasar (Essence of
ancient Indian Engineering Philosophy) ,a Marathi Book,
Pub. ,Varada Publications Pune.
Vishnu Dharmottar Purana (2000-5000 B.C.), Published by
Khemraj Shrikrishanadas, Mumbai

E-Books

Nene, A.S. (2009), Geotechnical engineering of

ancient India, Pub. Pune Vidyarthi Gruha, Pune
and Web edition , Pub. Book Ganga.com.
Nene,

A.S.

(2010),

Building

Materials

&

Construction Techniques of Ancient India, Pub.

Book Ganga.com.