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Part I: Aerodynamics
R. R. Lynn
Chief of Research and Development
F. D. Robinson
Senior Research and Development Engineer*
N. N. Batra
Research and Development Engineer
J. M. Duhon
Group Engineer. Aerodynamics
Bell Helicopter Company
Fort Worth, Texas
El
This paper discusses the various aerodynamic conside~.ationr
involved in tail rotor design. Sizing criteria aye given, and the
contribution of gyroscopic precession in cawing blade st,nll during f a d turns is explained. The stall boundariex for severnl Bell
helicnpters are shown as a function of yaw rate and acceleration.
These acceleration and rate values are suggested ns n minimum
reqniremont for future designs.
The effects of fin inlerferencc for both the Lrectur and p11sI1c1.
configurations are disc~lssedand t,he apparent effects of direction
of rotation are noted. Considerat,ions ~ 1 . cdiscussed which involve selecting a tail rotor's d h c loading, tip speed, airfoil s e e
tion, and design torque. Iueh~dedare noise, efficiency, and str11r:tural loading.
The directional conLrn1 requirements of n. helicopter and simplified equations for yaw and gust sensitivity, and yam damping a1.e
discussed. Some of the directional control prohlems encountered
by the indmtry a1.e descrihed along with steps taken to col~eet
them.
NOTATION
=
=
b
C
c
cl
=
=
=
=
CT/a =
Fti,
I,
=
=
I,,
R
S/A
T
T,
=
=
=
=
=
=
-y
63
=
=
$
3;
=
=
OCTOBER
1970
9EROOYNhMlCS
I,YNN,
YAW RATE
- YAW
RATE
Tr~oun~
1. Tail rotor stall hountla13,in a ho~cl.ingt u ~ n
2900 LB
UH-LD @ 8500 LB
47-G-38 @ 10,000 FT
206A @
.5
YAW
RATE,
*,
1.0
RAD/SEC
F I O U ~2.~Typical
E
caleulat~dstall boundaries at nltitudc
OCTOBER
1070
.4El<OOTXA31ICS
.I
.4
TORQUE C O E F F I C I E N T
.a
- CQ
.Lo
x
lo3
Tnet =
T-Fin
*filFfi"
PIN LOOKING AFT
FIGURE4 . P L I S ~tail
I C rotor-fin
~
interference,
(5
AH- 1G
S/A=.264
!
UH- 1C
AH- 1G
15
10
TRACTOR
PUSHER
OCTOBER
1970
Rotor Pa7.aateters
Diameter and Disc Loading. Principal considerations in establishing the tail rotor diameter, moment
arm, and disc loading are: 1) the overall size of the aircraft as limited by such requiremeuts a9 air transportability or carrier operation; 2) ground clearance,
particularly for rotorcraft with low-mounted tail rotors;
and 3) t.he effect of tail rotor power required and weight
(including balance) on tlie overall performance of the
helicopter.
To make t,he tradeoffs suggested by item 3, it is
necessary to estimate the weiglit changes in the airframe, drive syst.em, and tail rotor, as the tail rotor diameter is varied. Both weight and power required can
be expressed in terms of payload to find the optimum
diameter (or disc loading) for a give11 design. I11 such a
study the tail rotor power considered should be bascd
on the critical hovering condition for the aircraft.
System weight should be based on tail rotor thrust and
torque resulting from the most critical paw strwt.ura1
requirement.
The t,rade study suggested here has often been
neglected because tlie effects are small. Under certain
critical hover condit,ions,ho~vever,small changes in t,otal
power required, which might be obt,ained with proper
attention given t,o the tail rot,or, can result in significant
payload increments. For example, the UH-1H at GOO0
ft, 95'F day, has a payload of 767 lb. If tlie total power
required were reduced by 2%, tlle payload would increase to 887 Ib, or 14.7%. In many cases a 2% total
power reduct,io~lmay be obt,ained by careful at,tent.ion
to the tail rotor design.
The performance aspects of such an approach are
easily shown by considering disc loading. Typical tail
rotor disc loadings for present-day helicopters are
G to 12 psf for main rotor torque compensation. Tliesc
values can easily double momeut,arily during a critical
maneuver. Fig. 7 shows the effect of disc loading 011 t,he
rot,or power, expressed in terms of percent total power
required.
Tip Speed; N ~ n b e rof Blatles. Factors which must,
be considered in select,ing t,lie t,ail rotor t,ip speed include noise, profile power, blade stall at high advance
ratio, drive system torque, weight, and control forces.
I n comparison to a low-tip-speed design, biglier-tipspeed tail rotors are relatively light, permit a lomertorque drive system, are less suscept,ible to blade stall
at high advance ratio and yawing maneuvers, and are
less sensitive to gusts. However, higher t,ip speeds
result in illcreased profile power, compreesibility
effects, and noise. In the past, noise was [lot considered
of primary importauce. This is no longer true.
For nearly all flight condit,ions, t,he tail rotor is the
predominant noise source for single rotor iielicopters.
Tlle perceived noise occurs at discrete harmonics which
are multiples of the blade passnge frequency. The
AERODYNiIAIICS
FIGURE
7. Effect, of tail rotor disc loading an nntitorque powcr
required.
T I G I ~8.~1Jppel.
E
sul.face of IJH-l tail rotor
a 1 high tl>l.,nst in
flight.
To satisfy the maneuver criteria suggest,ed in n previous section, 6 = 0.75 and II: = 0.4 can be substituted
into the above for the critical ambient condition. For
helicopters with large fins, an additional margin should
be allowed for interfercnce.
In deriving the foregoing expression, and in t,I~efolIonring control section, linear theory has been employed for clarity and simplicity. In somc cases, more
det,a.iledanalyses would be appropriate.
FORWARD
CAMBER
SYMMETRICAL WITH
ABRASION S T R I P
FIGURE
9. Effect of leading edge camber and abrasion strip elimination.
OCTOBER
1970
(e)
);.(
1
abcp(BRJ3S12
6
m.
= -
I,,
Actually, the change in induced velocity is not negligible. For severe maneuvers, it can reduce the yaw acceleration per inch by 50% or more. Therefore, the
preceding expression should be used for comparat,ive
purposes only and not to correlate with flight test data.
I'azu Dampiny; Rate Sensitivity. When a rotorcraft
has a yaw rate, the airflow through the tail rotor changes
the elemental angle of attack on the blades. This alters
the tail rotor thrust so as to oppose the yax7 rate.
Neglecting the change in induced velocity and 1ett.ing:
1 b~p(rSl)~(AC~)cZr,
atl = $ X a and AT = J1.n
2
-
an approximate expression for tail rotor damping, referenced to the aircraft's yaw inertia, is:
AERODYNAMICS
10
LYNN,
Sideward Flight
WITH VORTEX
RING EFFECTS
WINDMILL
BRAKE
STATE
LEFT
RIGHT
It is seen that the gust response can be reduced by increasing the tip speed or maximum lift coefficient of the
blade or by lowering the maximum tbrust/inertia ratio.
To explain this physically, increasing the cl,.., or
lowering the maximum thrust/inertia ratio allows the
required maximum thrust to be produced with less
blade area. Thus, a given gust will produce the same
change in blade anglc of attack but less change in
thrust. Increasing the tip speed also reduces gust response, but not by its reduction in blade area required,
since this is accompanied by a corresponding increase in
dynamic pressure. For this case a given gust velocity
combined with the higher t.angentia1velocity produces
a smaller change in thc blade angle of attack and hence,
less change in tlirust.
For a given configuration, with a required maneuver
capability and normal restrictions on tip speed, the
only variable left that will reduce gust response is an
increase in CI,.
Yaw gust response effccts are also
discussed in Ref. 9.
The major aerodynamic tail rotor problems encountered have occurred in left, sideward flight. As
noted earlicr, thc problems generally relat,e primarily to
the aircraft's yaw control charact,eristics. In the
following paragraphs, the principal peculiarities associated with sideward flight are discussed.
T'ortex Ring Slate. Tlic Bell i\~Iodel47 and many
ot,her helicopters experieiice a not.iceable difficulty in
establishing pedal trim in left sideward flight from 5
to 15 knots. Trim pedal posit,ion vs sideward flight
speed is extremely difficult to define in flight test. The
pedal-speed gradient appears to be flat or with a slight
reversal. When flight under these conditions must be
maintained, the characteristic is annoying; if possible,
pilots change heading t,o avoid it,. This is caused by
operation in the vortex ring state.
I11 sideward flight to the left, the vortex ring state is
entered at 5-10 knots and extends up to 15-35 knots
depending on tail rotor disc loading. This flow state
produces strong vortex formations which increase t.he
rotor power and effective induced velocity at. the rotor
plane and produce nonuniform flow through tlie rotor
disc. I n the higher speed range of the vortex ring state
to be unstable as tlie
there is a tendency for the f l o ~
voltices are carried away from the blades.
References 10 and 11, for example, give experimeutal
data ~ h i c hcan be used in calculating the steady state
power and control angles throughout the sideward
flight speed range, including the vortex ring state. This
has been done for several cases for a free tail rotor and
tlie effects of t,he vortex ring statc are illustrated in
Fig. 11. Test data for the Bell Model 47 and other
helicopters substant,iate these trends.
The vortex ring state causes a reversal tendency in
the steady-statc tail rotor blade pitch vs sideward
flight velocit,y plot. For higher thrust,s and disc loadings, the vortex ring state, and consequently the reversal, occurs at a higher speed due to the increase in
tail rotor induced velocity.
Main. Rotor Torque T'ariation. When in ground
effect during steady-st,ate sideward flight, just as the
LEFT
RIGHT
FIGURE
12. Effcct of main rotor torque (Q,,,,)variation.
helicopter "loses its ground cusl~ion," tllcrc is an increase in main rotor power required. This requires
addit,ional t,ail rotor thrust,, and hence, more left pedal.
This effect increases t.lie pedal reversal in left sideward
flight as shown by Fig. 12, which is based on Model 47
flight data.
Other phenomena affect the pedal reversal ttendency,
but are usually of minor impo~l.ance. Under certain
condit,ions, liowevcr, such effects as t,lie aircraft's
weathervaning characteristics a.nd sideload produced by
the main rotor wake act,ing on t,he boom must be considered in evaluat,ing t,lie pedal reversal.
Stall a71rl Con~bi~ied
qfeets. Any phenomenon that
causes a dissymmetry of angle of attack across the tail
rotor disc reduces the maximum thrust capabilit,~of
the rotor. The vortex ring state a ~ i dfin and main rotor
\ralce interferences are examples.
If a tail rotor is operated at its maximum thrust
capability a ~ i dthen subjected to one of the above, its
thrust \\rill be reduced due to the stall produced by the
dissymmet,ry. Under such a condition, t,lie application of additional pitch will aggravate the situation.
3Ianifestations of this t,ype of plienome~lonare loss of
control, high torque, and reduced thrust. Also, n.lien
operat,io~~
is at full engine power available, the increment in t,ail rotor power can cause loss of Rlt,it,udeor
"settling."
A similar situat.ion might occur mit,liout t,he stall and
h i ~ l itorque if the phenomenon produci~igt,he dissymmet,ry were more effect,iveiii reducing t,ail rotor t,hrust
t,han the pitcli is in increasing it,. hIai11rot,or wake and
vortex effects may be t,11ispowerful.
When problems such as described here occur, usually
they result fromacombinat,ion of effects. It is not surprising to find many explanations as to the cause. In t,he
follo~vingparagraphs, several problems of this t,ypc are
recorded.
Pavtict~lav Pvobleins E'ncout~tererl. During informal
discussions with representatives of several helicopter
manufacturcrs from this connt,~yand abroad, a problem
in left sideward flight was noted. As far as can be detcrmincd, all aircraft, were of the pusher tail rotor configuration with tlie direction of the tail rot,or rotat,ion
such that tlie blades moved forward at the top of tlie
disc.
With each of the aircraft, yaw control cliaracterist,ics
became unsatisfactory to the pilot in low spccd, left,
sideward flight. Some describe tlie phenomenon as a
static instability, where the ship feels to the pilot as
thougli the tail rotor were "falling in a hole to the left!'
Others emphasize the inability to stabilize or control
t,he heading, more like an accentuat,ion of t,he yaw trim
difficult,^ experienced by the 3Iodcl 47. I n one case,
the control difficult,^, mas rcpoitcd as follows: "At a
speed range between 8 and 18 knots when passing
TIYNN, R O B I N S O T
12
VELOCITY
90"
FIGURE
13. Airflow rrelocity variation over tail rotor blade
(OGE).
OCTOBER
1970
<
VORTEX
CORES
''/
Z//ab
WITH
T A I L ROTOR
THRUST IGE
WITHOUT T A I L ,
ROTOR THRUST '
-ROTOR
I
CONTROL
\,
FIGURE
16. Eff~ctof
PLANE
13
BLADE SPAN
AXIS
AERODYNAMICS
Thus, the flap angle with 8a present cquals the flap angle
reauired without 8. multi~liedby cos S3.
14
LYNN,ROBINSON,
BATRA
AND DUAON
APPENDIX
J!I
G, =
GT
andI,,6
b~p(BR)~0~
XT,
OCTORER
1(JTO
- YAW RATE
REFERENCES
1. McI<ee, J. W., and Naeseth, R. L., Experimental Inuesligation oj'Me Drag of Flat Plates and Cylinders in the Slipstream of a Houering Rotor, NACA T N 4239, April 1958.
2. Spivey, R. F., Blade T i p Aerodynamics-Profilea~bd Planform Effects, presented a t the 24th Arniual National
Forum of the Arnerican Flelicopter Society, May 1968.
3. Schlegel, R., Icing, R., and Mull, H., llelicopter Rotor
AERODYNhlllCS
15
Noise Generation and Propagation, USAAVLABS Teclinical Report 664, Contract DA44-177-AifC-141(T),
Sikorsky Aircraft, October 1966.
4. Nitzberg, G. E., aad Crandall, S., A Study of Flow Changes
Associated with Airfoil Section Drag at Snpercritical
Speeds, NACATN No. 1813, February 1949.
5. Gessom, A. and Rlgers, G. C., Jr., Aerodynamics of the
Helicopter, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York,
Third Printing, 1967.
6. Shapiro, ,I., Principles of IIelicopler Engineering, McGra\~,HillBook Co., Inc., New York, 1955.
7. Anon., Military Standard Aircrew Station Geometry for
Fixed Il'ing, Rotary IPiny, und V / S T O L Aircraft, Proposed MIL-STD-XXX, Sel~teniber1, 1967, Rev. A,
October 1, 1967, Rcv. 13, Fcbroary 29, 1968, Aircraft
Industries Assn. Project.346-3.
8. Anon., Helicopter EYying and Grozn~dHandling Qualities,
General Requirements for, i
Spec. MILII-8501A,
September 7,1961.
9. Lynn, R. R., "Nem Control Criteria for VTOL Aircraft," Aerospace Engineering, 21 (S), (August 1962).
10. Castles, W., Jr., and Gray, R. B., Empirical Relation
Between Ind~rcedVelocity, Tlbrust, and Rate qf Descent of a
Helicopter Rotor as Dttermined by Wind Tunnel Tests,
NACATN No. 2474, October 1951.
11. Washizu, I<., Azuma, A,, Koo, J., and Ika, T., Experiments on a ilfodel Hrlicopter Rotor Operating in the Vortez
Ring State, J . ofAircraJt,3 (3), (MayJune 1966).