Histology: study of tissues

Basic Characteristics:
1. Form tight interdependent cell communities
2. Function cooperatively for a purpose
3. Specialized, each type performing specific function -homeostasis
Four types:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connective: supports, insulates, and cushions

Muscle: movement and heat production
Epithelial: protection (degrees depending on the type), by lining or covering
Nervous: control and communication

Epithelial Tissue:

A sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity

Function:
Protection
Absorptions
Filtration
Excretion
Secretion
Sensory reception
Occurs in the body as:
A. Covering and lining epithelium
1. Found on free surface of body (outer layer of skin form a boundary from the outside
world)
2. Lines open cavities (digestive, respiratory systems, blood vessels, heart)
B. Glandular Epithelium
1. Secretory tissue in glands epithelia that forms the glands of the body (both types,
exocrine and endocrine)
C. Characteristics:
1. Polarity:
All epithelia have an apical surface: upper free surface exposed to the body
exterior or the cavity of internal organ
Basal surface: attached to underlying connective tissue by a basement
membrane
All epithelia exhibit apical-basal polarity: cell regions near the apical surface
differ from those near the basal surface in both structure and function
Some apical surfaces are smooth and slick, most have microvilli: fingerlike
extension of the plasma membrane-increase exposed surface area; some

surfaces have cilia (tiny hairlike projections) propel substances along their free
surface
2. Basal lamina: thin supporting sheet
Noncellular, adhesive sheet consist largely of glycoproteins secreted by the
epithelial cells plus some fine collage fibers
acts as a selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from the
underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter the epithelium
also acts as a scaffolding along which epithelial cells can migrate to repair
wounds
all epithelial sheets rest upon and are supported by connective tissue
Reticular lamina: deep to the basal lamina

3.

4.
5.

6.

a layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collage protein

fibers
Together basal lamina and reticular lamina form the basement membrane:
reinforces the epithelial sheet, helping it to resist stretching and tearing forces,
and defines the epithelial boundary. Also attaches epithelium to underlying CT
Specialized Contacts:
Fit closely together to form continuous sheets
Adjacent cells are bound together at many points by lateral contacts including
tight junctions and desmosomes
Tight junctions: help keep proteins in the apical region of the plasma membrane
from diffusing into the basal region, and thus help to maintain epithelial polarity
Cellularity:
Composed entirely of closely packed cells (very little matrix-filled space)
Avascularity:
No blood vessels
Nourished by substances diffusing from blood vessels in the underlying
connective tissue
Innervated by nerve fibers
Regeneration:
High regenerative capacity
As long as they receive adequate nutrition, they can replace lost cells by cell
vision (mitosis)

Classification: named according to the shape of the cell in the apical layer
Cellular shape: all are polyhedral (six irregular sides) in cross section but differ in height

Squamous cell: flat, scale-like; nucleus is thin& flat (laterally)

Cuboidal cell: cube shaped (height=width); nucleus is spherical (laterally)
Columnar cell: column shaped; nucleus is elongated (laterally)

Cell arrangement (number of layers)

Simple: single layer of cells

Found where absorption, secretion and filtration occur (lungs, air sacs, blood vessels, GI
tract)
Stratified: 2 or more layers of cells
found in high abrasion areas (skin & mouth)

Simple squamous:

Description: one layer , flat cells, disc shape nucleus

Function: diffusion and filtration (some secretion, not for protection)
Location: air sacs of lungs, blood and lymphatic vessels, kidney glomeruli

Simple Cuboidal:

Description: one layer of cube shaped cells, round nucleus

Function: secretion, absorption, limited protection
Location: glands, ducts and tubules (kidney tubules)

Simple columnar: may contain cilia, villi and/or goblet cells on apical surface

Description: tall (column) cells, oval nucleus

Function: secretion (due to goblet cells), absorption and protection
Location: GI tract (including some accessory glands), reproductive tract

Pseudostratified columnar: may contain cilia and/or goblet cells on apical surface

Description: all cells rest on basement membrane, but only the tallest reach the apical surface.
Single layer of cells of differing heights, oval nucleus at different heights
Function: Secretion (due to goblet cells) absorption and protection
Location: respiratory tract

Stratified Squamous:

Description: many layers, basal layer are cuboidal or columnar and apical layer are squamous
cells
Function: provides physical protection from abrasion, pathogens and chemical attacks
Location: skin, mouth, pharynx, esophagus, rectum, anus, vagina

Transitional:

Description: resembles both stratified squamous and cuboidal; basal cells are cuboidal or
columnar; surface cells dome shaped or squamous like, depending on the degree of stretch
Function: stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine

Location: lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra

Glandular Epithelia:

Gland: consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product-called secretion
is an aqueous fluid that usually contains proteins with some variation.
Secretion is an active process. Glandular cells obtain substances from blood and transform them
chemically into a product that is discharged from the cell

Glands are classified as Endocrine or Exocrine and unicellular and multicellular depending on where
they secrete their product:
Endocrine Glands:

Often called ductless glands (eventually lose their ducts)

Formed from invagination of epithelium, but lose their ducts
Produce hormones by exocytosis directly into the extracellular space, picked up by the blood
and lymph
Secretions vary, ranging from amino acids to peptides, glycoproteins, and steroids

Exocrine Glands:

Numerous and products are familiar

Formed from invagination of epithelium and retain their ducts
All exocrine glands secrete their products onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities
Unicellular glands do so directly by exocytosis
Multicellular glands do so via epithelium-walled duct that transports secretion to epithelial
surface
Secret mucous, sweat, oil and salivary glands, liver secretes bile, pancreas digestive enzymes

Unicellular glands:

Mucous cells and goblet cells

Secrete products directly by exocytosis
Single cells in epithelium between other types of cells

Multicellular glands:

more complex than unicellular

Ducts: derived from epithelium (invagination of epithelium)
Secretory unit (acinus) consisting of secretory cells (has supporting CT, surrounds secretory unit;
supplies nerves, arteries, veins)
Fibrous capsule: provides basic structure stroma, also enters the gland and divides into lobes

2 major categories based on their duct system:

1. Simple: one unbranched duct
2. Compound: two or more branched ducts
Categorized by their secretory units
1. Tubular-if secretory cells form tubes
2. Alveolar-if secretory cells form small, flasklike sacrs
3. Tubuloalveolar-if they have both types of secretory units
Modes of Secretion:
1. Merocrine glands:
Secrete their products by exocytosis as they are produced
Secretory cells are not altered in any way
Pancreas, most sweat glands, and salivary glands belong to this class
2. Holocrine glands:
Accumulate their products within them until they rupture (replaced by division of
underlying cells)
Ex. Sebaceous (oil) glands of the skin
3. Apocrine gland:
May or may not be in humans-animals have them
Accumulate their products, but only just beneath the free surface, until the apex of the
cell pinches off, releasing secretory granules and a small amount of cytoplasm. Cell
repairs damage and process repeats again
Ex. Mammary gland-milk-if they exist
Connective Tissue
Four main classes of connective tissue:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connective tissue proper (fat and fibrous tissue of ligaments

Cartilage
Bone tissue
Blood

Functions: most abundant and widely distributed of primary tissues

1.
2.
3.
4.

Binding and support

Protection
Insulation
Transportation

Common Characteristics of all connective tissue:

1. Common origin: all connective tissues arise from mesenchyme (an embryonic tissue)
2. Degrees of vascularity: depends on type of CT ( cartilage is avascular) (dense CT is poorly
vascularized) (bone is very vascular, and adipose is extremely vascular)
3. Extracellular matrix: (made of ground substance and fibers)
CT is composed of nonliving, extracellular matrix, which separates often widely the living
cells of tissue
It gives CT increase in weight bearing strength, greater tension, and resistance to abuse
(physical trauma and abrasion)
Structural Elements of CT:

All CT have 3 main elements: ground substance, fibers, and cells

Ground substance:

Unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains fibers
Composed of: interstitial (tissue) fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans
Holds large amounts of fluid and functions as a molecular sieve, or medium, through which
nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse between the blood capillaries and the cells.
Cell adhesion proteins (fibronectin, laminin) serve mainly as CT glue that allows CT cells to
attach themselves to matrix elements
Proteoglycans consist of protein core to which glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are attached. GAGs
(chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid) are large, negatively charged polysaccharides. They
tend to form huge aggregates in which the GAGs intertwine and trap water, forming a
substance that varies from a fluid to a viscous gel.

Fibers: 3 types- collage, elastic, reticular

1. Collage (white fiber) most abundant and important
Made of fibrous protein collage
Collagen molecules are secreted into the extracellular space, where they assemble
spontaneously into cross-linked fibrils, which in turn are bundled together into thick
collage fibers
Because of cross-linking collage fibrils are extremely tough and provide high tensile
strength to the matrix
Required vitamin C for proper formation
2. Elastic (yellow fibers)
Long, thin fibers that form branching networks in the extracellular matrix
Contain rubber like protein, elastin, that allows for stretch and recoil
Found in skin, lungs and blood vessel walls
3. Reticular fibers (white fibers)

Short, fine, collagenous fibers with slightly different chemistry and form
Branch extensively, forming delicate networks that surround small blood vessels and
support the soft tissue of organs
Found in basement membrane of epithelial tissue and around capillaries

Cells:
Characteristics:

Blasts (immature) secrete ground substance and fibers characteristic of their particular matrix
Cytes (mature)- maintain the health of the matrix

Blasts:

Connective tissue proper-> fibroblast (for all three fiber types)

Cartilage-> chondroblasts
Bone-> osteoblast
Blood-> hemocytoblast or hematopoietic stem cell

Macrophage (phagocyte and initiate inflammatory response)

Largest of all cells, irregular-shaped, horseshoe shaped nucleus

Fixed (stays in one organ/structure), or wandering (moves from place to place)
Eats foreign matter & dead tissue cells (cleans-up)
When scattered throughout the body it is named according to the structures it is in
(histiocytes in loose Ct, Kupffer cell in liver)

Mast Cells: (initiate inflammatory response)

Cluster along blood vessels

Act as sensitive sentinels (soldiers) to detect foreign microorganisms (e.g., macteria, fungi)
Initiate inflammatory response against them
Contain granules inside the cytoplasm-containing chemicals that mediate inflammation
(histamine and heparin)
Heparin-an anticoagulant chemical that prevents blood clotting when free in the bloodstream
(also regulates other mast cell chemicals)(thins the blood)
Histamine- a substance that makes capillaries leaky
Proteases- protein-degrading enzyme

All CT consists of living cells and surrounding non-living matrix (ground substance and fibers). CT is
different by cell type and amount and types of fibers
1. Embryonic connective tissue (mesenchyme)
Mesenchymal tissue:

 Description: a fluid like substance containing fine sparse fibers and star-shaped
mesenchymal cells
Arises during the early weeks of embryonic development and eventually differentiates
(specializes) into all other CT cells. Some remains and provide source of new cells in
mature connective tissue
Function: Where all other CT comes from
Location: seen mostly in embryo, in Whartons jelly of umbilical cord
2. Connective tissue proper: 2 subclasses
Loose connective tissue: Areolar, Adipose, Reticular
Dense connective tissue: Dense regular, Dense irregular, elastic

Areolar: (most widely distributed CT in the body)

Description: gel-like matrix including all 3 types of fiber cells: fibroblast, macrophages, mast
cells, and other WBCs.
Function:
Supporting and binding other tissues (job of fibers)
Holding body fluids (ground substances role)
Defending against infection (WBCs and macrophages)
Storing nutrients as fat (fat cells)
Wraps and cushions organs
Involved in immunity because of its cells
Location: pretty much everywhere (widely distributed under epithelia of body, e.g., form lamina
propria of mucous membranes, packages organs; surrounds capillaries.
Loose arrangement of its fibers
Rest of matrix occupied by ground substance is empty space
Provides a reservoir of water and salts for surrounding body tissues, always holding approx. as
much fluid as there is in the entire bloodstream. Essentially all body cells obtain their nutrients
from and release their wastes into this tissue fluid.

Adipose: (Fat) (Adipocytes) Tissue

Description: same matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, nucleus
pushed to the side by large fat droplets(almost pure triglyceride)
Function:
provides a reserve food fuel (much greater than areolar CT)
insulates against heat loss
supports and protects organs
provides a padding, cushioning
Location: deep to the skin (buttocks, breasts, behind eyes, hips, lower abdomen)
Richly vascularized-high metabolic activity

Brown fat or brown adipose tissue contains abundant mitochondria, which use the lipid fuels to
heat the bloodstream to warm the body occurs only in babies who lack the ability to produce
body heat by shivering. Located between the shoulder blades, anterolateral neck, and anterior
abdominal wall.

Reticular:

Description: Network of only reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance; reticular cells
lie on the network
Function:
Fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types including
WBC, mast cells, and macrophages, lymphocytes in lymph node, spleen and bone
marrow.
Location: Liver, kidneys, spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow

Dense Connective Tissue:

Dense Regular:

Description: primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers; major cell type is fibroblast
Function: attaches, can form an aponeurosis or tendons (muscle to muscle [fascia] muscle to
bone [tendon], bone to bone [ligament]), with stand tensile force from ONE direction
Location: tendons, ligaments, covering skeletal muscles (deep fascia)
Poorly vascularized

Dense Irregular:

Description: Primarily irregularly arranged collage fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell type is
the fibroblast
Function: withstand tensile force from ALL directions (for structural strength)
Location: Fibrous capsules of organs and of joints; dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive
tract, periosteum and perichondrium
Collage fibers are much thicker and arranged irregularly than dense regular CT

Elastic:

Description: dense regular CT containing high proportion of elastic fibers, some matrix but
mostly elastic fibers
Function:
allows recoil of tissue following stretching (stabilizes vertebra and penis)
maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries
aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration (expansion and contraction of organs)
Location: vocal cords, respiratory tract, vertebra, penis, transitional epithelium

Cartilage:

Stands up to tension and compression (intermediate between dense CT and bone)

resilient rigidity to the structures it supports
Avascular and not innervated
Ground substance:
Glucosaminoclycans (GAGs)
Chondroitin sulfate
Hyaluronic acid
Large amount of firmly bound collage fibers, sometimes reticular and/or elastic which
makes the matrix quite firm
Made of 80% water for rebounding after compression
Chondroblasts produce matrix and growth (until skeleton stops growing-end of adolescence).
Two Types:
Interstitial growth: growth from within the cartilage (chondroblasts division)
Appositional growth: chondroblasts in perichondrium secrete new matrix onto outer
surface of bone
Chondrocytes are found singly or in groups within lacunae (cavities)
Surrounded by well vascularized, perichondrium (dense irregular CT). Nutrients diffuse through
the matrix to chondrocytes
Heal slowly because cartilage is avascular and aging cartilage loses its ability to divide

Hyaline cartilage: (gristle); most abundant

Description: form translucent matrix, contains collage fibers, chondro-blasts and cytes;
amorphous but firm matrix
Chondrocytes account for only 1-10% cartilage volume
Function:
Give stiff but flexible support
Cushions (decrease compression forces)
Resist friction between bones in some joints
Location: most of embryonic skeleton, between tips of ribs, covers ends of long bones..
Remains through childhood as epiphyseal plate growth region of long bones

Fibrocartilage:

Description: matrix not as firm as hyaline, mostly thick collage fibers are seen, chondro-blasts
and cytes
Function: Tensile strength with ability to absorb compressive shock
Location: Intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint

Elastic:

Description: like hyaline with a lot more elastic fibers, and chondro-blasts and cytes
Function:
supports, flexible but without damage and returns to original shape
Location: supports the external ear; epiglottis, trachea

Osseous Tissue:
Bone:

Description: hard, calcified matrix containing many collage fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae. Very
well vascularized
Function:
supports and protects
provides levers for muscles to act on
stores calcium and other minerals and fat
marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
Location: Skeleton, Bones

Cell Types:

Osteoblasts (immature) produce the organic portion of matrix (fibers and ground substance)
highly mitotic
Osteocytes (mature) reside in lacunae, have very good blood supply, and maintains the matrix

Vascular Tissue
Blood:

Description: plasma (nonliving fluid matrix), RBCs, WBCs and platelets

Function:
Transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, wastes, respiratory
gases and other substances
Location: within blood vessels
CT because it develops from mesenchyme and consists of blood cells, surrounded by nonliving
fluid matrix (plasma)

Nervous Tissue:

CNS-made of the brain and spinal cord

PNS-conduction nerves, to and from the CNS
Branching cells- nerve ending can be far from cell body due to axons and dendrites (cell
processes)

Types of Cells
1. Neurons: highly specialized nerve cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses
their processes allow them to 1) respond to stimuli (dendrites) and 2) transmit electrical
impulses over substantial distances within the body (axons)
2. Supporting cells (2 types)
Neuroglia (CNS): nerve glue non-conducting cells
Form supportive network-by twining around or lining structures in brain and spinal cord
Protect, bind and some phagocytize
Types: astrocytes, microglia, ependymal, oligodendrocytes
Schwann cells and satellite cells (PNS): special supporting and protecting cells, and also
function as phagocytes
Muscle Tissue
1. High cellularity, well vascularized, and highly specialized to contract (shorten), producing
movement
2. Three types of muscle:
Skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Differ in cell, shape, location, function, and how they are activated neutrally
Skeletal

Located on and/or attached to bones

Long, cylindrical, and multinucleated cells with striations
Voluntary
Skeletal muscle can exert ounces to pounds of force
Fatigues quickly compared to smooth and cardiac muscle
Causing body movements, facial expression and locomotion

Cardiac:

Makes up the walls of the heart

Branching cells
Junctions are called intercalated discs (specialized contacts help to increase impulse speed) with
striations
Involuntary control
Has a pace maker (sinoatrial node), will beat regularly without any outside help due to
spontaneous polarization at approx. 70-80 beats/minute

Smooth or Visceral:

Found in walls of hollow organs (except the heart), blood vessels, urinary system
No striations

Spindle shaped
Uninucleated
Involuntary
Tireless, with slow sustained contractions

Epithelial membrane (a continuous multicellular sheet composed of at least two tissue types) makes a
simple organ
A. Endothelium:
1. Single layer of squamous cells
2. Slick, friction-reducing lining (circulatory system organs, lymphatic, blood vessels, [in
capillary walls, it allow for good exchange] and heart)
B. Mucous membrane:
1. Line body cavities that open to the exterior (digestive, respiratory and urogenital tract)
2. Wet membrane, it secretes copious amounts of mucous (not in urinary tract)
3. Mucosa refers to location (in this case) not type of tissue or cell type
4. Most mucosa contain either stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelia
5. Epithelial sheet is directly underlain by a layer of loose CT called lamina propria
6. Often adapted for absorption and secretion
C. Cutaneous membrane:
1. The Skin: epidermis (epithelium) is attached to dermis (CT layer [dense irregular CT])
2. Consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
3. Exposed to the air and is a dry membrane
D. Serous Membrane (serosa)
1. In the closed ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic)
2. Serosa has two layers (parietal and visceral);
Parietal layer lines cavity walls (and then folds back onto the surface of an organ to
form:
Visceral layer-covers the organ
Space between the folds (layers) the cavity, more a potential space contains
serous fluid
3. Consists of simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) resting on a thin layer of loose CT
(areolar) tissue.
4. Mesothelial cells add hyaluronic acid to the fluid that filters from the capillaries in the
associated CT to make serous fluid-that lubricates the facing surfaces of the parietal and
visceral layers so that they slide across easily
5. Named according to their side and specific organ association.
6. Moist membrane