List of Cognitive Biases - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

22/12/2014
ListofcognitivebiasesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Listofcognitivebiases
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Cognitivebiasesaretendenciestothinkincertainways.Cognitivebiasescanleadtosystematic
deviationsfromastandardofrationalityorgoodjudgment,andareoftenstudied
inpsychologyandbehavioraleconomics.
Althoughtherealityofthesebiasesisconfirmedbyreplicableresearch,thereareoftencontroversies
abouthowtoclassifythesebiasesorhowtoexplainthem.[1]Someareeffectsofinformationprocessing
rules(i.e.mentalshortcuts),calledheuristics,thatthebrainusestoproducedecisionsorjudgments.Such
effectsarecalledcognitivebiases.[2][3]Biasesinjudgmentordecisionmakingcanalsoresult
frommotivation,suchaswhenbeliefsaredistortedbywishfulthinking.Somebiaseshaveavarietyof
cognitive("cold")ormotivational("hot")explanations.Botheffectscanbepresentatthesametime.[4][5]
Therearealsocontroversiesastowhethersomeofthesebiasescountastrulyirrationalorwhetherthey
resultinusefulattitudesorbehavior.Forexample,whengettingtoknowothers,peopletendtoaskleading
questionswhichseembiasedtowardsconfirmingtheirassumptionsabouttheperson.Thiskind
ofconfirmationbiashasbeenarguedtobeanexampleofsocialskill:awaytoestablishaconnectionwith
theotherperson.[6]
Theresearchonthesebiasesoverwhelminglyinvolveshumansubjects.However,someofthefindings
haveappearedinnonhumananimalsaswell.Forexample,hyperbolicdiscountinghasalsobeen
observedinrats,pigeons,andmonkeys.[7]
Contents[hide]
1Decisionmaking,belief,andbehavioralbiases
2Socialbiases
3Memoryerrorsandbiases
4Commontheoreticalcausesofsomecognitivebiases
5Seealso
6Notes
7References
Decisionmaking,belief,andbehavioralbiases
[edit]
Manyofthesebiasesaffectbeliefformation,businessandeconomicdecisions,andhumanbehaviorin
general.Theyariseasareplicableresulttoaspecificcondition:whenconfrontedwithaspecificsituation,
thedeviationfromwhatisnormallyexpectedcanbecharacterizedby:
Name
Ambiguityeffect
Description
Thetendencytoavoidoptionsforwhichmissinginformationmakesthe
probabilityseem"unknown."[8]
Thetendencytorelytooheavily,or"anchor,"ononetraitorpieceof
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Anchoringorfocalism
Attentionalbias
Availabilityheuristic
Availabilitycascade
Backfireeffect
Bandwagoneffect
Baseratefallacyorbase
rateneglect
Beliefbias
Biasblindspot
Cheerleadereffect
Choicesupportivebias
Clusteringillusion
Confirmationbias
Congruencebias
Conjunctionfallacy
Conservatismorregressive
bias
Conservatism(Bayesian)
Contrasteffect
Curseofknowledge
Decoyeffect
Denominationeffect
Distinctionbias
Durationneglect
informationwhenmakingdecisions(usuallythefirstpieceofinformation
thatweacquireonthatsubject) [9][10]
Thetendencyofourperceptiontobeaffectedbyourrecurring
thoughts.[11]
Thetendencytooverestimatethelikelihoodofeventswithgreater
"availability"inmemory,whichcanbeinfluencedbyhowrecentthe
memoriesareorhowunusualoremotionallychargedtheymaybe.[12]
Aselfreinforcingprocessinwhichacollectivebeliefgainsmoreandmore
plausibilitythroughitsincreasingrepetitioninpublicdiscourse(or"repeat
somethinglongenoughanditwillbecometrue").[13]
Whenpeoplereacttodisconfirmingevidencebystrengtheningtheir
beliefs.[14]
Thetendencytodo(orbelieve)thingsbecausemanyotherpeopledo(or
believe)thesame.Relatedtogroupthinkandherdbehavior.[15]
Thetendencytoignorebaserateinformation(generic,general
information)andfocusonspecificinformation(informationonlypertaining
toacertaincase).[16]
Aneffectwheresomeone'sevaluationofthelogicalstrengthofan
argumentisbiasedbythebelievabilityoftheconclusion.[17]
Thetendencytoseeoneselfaslessbiasedthanotherpeople,ortobe
abletoidentifymorecognitivebiasesinothersthaninoneself.[18]
Thetendencyforpeopletoappearmoreattractiveinagroupthanin
isolation.[19]
Thetendencytorememberone'schoicesasbetterthantheyactually
were.[20]
Thetendencytooverestimatetheimportanceofsmallruns,streaks,or
clustersinlargesamplesofrandomdata(thatis,seeingphantom
patterns).[10]
Thetendencytosearchfor,interpret,focusonandrememberinformation
inawaythatconfirmsone'spreconceptions.[21]
Thetendencytotesthypothesesexclusivelythroughdirecttesting,instead
oftestingpossiblealternativehypotheses.[10]
Thetendencytoassumethatspecificconditionsaremoreprobablethan
generalones.[22]
Acertainstateofmindwhereinhighvaluesandhighlikelihoodsare
overestimatedwhilelowvaluesandlowlikelihoodsare
underestimated.[23][24][25][unreliablesource?]
Thetendencytoreviseone'sbeliefinsufficientlywhenpresentedwithnew
evidence.[23][26][27]
Theenhancementorreductionofacertainperception'sstimuliwhen
comparedwitharecentlyobserved,contrastingobject.[28]
Whenbetterinformedpeoplefinditextremelydifficulttothinkabout
problemsfromtheperspectiveoflesserinformedpeople.[29]
PreferencesforeitheroptionAorBchangesinfavorofoptionBwhen
optionCispresented,whichissimilartooptionBbutinnowaybetter.
Thetendencytospendmoremoneywhenitisdenominatedinsmall
amounts(e.g.coins)ratherthanlargeamounts(e.g.bills).[30]
Thetendencytoviewtwooptionsasmoredissimilarwhenevaluatingthem
simultaneouslythanwhenevaluatingthemseparately.[31]
Theneglectofthedurationofanepisodeindeterminingitsvalue
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Thetendencytounderestimatetheinfluenceorstrengthoffeelings,in
eitheroneselforothers.
Thefactthatpeopleoftendemandmuchmoretogiveupanobjectthan
Endowmenteffect
theywouldbewillingtopaytoacquireit.[32]
Categorizingpeopleandthingsaccordingtotheiressentialnature,inspite
Essentialism
ofvariations.[dubiousdiscuss][33]
Basedontheestimates,realworldevidenceturnsouttobelessextreme
thanourexpectations(conditionallyinverseoftheconservatism
Exaggeratedexpectation
bias).[unreliablesource?][23][34]
Thetendencyforexperimenterstobelieve,certify,andpublishdatathat
Experimenter'sorexpectation agreewiththeirexpectationsfortheoutcomeofanexperiment,andto
disbelieve,discard,ordowngradethecorrespondingweightingsfordata
bias
thatappeartoconflictwiththoseexpectations.[35]
Empathygap
Thetendencytoplacetoomuchimportanceononeaspectofanevent.[36]
Theobservationthatindividualswillgivehighaccuracyratingsto
descriptionsoftheirpersonalitythatsupposedlyaretailoredspecificallyfor
them,butareinfactvagueandgeneralenoughtoapplytoawiderange
ForereffectorBarnumeffect
ofpeople.Thiseffectcanprovideapartialexplanationforthewidespread
acceptanceofsomebeliefsandpractices,suchasastrology,fortune
telling,graphology,andsometypesofpersonalitytests.
Drawingdifferentconclusionsfromthesameinformation,dependingon
Framingeffect
howorbywhomthatinformationispresented.
Theillusioninwhichaword,anameorotherthingthathasrecentlycome
toone'sattentionsuddenlyseemstoappearwithimprobablefrequency
Frequencyillusion
shortlyafterwards(seealsorecencyillusion).[37]Colloquially,thisillusionis
knownastheBaaderMeinhofPhenomenon.[38]
Functionalfixedness
Limitsapersontousinganobjectonlyinthewayitistraditionallyused.
Thetendencytothinkthatfutureprobabilitiesarealteredbypastevents,
wheninrealitytheyareunchanged.Resultsfromanerroneous
Gambler'sfallacy
conceptualizationofthelawoflargenumbers.Forexample,"I'veflipped
headswiththiscoinfivetimesconsecutively,sothechanceoftailscoming
outonthesixthflipismuchgreaterthanheads."
Basedonaspecificleveloftaskdifficulty,theconfidenceinjudgmentsis
Hardeasyeffect
tooconservativeandnotextremeenough [23][39][40][41]
Sometimescalledthe"Iknewitallalong"effect,thetendencytoseepast
Hindsightbias
eventsasbeingpredictable [42]atthetimethoseeventshappened.
Thetendencytoseeamediareportasbeingbiased,owingtoone'sown
Hostilemediaeffect
strongpartisanviews.
The"hothandfallacy"(alsoknownasthe"hothandphenomenon"or"hot
Hothandfallacy
hand")isthefallaciousbeliefthatapersonwhohasexperiencedsuccess
hasagreaterchanceoffurthersuccessinadditionalattempts.
Discountingisthetendencyforpeopletohaveastrongerpreferencefor
moreimmediatepayoffsrelativetolaterpayoffs.Hyperbolicdiscounting
leadstochoicesthatareinconsistentovertimepeoplemakechoices
Hyperbolicdiscounting
todaythattheirfutureselveswouldprefernottohavemade,despiteusing
thesamereasoning.[43]Alsoknownascurrentmomentbias,presentbias,
andrelatedtoDynamicinconsistency.
Thetendencytorespondmorestronglytoasingleidentifiedpersonatrisk
Identifiablevictimeffect
thantoalargegroupofpeopleatrisk.[44]
Thetendencyforpeopletoplaceadisproportionatelyhighvalueon
IKEAeffect
objectsthattheypartiallyassembledthemselves,suchasfurniture
fromIKEA,regardlessofthequalityoftheendresult.
Thetendencytooverestimateone'sdegreeofinfluenceoverother
Focusingeffect
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Illusionofcontrol
externalevents.[45]
Illusionofvalidity
Beliefthatfurtherlyacquiredinformationgeneratesadditionalrelevant
dataforpredictions,evenwhenitevidentlydoesnot.[46]
Illusorycorrelation
Impactbias
Informationbias
Insensitivitytosamplesize
Irrationalescalation
Lessisbettereffect
Lossaversion
Mereexposureeffect
Moneyillusion
Moralcredentialeffect
Negativityeffect
Negativitybias
Neglectofprobability
Normalcybias
Notinventedhere
Observationselectionbias
Observerexpectancyeffect
Omissionbias
Optimismbias
Ostricheffect
Outcomebias
Overconfidenceeffect
Inaccuratelyperceivingarelationshipbetweentwounrelatedevents.[47][48]
Thetendencytooverestimatethelengthortheintensityoftheimpactof
futurefeelingstates.[49]
Thetendencytoseekinformationevenwhenitcannotaffectaction.[50]
Thetendencytounderexpectvariationinsmallsamples
Thephenomenonwherepeoplejustifyincreasedinvestmentinadecision,
basedonthecumulativepriorinvestment,despitenewevidence
suggestingthatthedecisionwasprobablywrong.Alsoknownasthesunk
costfallacy.
Thetendencytopreferasmallersettoalargersetjudgedseparately,but
notjointly
"thedisutilityofgivingupanobjectisgreaterthantheutilityassociated
withacquiringit".[51](seealsoSunkcosteffectsandendowmenteffect).
Thetendencytoexpressunduelikingforthingsmerelybecauseof
familiaritywiththem.[52]
Thetendencytoconcentrateonthenominalvalue(facevalue)ofmoney
ratherthanitsvalueintermsofpurchasingpower.[53]
Thetendencyofatrackrecordofnonprejudicetoincreasesubsequent
prejudice.
Thetendencyofpeople,whenevaluatingthecausesofthebehaviorsofa
persontheydislike,toattributetheirpositivebehaviorstotheenvironment
andtheirnegativebehaviorstotheperson'sinherentnature.
Psychologicalphenomenonbywhichhumanshaveagreaterrecallof
unpleasantmemoriescomparedwithpositivememories.[54]
Thetendencytocompletelydisregardprobabilitywhenmakingadecision
underuncertainty.[55]
Therefusaltoplanfor,orreactto,adisasterwhichhasneverhappened
before.
Aversiontocontactwithoruseofproducts,research,standards,or
knowledgedevelopedoutsideagroup.RelatedtoIKEAeffect.
Theeffectofsuddenlynoticingthingsthatwerenotnoticedpreviously
andasaresultwronglyassumingthatthefrequencyhasincreased.
Whenaresearcherexpectsagivenresultandthereforeunconsciously
manipulatesanexperimentormisinterpretsdatainordertofindit(see
alsosubjectexpectancyeffect).
Thetendencytojudgeharmfulactionsasworse,orlessmoral,than
equallyharmfulomissions(inactions).[56]
Thetendencytobeoveroptimistic,overestimatingfavorableandpleasing
outcomes(seealsowishfulthinking,valenceeffect,positiveoutcome
bias).[57][58]
Ignoringanobvious(negative)situation.
Thetendencytojudgeadecisionbyitseventualoutcomeinsteadofbased
onthequalityofthedecisionatthetimeitwasmade.
Excessiveconfidenceinone'sownanswerstoquestions.Forexample,for
certaintypesofquestions,answersthatpeoplerateas"99%certain"turn
outtobewrong40%ofthetime.[23][59][60][61]
Avagueandrandomstimulus(oftenanimageorsound)isperceivedas
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Pareidolia
Pessimismbias
significant,e.g.,seeingimagesofanimalsorfacesinclouds,themanin
themoon,andhearingnonexistenthiddenmessagesonrecordsplayed
inreverse.
Thetendencyforsomepeople,especiallythosesufferingfromdepression,
tooverestimatethelikelihoodofnegativethingshappeningtothem.
Thetendencytounderestimatetaskcompletiontimes.[49]
Thetendencytopersuadeoneselfthroughrationalargumentthata
Postpurchaserationalization
purchasewasagoodvalue.
Thetendencytohaveanexcessiveoptimismtowardsaninventionor
Proinnovationbias
innovation'susefulnessthroughoutsociety,whileoftenfailingtoidentifyits
limitationsandweaknesses.
Thetendencytomakeriskaversechoicesiftheexpectedoutcomeis
Pseudocertaintyeffect
positive,butmakeriskseekingchoicestoavoidnegativeoutcomes.[62]
Theurgetodotheoppositeofwhatsomeonewantsyoutodooutofa
Reactance
needtoresistaperceivedattempttoconstrainyourfreedomofchoice
(seealsoReversepsychology).
Devaluingproposalsonlybecausetheyarepurportedlyoriginatedwithan
Reactivedevaluation
adversary.
Theillusionthatawordorlanguageusageisarecentinnovationwhenitis
Recencyillusion
infactlongestablished(seealsofrequencyillusion).
Thetendencytooverestimateone'sabilitytoshowrestraintinthefaceof
Restraintbias
temptation.
Rhymingstatementsareperceivedasmoretruthful.Afamousexample
Rhymeasreasoneffect
beingusedintheO.JSimpsontrialwiththedefense'suseofthephrase"If
theglovesdon'tfit,thenyoumustacquit."
Riskcompensation/
Thetendencytotakegreaterriskswhenperceivedsafetyincreases.
Peltzmaneffect
Selectiveperception
Thetendencyforexpectationstoaffectperception.
Planningfallacy
Semmelweisreflex
Socialcomparisonbias
Socialdesirabilitybias
Statusquobias
Stereotyping
Subadditivityeffect
Subjectivevalidation
Survivorshipbias
Timesavingbias
Unitbias
Welltravelledroadeffect
Thetendencytorejectnewevidencethatcontradictsaparadigm.[27]
Thetendency,whenmakinghiringdecisions,tofavourpotential
candidateswhodon'tcompetewithone'sownparticularstrengths.[63]
Thetendencytooverreportsociallydesirablecharacteristicsor
behavioursinoneselfandunderreportsociallyundesirable
characteristicsorbehaviours.[64]
Thetendencytolikethingstostayrelativelythesame(seealsoloss
aversion,endowmenteffect,andsystemjustification).[65][66]
Expectingamemberofagrouptohavecertaincharacteristicswithout
havingactualinformationaboutthatindividual.
Thetendencytojudgeprobabilityofthewholetobelessthanthe
probabilitiesoftheparts.[67]
Perceptionthatsomethingistrueifasubject'sbeliefdemandsittobetrue.
Alsoassignsperceivedconnectionsbetweencoincidences.
Concentratingonthepeopleorthingsthat"survived"someprocessand
inadvertentlyoverlookingthosethatdidn'tbecauseoftheirlackofvisibility.
Underestimationsofthetimethatcouldbesaved(orlost)whenincreasing
(ordecreasing)fromarelativelylowspeedandoverestimationsofthetime
thatcouldbesaved(orlost)whenincreasing(ordecreasing)froma
relativelyhighspeed.
Thetendencytowanttofinishagivenunitofataskoranitem.Strong
effectsontheconsumptionoffoodinparticular.[68]
Underestimationofthedurationtakentotraverseofttraveledroutesand
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overestimationofthedurationtakentotraverselessfamiliarroutes.
Preferenceforreducingasmallrisktozerooveragreaterreductionina
largerrisk.
Intuitivelyjudgingasituationtobezerosum(i.e.,thatgainsandlosses
arecorrelated).Derivesfromthezerosumgameingametheory,where
winsandlossessumtozero.[69][70]Thefrequencywithwhichthisbias
occursmayberelatedtothesocialdominanceorientationpersonality
factor.
Zeroriskbias
Zerosumheuristic
Socialbiases
[edit]
Mostofthesebiasesarelabeledasattributionalbiases.
Name
Actorobserver
bias
Defensive
attribution
hypothesis
Description
Thetendencyforexplanationsofotherindividuals'behaviorstooveremphasizethe
influenceoftheirpersonalityandunderemphasizetheinfluenceoftheirsituation(see
alsoFundamentalattributionerror),andforexplanationsofone'sownbehaviorstodo
theopposite(thatis,tooveremphasizetheinfluenceofoursituationand
underemphasizetheinfluenceofourownpersonality).
Attributingmoreblametoaharmdoerastheoutcomebecomesmoresevereoras
personalorsituationalsimilaritytothevictimincreases.
Aneffectinwhichincompetentpeoplefailtorealisetheyareincompetentbecause
theylacktheskilltodistinguishbetweencompetenceandincompetence.Actual
competencemayweakenselfconfidence,ascompetentindividualsmayfalsely
assumethatothershaveanequivalentunderstanding.[71]
Occurswhenpeopleclaimmoreresponsibilityforthemselvesfortheresultsofajoint
Egocentricbias
actionthananoutsideobserverwouldcreditthem.
Extrinsic
Anexceptiontothefundamentalattributionerror,whenpeopleviewothersashaving
incentivesbias
(situational)extrinsicmotivationsand(dispositional)intrinsicmotivationsforoneself
Falseconsensus Thetendencyforpeopletooverestimatethedegreetowhichothersagreewith
effect
them.[72]
Forer
Thetendencytogivehighaccuracyratingstodescriptionsoftheirpersonalitythat
effect(akaBarnum supposedlyaretailoredspecificallyforthem,butareinfactvagueandgeneral
effect)
enoughtoapplytoawiderangeofpeople.Forexample,horoscopes.
Thetendencyforpeopletooveremphasizepersonalitybasedexplanationsfor
behaviorsobservedinotherswhileunderemphasizingtheroleandpowerof
Fundamental
situationalinfluencesonthesamebehavior(seealsoactorobserverbias,group
attributionerror
attributionerror,positivityeffect,andnegativityeffect).[73]
Thebiasedbeliefthatthecharacteristicsofanindividualgroupmemberarereflective
Groupattribution ofthegroupasawholeorthetendencytoassumethatgroupdecisionoutcomes
error
reflectthepreferencesofgroupmembers,evenwheninformationisavailablethat
clearlysuggestsotherwise.
Thetendencyforaperson'spositiveornegativetraitsto"spillover"fromone
personalityareatoanotherinothers'perceptionsofthem(seealsophysical
Haloeffect
attractivenessstereotype).[74]
DunningKruger
effect
Illusionof
asymmetric
insight
Illusionofexternal
agency
Illusionof
transparency
Peopleperceivetheirknowledgeoftheirpeerstosurpasstheirpeers'knowledgeof
them.[75]
Whenpeopleviewselfgeneratedpreferencesasinsteadbeingcausedbyinsightful,
effectiveandbenevolentagents
Peopleoverestimateothers'abilitytoknowthem,andtheyalsooverestimatetheir
abilitytoknowothers.
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Illusory
superiority
Overestimatingone'sdesirablequalities,andunderestimatingundesirablequalities,
relativetootherpeople.(Alsoknownas"LakeWobegoneffect,""betterthanaverage
effect,"or"superioritybias").[76]
Thetendencyforpeopletogivepreferentialtreatmenttootherstheyperceivetobe
Ingroupbias
membersoftheirowngroups.
Thetendencyforpeopletowanttobelievethattheworldisfundamentallyjust,
Justworld
causingthemtorationalizeanotherwiseinexplicableinjusticeasdeservedbythe
hypothesis
victim(s).
Thetendencyforpeopletoascribegreaterorlessermoralstandingbasedonthe
Moralluck
outcomeofanevent
Navecynicism
Expectingmoreegocentricbiasinothersthaninoneself
Thebeliefthatweseerealityasitreallyisobjectivelyandwithoutbiasthatthefacts
Naverealism
areplainforalltoseethatrationalpeoplewillagreewithusandthatthosewhodon't
areeitheruninformed,lazy,irrational,orbiased.
Individualsseemembersoftheirowngroupasbeingrelativelymorevariedthan
Outgroup
homogeneitybias membersofothergroups.[77]
Thetendencytounconsciouslyassumethatothers(orone'sfutureselves)share
Projectionbias
one'scurrentemotionalstates,thoughtsandvalues.[78]
Thetendencytoclaimmoreresponsibilityforsuccessesthanfailures.Itmayalso
Selfservingbias manifestitselfasatendencyforpeopletoevaluateambiguousinformationinaway
beneficialtotheirinterests(seealsogroupservingbias).[79]
Knownasthetendencyforgroupmemberstospendmoretimeandenergydiscussing
informationthatallmembersarealreadyfamiliarwith(i.e.,sharedinformation),and
Shared
lesstimeandenergydiscussinginformationthatonlysomemembersareawareof
informationbias
(i.e.,unsharedinformation).[80]
Thetendencytodefendandbolsterthestatusquo.Existingsocial,economic,and
System
politicalarrangementstendtobepreferred,andalternativesdisparagedsometimes
justification
evenattheexpenseofindividualandcollectiveselfinterest.(Seealsostatusquo
bias.)
Traitascription
Thetendencyforpeopletoviewthemselvesasrelativelyvariableintermsof
bias
personality,behavior,andmoodwhileviewingothersasmuchmorepredictable.
Ultimate
Similartothefundamentalattributionerror,inthiserrorapersonislikelytomakean
attributionerror
internalattributiontoanentiregroupinsteadoftheindividualswithinthegroup.
Worsethan
Atendencytobelieveourselvestobeworsethanothersattaskswhicharedifficult[81]
averageeffect
Memoryerrorsandbiases
[edit]
Mainarticle:Listofmemorybiases
Inpsychologyandcognitivescience,amemorybiasisacognitivebiasthateitherenhancesorimpairsthe
recallofamemory(eitherthechancesthatthememorywillberecalledatall,ortheamountoftimeittakes
forittoberecalled,orboth),orthataltersthecontentofareportedmemory.Therearemanytypesof
memorybias,including:
Name
Bizarrenesseffect
Choicesupportivebias
Changebias
Description
Bizarrematerialisbetterrememberedthancommonmaterial.
Inaselfjustifyingmannerretroactivelyascribingone'schoicestobemore
informedthantheywerewhentheyweremade.
Afteraninvestmentofeffortinproducingchange,rememberingone'spast
performanceasmoredifficultthanitactuallywas[82][unreliablesource?]
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Childhoodamnesia
Theretentionoffewmemoriesfrombeforetheageoffour.
Tendencytorememberhighvaluesandhigh
ConservatismorRegressive likelihoods/probabilities/frequencieslowerthantheyactuallywereandlow
oneshigherthantheyactuallywere.Basedontheevidence,memoriesare
bias
notextremeenough [24][25]
Incorrectlyrememberingone'spastattitudesandbehaviourasresembling
Consistencybias
presentattitudesandbehaviour.[83]
Thatcognitionandmemoryaredependentoncontext,suchthatoutof
contextmemoriesaremoredifficulttoretrievethanincontextmemories
Contexteffect
(e.g.,recalltimeandaccuracyforaworkrelatedmemorywillbelowerat
home,andviceversa)
Thetendencyforpeopleofoneracetohavedifficultyidentifyingmembers
Crossraceeffect
ofaraceotherthantheirown.
Aformofmisattributionwhereamemoryismistakenforimagination,
Cryptomnesia
becausethereisnosubjectiveexperienceofitbeingamemory.[82]
Recallingthepastinaselfservingmanner,e.g.,rememberingone'sexam
Egocentricbias
gradesasbeingbetterthantheywere,orrememberingacaughtfishas
biggerthanitreallywas.
Abiasinwhichtheemotionassociatedwithunpleasantmemoriesfades
Fadingaffectbias
morequicklythantheemotionassociatedwithpositiveevents.[84]
Falsememory
Aformofmisattributionwhereimaginationismistakenforamemory.
Thatselfgeneratedinformationisrememberedbest.Forinstance,people
Generationeffect(Self
arebetterabletorecallmemoriesofstatementsthattheyhavegenerated
generationeffect)
thansimilarstatementsgeneratedbyothers.
Thetendencytoforgetinformationthatcanbefoundreadilyonlinebyusing
Googleeffect
Internetsearchengines.
Theinclinationtoseepasteventsasbeingmorepredictablethanthey
Hindsightbias
actuallywerealsocalledthe"Iknewitallalong"effect.
Thathumorousitemsaremoreeasilyrememberedthannonhumorous
ones,whichmightbeexplainedbythedistinctivenessofhumor,the
Humoreffect
increasedcognitiveprocessingtimetounderstandthehumor,orthe
emotionalarousalcausedbythehumor.[citationneeded]
Thatpeoplearemorelikelytoidentifyastruestatementsthosetheyhave
previouslyheard(eveniftheycannotconsciouslyrememberhavingheard
Illusionoftrutheffect
them),regardlessoftheactualvalidityofthestatement.Inotherwords,a
personismorelikelytobelieveafamiliarstatementthananunfamiliarone.
Inaccuratelyrememberingarelationshipbetweentwoevents.[23][48]
Lageffect
Seespacingeffect.
Memorydistortionsintroducedbythelossofdetailsinarecollectionover
time,oftenconcurrentwithsharpeningorselectiverecollectionofcertain
detailsthattakeonexaggeratedsignificanceinrelationtothedetailsor
LevelingandSharpening
aspectsoftheexperiencelostthroughleveling.Bothbiasesmaybe
reinforcedovertime,andbyrepeatedrecollectionorretellingofa
memory.[85]
Thatdifferentmethodsofencodinginformationintomemoryhavedifferent
Levelsofprocessingeffect
levelsofeffectiveness.[86]
Asmallerpercentageofitemsarerememberedinalongerlist,butasthe
lengthofthelistincreases,theabsolutenumberofitemsremembered
Listlengtheffect
increasesaswell.[87][furtherexplanationneeded]
Memorybecominglessaccuratebecauseofinterferencefrompostevent
Misinformationeffect
information.[88]
Thatmemoryrecallishigherforthelastitemsofalistwhenthelistitems
Modalityeffect
werereceivedviaspeechthanwhentheywerereceivedthroughwriting.
Illusorycorrelation
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Moodcongruentmemory
bias
Nextinlineeffect
Partlistcueingeffect
Peakendrule
Theimprovedrecallofinformationcongruentwithone'scurrentmood.
Thatapersoninagrouphasdiminishedrecallforthewordsofotherswho
spokeimmediatelybeforehimself,iftheytaketurnsspeaking.[89]
Thatbeingshownsomeitemsfromalistandlaterretrievingoneitem
causesittobecomehardertoretrievetheotheritems[90]
Thatpeopleseemtoperceivenotthesumofanexperiencebuttheaverage
ofhowitwasatitspeak(e.g.pleasantorunpleasant)andhowitended.
Theunwantedrecurrenceofmemoriesofatraumaticevent.[citationneeded]
Thenotionthatconceptsthatarelearnedbyviewingpicturesaremore
easilyandfrequentlyrecalledthanareconceptsthatarelearnedbyviewing
Picturesuperiorityeffect
theirwrittenwordformcounterparts.[91][92][93][94][95][96]
Positivityeffect
Thatolderadultsfavorpositiveovernegativeinformationintheirmemories.
Thatitemsneartheendofasequencearetheeasiesttorecall,followedby
Primacyeffect,Recency
theitemsatthebeginningofasequenceitemsinthemiddlearetheleast
effect&Serialposition
effect
likelytoberemembered.[97]
Thatinformationthattakeslongertoreadandisthoughtaboutmore
Processingdifficultyeffect
(processedwithmoredifficulty)ismoreeasilyremembered.[98]
Therecallingofmorepersonaleventsfromadolescenceandearly
Reminiscencebump
adulthoodthanpersonaleventsfromotherlifetimeperiods[99]
Rosyretrospection
Therememberingofthepastashavingbeenbetterthanitreallywas.
Thatmemoriesrelatingtotheselfarebetterrecalledthansimilarinformation
Selfrelevanceeffect
relatingtoothers.
Persistence
Sourceconfusion
Spacingeffect
Spotlighteffect
Stereotypicalbias
Suffixeffect
Suggestibility
Telescopingeffect
Testingeffect
Tipofthe
tonguephenomenon
Verbatimeffect
VonRestorffeffect
Confusingepisodicmemorieswithotherinformation,creatingdistorted
memories.[100]
Thatinformationisbetterrecalledifexposuretoitisrepeatedoveralong
spanoftimeratherthanashortone.
Thetendencytooverestimatetheamountthatotherpeoplenoticeyour
appearanceorbehavior.
Memorydistortedtowardsstereotypes(e.g.,racialorgender),e.g.,"black
sounding"namesbeingmisrememberedasnamesof
criminals.[82][unreliablesource?]
Diminishmentoftherecencyeffectbecauseasounditemisappendedto
thelistthatthesubjectisnotrequiredtorecall.[101][102]
Aformofmisattributionwhereideassuggestedbyaquestionerare
mistakenformemory.
Thetendencytodisplacerecenteventsbackwardintimeandremoteevents
forwardintime,sothatrecenteventsappearmoreremote,andremote
events,morerecent.
Thefactthatyoumoreeasilyrememberinformationyouhavereadby
rewritingitinsteadofrereadingit.[103]
Whenasubjectisabletorecallpartsofanitem,orrelatedinformation,but
isfrustratinglyunabletorecallthewholeitem.Thisisthoughtaninstanceof
"blocking"wheremultiplesimilarmemoriesarebeingrecalledandinterfere
witheachother.[82]
Thatthe"gist"ofwhatsomeonehassaidisbetterrememberedthanthe
verbatimwording.[104]Thisisbecausememoriesarerepresentations,not
exactcopies.
Thatanitemthatsticksoutismorelikelytoberememberedthanother
items[105]
Thatuncompletedorinterruptedtasksarerememberedbetterthan
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Zeigarnikeffect
completedones.
Commontheoreticalcausesofsomecognitivebiases
[edit]
Boundedrationalitylimitsonoptimizationandrationality
Prospecttheory
Mentalaccounting
Adaptivebiasbasingdecisionsonlimitedinformationandbiasingthembasedonthecostsof
beingwrong.
Attributesubstitutionmakingacomplex,difficultjudgmentbyunconsciouslysubstitutingitbyan
easierjudgment[106]
Attributiontheory
Salience
Naverealism
Cognitivedissonance,andrelated:
Impressionmanagement
Selfperceptiontheory
Heuristicsinjudgmentanddecisionmaking,including:
Availabilityheuristicestimatingwhatismorelikelybywhatismoreavailableinmemory,which
isbiasedtowardvivid,unusual,oremotionallychargedexamples[47]
Representativenessheuristicjudgingprobabilitiesonthebasisofresemblance[47]
Affectheuristicbasingadecisiononanemotionalreactionratherthanacalculationofrisksand
benefits[107]
Sometheoriesofemotionsuchas:
Twofactortheoryofemotion
Somaticmarkershypothesis
Introspectionillusion
Misinterpretationsormisuseofstatisticsinnumeracy.
A2012PsychologicalBulletinarticlesuggestedthatatleasteightseeminglyunrelatedbiasescanbe
producedbythesameinformationtheoreticgenerativemechanismthatassumesnoisyinformation
processingduringstorageandretrievalofinformationinhumanmemory.[23]
Seealso
[edit]
Affectiveforecasting
Apophenia
Blackswantheory
Chronostasis
Cognitivebiasmitigation
Cognitivedistortion
Crossraceeffect
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Crossraceeffect
Dysrationalia
Framerate
Listofcommonmisconceptions
Listoffallacies
Listofmemorybiases
Listsofthinkingrelatedtopics
Listoftopicsrelatedtopublicrelationsandpropaganda
Logicalfallacy
Mediabias
Pareidolia
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