ASPECTS OF ISLAMIC SOCIAL INTELLECTUAL HISTORY IN

HAUSALAND: 'uTHMAN IBN F ~ I ,

1774-1804 C . E .

' ~ b d u l l a hHakim Quick

A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements

f o r the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Graduate Department of ~ i s t o r y ,in the
University of Toronto

Wopyright by '~bdullahHakim Quick, 1995

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ABSTRACT

TITLE: Aspects of Islamic Social Intellectual Historv in

Hausaland: '~thmanibn FQcii, 1774-1804 C.E.
AUTHOR: '~bdullahHakim Quick

DEGREE: Ph.D.
YEAR OF CONVOCATION: 1995

DEPARTMENT : History
UNIVERSITY: University of Toronto

The Sokoto Jihad of 1804 C.E. in Hausaland produced a

powerful Islamic state. Its leaders and thinkers were Islamic
scholars who communicated with each other in classical Arabic and
produced an unprecedented number of writings never before
witnessed in Hausaland. Many of these works are still in
e x i s t e n c e today. In an atmosphere of struggle and strife a type
of intellectual renaissance occurred where scholarship was being
widely disseminated and even women scholars were given authority
and recognition.
Despite these achievements very little attention has been
paid to the intellectual history and social impact of the Sokoto
Jihad and the resulting Caliphate.
This thesis is intended to bring out aspects of the social,
intellectual history of Hausaland in the eighteenth century and
discuss the ideas produced by Shaykh YJthman i b n Fudi (the
Shehu), leader of the Sokoto Jihad, to meet the challenges. An
attempt has been made to look at some of the Shehu's major
i.

writings during the period of his intellectual life before che

j ihad, 1774-1804 C.E.

Part one, the Background, looks at the role of Islamic

scholars in the development of Islam in Hausaland. It, then,
delves into aspects of the social, political atmosphere, by
looking at the local religious and political systems, some
prominent customs, and the position of women in society. Finally,
the Timbuktu system of Islamic scholarship, and the actual
scholars who impacted on the Shehu are examined.
Part two, the Analysis, is an in-depth look at the Shehu's
comment on social and religious customs in such areas as:
personal hygiene, childbirth, circumcision, sexuality, marital
relations, the affairs of the mosque, medicine, and the
supernatural.

An

attempt is made to re-analyze the Shehu's

confrontation with extremist scholars, and to look at the advice

he gave his students on innovations, self criticism, and Tasawwuf
(Islamic mysticism)

Finally, the Shehu's concept of the role and

position of women in society and the dynamics of struggle in the

development of an Islamic society are explored.

ii.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE, ABSTRACT, TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . i-iv.

MAP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GLOSSARY

BEFORE

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

v.
v.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi.

INTRODUCTION

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PART ONE: THE BACKGROUND

Chapter
1.

THE ROLE OF THE ' ULAMA IN THE DEXTELOPMENT OF ISLAM IN

HAUSALAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

The Early Development of Islam

The Era of Instablility, Accomodation, and Islamic
Growth (The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries)
The Quietist Tradition
2.

THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONTEXT OF THE SHEHU'S TIME: .

42

The Traditional Belief System

The Relationship of the Rulers to the Ruled
3.

THE BACKGROUND OF THE S H E W ' S IDEAS AND WRITINGS

The Influences on the Shehurs Thought

The Educational Background of the Shehu

Travel, Study, and Preaching, 1774-1804 C . E

The Shehurs Style of Writing

iii.

- .

74

PART TWO : THE ANALY S IS

Chapter
4.

THE SHEHU'S COMMENT ON SOCIAL AND R E L I G I O U S CUSTOMS I N

HAUSA L A N D . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

On Reviving the Sunna and Destroying Innovations

5 . THE SHEHU'S IDEAS ON FUNDAMENTAL ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND

STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Shehu's Confrontation w i t h Extremist Scholars

The Shehu's Guidance to Scholars and Students

The Shehu's Concept of Islamic Mysticism
6. ASPECTS OF THE SHEHU'S CONCEPT OF ISLAMIC SOCIETY

. . .

190

The Issue of Women in Society

The Dynamics of Struggle in the Development of Islamic

Society
GENERALCONCLUSION.
SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHY

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

220
225

c. 2600 -1800: Widening horizons

States of

the Sudan and Guinea in the 18th century

Peter B. Clarke, West Africa and Islam, 97.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABU
-

Ahmadu Be110 University

BUK
-

Bayero University, Kano

BSOAS

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

CAD
CIS
-

Centre for Arabic Documentation, Ibadan

BIFAN

Bulletin de 1'Institut Fondamental (formerly Francais)

dfAfrique Noire

IJAS

International Journal of African Historical Studies

JAH

Journal of African Historv

JHSN

Journal of the Historical Society of Niaeria

MS

Manuscript

NAK
-

National Archives, Kaduna

NHRS

Northern History Research Scheme

ODU

Journal of West African Studies

RBCAD

Research Bulletin of the Centre for Arabic

Centre for Islamic Studies, University of Sokoto

Documentation
SHB

Sokoto History Bureau

GLOSSARY

Adhan. Muslim call to prayer.

A j a m i . Non-Arabic language written in Arabic characters.

AlKXi. The Hausa form of the word, al-Qadi (Arabic), judge.

Almmi. 1rnEi.m
Amir. Ruler or commander.
Amirate. Emirate, kingdom.
al-'Amr bi'l-martif wa al-nahy 'an al-munkar. Commanding the good
and prohibiting evil.
'~qida.Creed, fundamentals of faith.
'~qiqa.Naming ceremony after birth.
Attajirai. (Hausa) Wealthy business people.
~ w l i y Z i ' . Muslim saints, especially in Sufism.

Bayt al-mal, Central treasury house.

Basmalah. Invocation: "In the name of Allah".

~ a y ' a .Pledge of allegiance.
id' a. Innovation in religion.

Birni (plural: birane) . (Hausa) Walled city.

Boka . (Hausa) Spirit medium.

Bori . (Hausa) Spirit possession.

Dinars and dirhams. Units of currency in the Middle East.
DurGs . Lessons.
Faqih. Scholar of Islamic jurisprudence.
FSsiq. A disobedient person, sinner.

Fatwa- Legal opinion.

Fiqh. Islamic jurisprudence.
Fulfulde. Language of the Fulbe.
Gari (plural: gararuwa) (Hausa). Town.
Habe, A term in Fulfulde to describe non-Fulbe.

HadTth. Saying or tradition of the Prophet Muhammad.

Haj j

. Pilgrimage to Makkah.

Haqiqa. Sufi term for the inner reality.

H a r m . Prohibited
al-earth. Farming.
Hijra. Migration, or turning from evil in an Islamic senseIblis. The proper name of the Devil in Islamic literature.
'ld. Festival.
IhsZin. Righteousness.
Ijaza. A teaching permit .
Ij m a ' . Consensus of scholars.

Ijtihad. The process of arriving at scholarly religious decision

based on established law and firm reasoning.
'11m al-kala. Speculative theology.
Inna. (Hausa) Mother.
Iska (plural, Iskoki) . A Hausa word for air or wind meaning
spirit.
~amb'a.Community
Jangali. (Hausa) Cattle tax.
Jangare. City of the Jinn in Hausa belief.

Jinn. Spirits, in the Islamic belief.

Jizya. Islamic Poll tax.
vii.

Juhhal. Ignorant people.

Kabbe. Oral teaching of tawhid based on the Fulfulde translation
of the treatise, al-'~aidaal-Suqhra by Shaykh al-Sanusi (d.
1488) .
Kabbenkoobe. Advocates of the doctrines of Kabbe.
Kahin (plural: kuhhan). Wizard, soothsayer.
Kalima Shahada. The testimony of faith in Islam.
Kasar Hausa. Hausaland.
Khilafa: Caliphate.
Kibr. Pride.
Kharijites. An extreme sect of early Islam that formed during
the Caliphate of ' ~ l iibn Abi Talib.
Kufr. Disbelief.
Kulle (Purdah). The seclusion of women.
Kurdin Gari . (Hausa) Pre-j ihad tax taken from male adults in
Hausaland.
Kurdin Salla. (Hausa) Pre-jihad tax paid to the ruler during the
' Id festival.
Madhab (plural: madhahib) . School of Islamic jurisprudence.
Magajiya- (Hausa) Senior woman of the royal household.
Mallam (plural: mallamai) . (Hausa) Learned person.
Maliki. From the teachings of Imam Malik ibn Anas.
~asjid.Mosque, Muslim house of worship.
Masu Sarauta. (Hausa) Ruling class.
Mul&mna. Learning through apprenticeship and actual living
experiences with the teacher.
dl-Muwalat. Allegiance, clientage.
Mutakallimfin, The scholars who concentrate on speculative
theology.
viii.

Nikah. Marriage.
Purdah. Seclusion of women,
Qabila. Clan
Q8dI. Judge
al-Qira'a. Reading or diligence in learning.
Rumada. (Hausa) Slave villages.
~ i y a ' .Showing off or engaging in worship to be seen by others.

al-Safar. Travel.
Salaf or al-Salaf al-Salih. The preceeding scholars.
Salah. Prayer.
Sarki (plural: sarakuna). (Hausa) Ruler or king.
~hafi'i. From tne teachings of In-

al-~haf
i'i.

Shahada. Testimony of faith.

Sihr. magic.
Silsila. Chain of authority.
Sultan. Ruler
Sunna. Tradition, way or method of the Prophet Muhammad.
Tafsir. Quranic exegesis.
Tajdid. Revival.
Takabbur. Arrogance.
Takfir. hathemetization or accusing one of disbelief.
Talaba. Students
Talakkawa. (Hausa) The general populace.
Taqlid. Blind imitation.
Tariqa. Sufi order.
ix.

Tasawwuf. Sufism.
Tawhid. Monotheism, doctrine of unity of worship.

Tsafi . (Hausa) Spirit based.

Tullab. Students.
' lama.

Islamic scholars.

Umma. Community.

' ~ r f .Customs.
UsCL

Foundations or principles.

Walirna. Marriage reception.

Wilaya. Sainthood.
Wird (plural awrad) . Spiritual formula of prayers.
~ u d .6 Ablution.

Zbwiya. Monastery or Sufi religious centre.

Zuhd. Asceticism.

NOTE :

The transliteration from Arabic follows the system of The

Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition) except for the letters Qaf

and Jim for which the letters Q and J are used instead of K and
DJ. Arabic words such as jihad, Quran, sharia, Ramadan, Muhammad,

and Imam have not been italicized as they have been anglicized in
some English dictionaries. The Hausaized forms of Arabic words
have been written, also without italics,

INTRODUCTION

Through the pioneering efforts of the late Professor

Abdullahi (H.F.C.) Smith who taught for twenty-nine years (19551984) at the University of Ibadan and Ahmadu Bello University

(Nigeria), a considerable amount of theses and publications about

the Sokoto Caliphate and its leaders have been written. Professor
Smith impacted on a generation of scholars through his
undergraduate and postgraduate teaching, his formulation of
history syllabuses at all levels, his identification, assessment
and preservation of historical source materials at a number of
centres for research and documentation (many of which he founded
himself), and a few ground breaking articles and chapters which
he wrote. l
The theses of Murray Last, R.A. Adeleye, F.H. El-Masri, in
the sixties, which later became publications, broadened the
knowledge of students of history concerning the importance of the
Sokoto Caliphate to Islam in the Western Sudan.' With a wealth
of primary source materials written by the leaders of the Sokoto

'A Little New Lisht, Selected Historical Writinqs of

Abdullahi Smith (Zaria: The Abdullahi Smith Center for Historical
Research, 1987), 1.
'~urray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate (London: Longman Group
Ltd., 1567); R.A. Adeleye, Power and D i ~ l o m a c vin Northern
Niaeria 1804-1906, The Sokoto Caliphate and its Enemies (New
York: Humanities Press Inc., 1971); F.H. El-~asri,Bavan Wuitib
al-Hiira ' ala ' 1-' 1bad (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978) .

j i h a d and t h e i r s t u d e n t s b e i n g made a v a i l a b l e i n i n s t i t u t i o n s
s u c h a s t h e N o r t h e r n History R e s e a r c h Scheme a t A.B.U.

(founded

i n 1964), t h e Arewa House ( f o u n d e d i n 1 9 7 0 ) , and t h e Sokoto S t a t e

H i s t o r y Bureau (founded i n 1 9 7 7 ) , r e s e a r c h e r s began t o p r o d u c e
p a p e r s a n d theses f o c u s i n g on t h e n a t u r e and i m p l i c a t i o n s of the
Sokoto J i h a d , t h e f a l l o f t h e Hausa governments, the i n s t i t u t i o n s
of t h e c a l i p h a t e , and t h e economic and p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f
Hausaland d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e p e r i o d of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
H i s t o r i a n s h a d r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e Sokoto j i h a d p r o d u c e d n o t o n l y

a p o w e r f u l Islamic s t a t e which g o v e r n e d o v e r two h u n d r e d and

f i f t y t h o u s a n d s q u a r e m i l e s , b u t a g e n e r a t i o n of i n t e l l e c t u a l s
who s u c c e e d e d i n p r o d u c i n g an u n p r e c e d e n t e d amount o f w r i t i n g s
n e v e r b e f o r e w i t n e s s e d i n Hausaland. The g o v e r n o r s o f t h e
p r o v i n c e s o f t h e Sokoto c a l i p h a t e communicated w i t h e a c h o t h e r i n
c l a s s i c a l A r a b i c and even women s c h o l a r s were g i v e n r e c o g n i t i o n .
D e s p i t e t h e s e e x t r a o r d i n a r y achievements and t h e e x i s t e n c e
of a number o f the w r i t i n g s of t h e Sokoto J i h a d i s t u n t i l o u r
p r e s e n t d a y , v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n h a s been p a i d t o the
i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y and t h e s o c i a l impact of t h e Sokoto J i h a d

and t h e r e s u l t i n g C a l i p h a t e . T h i s may b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a r n i n g c l a s s i c a l A r a b i c and m a s t e r i n g t h e
s p e c i a l i z e d t e r m i n o l o g i e s of I s l a m i c s c h o l a r s , o r t h e o v e r emphasis o n t h e j i h a d i t s e l f . Whatever t h e c a s e may be, t h e lack
of i n - d e p t h r e s e a r c h on t h e s o c i a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y of
Hausaland p r i o r t o t h e j i h a d o f 1 8 0 4 C . E . ,

and t h e encouragement

of D r . Ahmed Mohammed Kani, a s t u d e n t o f A b d u l l a h i Smith and a n

accomplished scholar in his own right, has led the present author
to delve into this subject. Dr. Kanifs extensive thesis, The Life
and Works of ' ~ b dal-Qadir b. al-Mustafa: A Critical Edition of
his Works and Historiosraphical Approach (Ph. D. dissertation,
A.B.U.,

1987) highlighted one of the great intellectuals of the

generation after the jihad. The thesis of Dr. Omar Bello, The
Political Thouqht of Muhammad Bello (1781-1837) as Revealed in
his Arabic Writincrs, More Especiallv al-Ghavth al-Wabl fi Sirat
Al-Imam al- dl (Ph.D . dissertation, University of London, 1983)
discussed the political thought of Sultan Muhammad Bello. Dr.
Abubakr Aliu Gwandu looked at Abdullahi ibn Fudi from a
legalistic point of view in his thesis, Abdullahi B. Fodio as a
Muslim Jurist (Ph.D.dissertation, University of Durham, 1977),
and Muhammad Sani Zahradeen analyzed his works in his thesis,
' ~ b dAllah ibn Fodiofs Contributions to the Fulani Jihad in
Nineteenth Centurv Hausaland (Ph.D. dissertation, McGiLl
University, 1976) . Only one attempt has been made to look, in
depth, at the social, intellectual thought of Shaykh '~thmanibn
Ftidi (Shehu), the primary source of inspiration for the Sokoto
jihadists, before the jihad of 1804. Dr. m a d Tahir in his
thesis, The Social Writinqs of Shavkh '~thmanb. Ffidi: A critical
and Analvtical Study (Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University,
1989) introduced the topic and gave a general overview of the

3~he
present author was not only keenly interested in this
area of study, but also encouraged to enter it based on his
extensive study of the Islamic sciences and the Arabic language,
during undergraduate work at the Islamic University of Madinah,
Saudi Arabia.

Shehufs writings with an emphasis on the concept of Taidid

(revival).
The present thesis is an attempt to go beneath the surface
and delve into the mind of the Shehu in order to understand the
intellectual challenges faced by the leader of the Sokoto Jihad.
Was the Shehu an Islamic academic who merely echoed the orthodox
teachings of the Muslim world, or was he a grassroots scholar who
tailored his teachings to meet the actual events and challenges
he faced in his environment? How were the Shehufs teachings
relevant to his people in their social and intellectual lives?

This thesis is intended to bring out aspects of the social,

intellectual climate of Hausaland in the eighteenth century and
discuss the ideas brought by the Shehu to meet these challenges.

An attempt will be made to analyze the Shehurs pre-1804 writings

for their social, intellectual content. It is intended to go
beyond the language of Islamic scholarship and try to understand
the issues that the Shehu was confronting; to look at the Shehufs
approach to the issue of sexuality, circumcision, sunna and
bid'a, muwalat, Islamic educational standards, the role of
leadership, women in society, sharia and tasawwuf, and the
formation of Islamic society in times of confrontation.

The Sources

A number of scholarly attempts to list the works of the

Shehu have been made over the years. The initial attempt was made
by the son of the Shehu, Muhammad Bello who recorded twenty-eight

works in his Infaq al-Maisur. He mentioned at the end of the list

that there are other works which are more that "one hundred in
number".' Before the recent upsurge in the study of the
scholarly Arabic writings of the Western Sudan, there were three
other significant lists. Those of Whitting
'Abdullahi Ilorin

',

Vajda

',

and

'.

In 1954, W.E. Kensdale, commissioned by Ibadan University,

travelled throughout Northern Nigeria and collected Arabic
manuscripts. He produced A Cataloaue of the Arabic ~ a n u s c r i ~ t s
preserved in the University Librarv, Ibadan, Niseria in 1955. He
later wrote three articles for the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Societv and he added new titles to the original list. His titles
for the Shehu reached eighty-five.

After this collection

appeared, several other lists were compiled, the most well known
being those of Abdullahi Smith

', Murray

Last

lo,

J.O. Hunwick

'~uhammad Bello, I n f aa al-Maisur fi Tarikh Bilad al-Takrur

(Cairo: Ministry of Awqaf, l964), 210.
'C .E .J. Whitting: "The Unprinted Indigenous Arabic Literature
of Northern Nigeria", J.R.A.S., 1943, 20-26.
6 ~ Vajda:
.
"Contribution a la connaissance de la literature
arabe en Afrique Occidentalev, J.S.A., tome XX, fasc. 2, 1950.

d dam ' Abdullahi a l - I l a r i , Al-Islam f i Naijirivva wa ' ~ t h m a n

ibn FGdi (Cairo, l950-51), 41.
8
~ .N.
. Kensdale,
~
"Field Notes on the Arabic Literature of the
Western Sudanw (l955), 162-168; (l956), 78-80; (l958), 53-57)

\~bdullahi(H.F . C . ) Smith, "Source Material for the History

of the Western Sudan1' (J.H.S.N.), vol.1, no. 3, 1958, 238-247.
' O ~ u r r a yLast, The Sokoto Caliphate, 237-240. He listed ninety-

four works.

'I,

A.D.H. Bivar and M. Hiskett

12,

Ismail A.B. Balogun

'Uthrnan Sayyid Alpad lsmaAil al-Bili

13,

and

14.

The Problem of Chronology

Despite the publication of so many lists of the writings of
the Shehu, there has never been a proper chronological study of
these works. M.A. al-Hajj made an open plea to all those involved
in the writings of the Shehu to try to classify his writings
according to the origin and growth of the movement. He divided
the writings into three periods based on the most significant
events of the Shehuts career, and attempted to fit his writings
into these categories. Al-Hajj's

periods were:

1. 1774-1804: The period of teaching, preaching and community

formation.

2. 1804-1808: The period of the jihad and the overthrow of

the Hausa states.
3. 1808-1817: The post-jihad period of state building and

"J. 0. Hunwick, "Arabic Manuscript Material Bearing on the

History of the Western Sudan. A collection of MSS belonging to
the Kano Native Authority", Supplement to Bulletin of News
(Historical Society of Nigeria), 7, ii, 1962; Idem and R.S
O r Fahey (ed.) , Arabic Literature in Africa, A Bulletin of
Bio~ra~hical
and Biblioqraphical Information (Evanston: Program
of African Studies, Northwestern University, no.l), 43-58. J.O.
Hunwick listed one-hundred works firmly attributed to the Shehu
and seventeen that were doubtful.

'*A.D.H. Bivar and M. Hiskett, "The Arabic Literature of

Nigeria to 1804: a provisional accountw, (B.S.O.A.S., 25) 104-48.

131smail A.B. Balogun, The Life and Works of Wthman Dan Fodio
(Lagos: Islamic Publications Bureau, 1975), 43-48. He listed 115
works.
1 4 ' ~ t h a nS .A.I. a - 1 , Index of Arabic Manuscripts of the
Northern Historv Research Scheme (Zaria: Department of History,
A.B.U., 1977) . He listed 130 works.

the maintenance of Dar al-Islam (the Islamic state) .15

Other attempts to classify the writings of the Shehu such

as that of F.H. El-Masri

l6

have also added to the general

understanding of the chronology of the Shehu's

writings. The

present author has found that the division of M.A. al-Hajj was
broader concerning the formative p e r i o d and clearer in analyzing
the writings of the Shehu. The significance of 1804 C.E., for the

Shehu and his community, cannot be underestimated, for it was the

year of the famous hiira to Gudu and the battle of Tabkin Kwotto.
These traumatic events must have had a profound effect on the
Shehu and should serve as a major turning point in his career.
The present author was also fortunate to be able sit with Dr.
Ahmed Kani in Sokoto, Nigeria and sift through the lists of the

writings of the Shehu in order to isolate the works written in

the formative period of 1774-1804. Particular attention was given
t o the works categorized by M.A. al-Hajj, and the other

significant dating found in the previous listings.

The order of this thesis, therefore, is chronological, in
that, the background is centred around Hausaland before the
eighteenth century and the analysis focuses on the formative
period of 1774-1804. The writings have been chosen from what
appeared to have been written during that period. A few of the
"M.A. al-Hajj, "The Writings of Shehu '~thmanDan Fodio: A
Plea for Dating and Chronology" (Kano Studies N.S. 1, 2, 1974/77),
61 6 .H.
~
El-Masri, Bavan Wuitib al-Hiira, 6. El-Masri divided
the career of the Shehu into three periods: 1774-1795, 1795-1808,
and 1808-1817.

works used in this thesis were written after 1804, but their
subject matter is significant to the discussion.
The order is also thematic, in that the most important
themes of the formative period are the basis of the divisions of
the chapters of the analysis. The Shehu, in his early years,
concentrated on the education of the masses, women, and scholars.
He denounced local customs contrary to Islam and established the
Islamic alternative based on the primary sources of Islam. He
refuted the misconceptions of the scholars, clarified belief from
disbelief, and laid the foundation for his community.'' These
themes, put in the proper perspective, are also the basis for
classifying the early writings and setting the chronology.
The Locations of the Source Materials
The bulk of the source materials for this thesis were
obtained in the course of two field trips taken to Northern
Nigeria in 1989 and 1990. While participating in the "Islam in
Africa Conference" held at Abuja in November of 1989, the present
author had the opportunity to meet and share information with a
number of leading West African scholars. As a result of these
discussions, the directors and librarians of a number of leading
libraries and research centres were gracious enough to give the
present author full access to the Arabic documentation areas and
the local collections of unpublished theses, books, and papers.
The main libraries visited included the following:
(1) Kano: The 2ost Graduate Research Room at Bayero,
"M.A.

al-Hajj, "A Plea for Dating", 6.

8

University.
(2) Zaria: The Research Room of the Department of History,

Ahmadu Bello University, also known as The Northern

History Research Scheme (NHRS). Dr. Abdullahi Mahadi
who was then, the director, was kind enough to not only
open his facilities, but to also assist the present
author in binding the unpublished theses.
(3) Kaduna: Arewa House Centre for Research and Historical

Documentation, Ahmadu Bello University (ABU)

Dr.

Bashiru Ikara most graciously gave full access to this

invaluable collection of historical documentation. The
centre was formerly the official residence of the late
Al-Haj Sir Ahmadu Bello.
(4) Kaduna: Nigerian National Archives. A number of Arabic

documents including an excellent copy of the Kano

Chronicles were obtained here. The workers in the
binding section were also enthusiastic enough to bind
over twenty unpublished theses in four days.
(5) Sokoto: Centre for Islamic Studies at the city campus,

University of Sokoto. With the assistance of Al-Haj

Bashir Osman m a d at the city campus, the present author
was able to photocopy twenty-six Arabic manuscripts of
relevance to the formative period of the Shehu.

or

la

more useful information on these documentation centres

and others in Nigeria see: J. 0. Hunwick, "Notes on some
collections of Arabic Manuscripts in Nigeria", Arabic Literature
in Africa, no. 3, 91-101.

( 6 ) S o k o t o : S o k o t o H i s t o r y Bureau, now u n d e r t h e S o k o t o S t a t e

M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n , Home A f f a i r s a n d C u l t u r e .
O t h e r l o c a l l y p r i n t e d A r a b i c m a n u s c r i p t s were o b t a i n e d o v e r
a t e n y e a r s t u d y o f t h i s r e g i o n a t t h e l o c a l markets i n N i g e r i a
and a t U n i v e r s i t y book s t o r e s i n Nigeria a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

One o f t h e most f r e q u e n t s o u r c e s o f p u b l i c a t i o n s was t h e G a s k i y a

C o r p o r a t i o n o f Zaria. F r i e n d s and c o l l e a g u e s h a v e a l s o made
a v a i l a b l e b o o k s a n d m a n u s c r i p t s from t h e i r p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s .

The Categories o f Source Materials

The p r i m a r y s o u r c e m a t e r i a l o f t h i s t h e s i s can b e d i v i d e d
i n t o t h e A r a b i c w r i t i n g s o f t h e Shehu i n a n d a r o u n d t h e f o r m a t i v e
p e r i o d , t h e F u l f u d e poems o f t h e Shehu u s e d t o t r a n s l a t e a n d
e x p r e s s t h e ideas f o u n d i n t h e A r a b i c works, A r a b i c works w r i t t e n
b y t h e b r o t h e r o f t h e Shehu A b d u l l a h i and Muhammad B e l l o ( h i s
s o n ) , g i v i n g h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t H a u s a l a n d and t h e
f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d , A r a b i c h i s t o r i c a l w r i t i n g s w r i t t e n by Islamic
s c h o l a r s i n H a u s a l a n d b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e jihad,

general A r a b i c

w r i t i n g s t h a t p r o v i d e t h e h i s t o r i c a l background of t h e Western
Sudan o r t h e c l a s s i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I s l a m i c i d e a s a n d
p r a c t i c e s , and selected v e r s e s and p a s s a g e s from t h e Holy Q u r a n
and t h e Hadith l i t e r a t u r e .
The s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s i n c l u d e u n p u b l i s h e d t h e s e s ,
papers, a r t i c l e s , a n d books, w r i t t e n a b o u t H a u s a l a n d a n d a s p e c t s

o f t h e j i h a d o f 1804, a s w e l l a s t h e r e c o r d e d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f
European and Arab t r a v e l l e r s who v e n t u r e d i n t o t h e Western Sudan
b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e S h e h u r s m i s s i o n . S i g n i f i c a n t aspects o f t h e

chronology and t h e importance of t h e most significant source

materials will be mentioned as t h e thesis u n f o l d s .

PART ONE:

BACKGROUND

CHAPTER 1

THE ROLE OF THE

'u-

IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAM IN HAUSALAND

I n many s o c i e t i e s there a r e p e o p l e who embody t h e n a t i o n a l

i d e a l a n d v e r b a l i z e i t s h i s t o r y , h o p e s , a n d a s p i r a t i o n s . There
are p e o p l e who e x p r e s s t h e s o c i e t y ' s p h i l o s o p h y ,

inspire its

d e f e n d e r s , and l a y down i t s l a w s . These are t h e l e a r n e d men a n d

women. They o f t e n form a s p e c i a l i z e d g r o u p , bound by a s t r i c t
d i s c i p l i n e of l e a r n i n g a n d dedicated t o p r e s e r v i n g t h e c u l t u r e
a n d h e r i t a g e of t h e i r people.
I n Orthodox Islamic s o c i e t y , t h e t e m p o r a l l a w i s taken

d i r e c t l y from t h e r e l i g i o u s t e x t s . The s p i r i t u a l i s n o t s u p p o s e d
t o be separated from t h e m a t e r i a l . A c c o r d i n g t o I s l a m i c
t r a d i t i o n , t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f knowledge, t h e Q u r a n , was
embodied i n the l i f e o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad. H i s a c t i o n s ,
s a y i n g s , and l e g i s l a t i o n s were l a t e r o r g a n i z e d i n t o t h e s e c o n d
s o u r c e o f I s l a m i c knowledge c a l l e d t h e Sunna. T h e Sunna
r e p r e s e n t s , f o r Muslims, t h e P r o p h e t i c i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of God' s
r e v e l a t i o n t o humanity. T h i s s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h e p r a c t i c e s
t h a t w e r e t a k e n from them w e r e c a r r i e d by Muslims o u t s i d e o f the
o r i g i n a l base i n t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a t o the f o u r c o r n e r s o f t h e
e a r t h . The task o f i n t e r p r e t i n g and, s o m e t i m e s , i m p l e m e n t i n g
these p r i n c i p l e s was e n t r u s t e d t o t h e s c h o l a r s

lama) o f Islam.

The P r o p h e t Muhammad, h i m s e l f , i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e ' ~ l a r n awas

r e c o r d e d t o have said,

The s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e s c h o l a r o v e r t h e u n l e a r n e d w o r s h i p p e r
i s a s t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of t h e moon o v e r t h e other heavenly
b o d i e s on t h e n i g h t o f t h e f u l l moon. The s c h o l a r s a r e t h e
i n h e r i t o r s o f t h e p r o p h e t s . The p r o p h e t s d i d n o t l e a v e behind
d i n a r s o r dirhams, b u t t h e y l e f t knowledge, s o t h a t whoever
o b t a i n s t h i s knowledge has become immensely fortunate.
( R e p o r t e d i n Sunan o f Abu Dawiid) l9
So t h e 'Warn& b y v i r t u e o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l basis o f
I s l a m i c s o c i e t y were always h e l d i n h i g h e s t e e m b y t h e Muslims.
They were t h e n a t u r a l l e a d e r s o r s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p .
T h e i r c o n n e c t i o n with t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e s of I s l a m i c l e g i s l a t i o n
e n a b l e d them t o e i t h e r guide t h e p e o p l e t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d d i r e c t l y
i n t o I s l a m i c l i f e s t y l e o r p r e s e n t I s l a m i n a compromising f a s h i o n
i n o r d e r t o b l e n d i n t o t h e l o c a l r e l i g i o u s and s o c i a l m i l i e u .
Direct e x p o s u r e t o I s l a m w i t h i t s s t r i c t m o n o t h e i s t i c d o c t r i n e

would o f t e n c h a l l e n g e a s p e c t s o f t h e newly e n c o u n t e r e d c u l t u r e
a n d l e a d t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n . On t h e o t h e r hand, g r a d u a l t e a c h i n g by
example o r t h r o u g h l o c a l symbolism could e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o a
p e a c e f u l t r a n s i t i o n i n t o I s l a m i c l i f e s t y l e o r c r e a t e a mixed
v e r s i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l way of l i f e ,
Such was t h e c h a l l e n g e f a c i n g t h e c a r r i e r s o f I s l a m a s it
s p r e a d a c r o s s North A f r i c a and t h e n c r o s s e d t h e S a h a r a d e s e r t .
They e n c o u n t e r e d p e o p l e who b i t t e r l y r e s i s t e d I s l a m i c v a l u e s and
l a w s , and o t h e r s who became t h e champions o f I s l a m i c t h o u g h t a n d
p r o p a g a t i o n , From t h e numerous e t h n i c s t o c k s of t h e S a h a r a
r e g i o n , t h e S a h e l , and t h e Savannah, c l e r i c a l b r o t h e r h o o d s and

" # . A . A1 T a b r i z i , Mishkat A 1 Masablh, rev. ed.

Maktab A1 Islami Press, 19611, 7 4 .

(Damascus: A1

mystic orders developed. Some of these groups w e r e to play a

decisive role in the movement of Islam into the Western Sudan and
beyond. Approaches to Islamic application and renewal were to
take root in the Western Sudan which paralleled the major trends
in the heartland of Islam. Hausaland, near the centre of the
Western Sudan and in a pivotal position on the Pilgrimage-trading
route became one of the primary inheritors of Islamic traditions
filtering in from the east, west, and north.

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAM

The first significant progress for Islam in Hausaland was

realized in the second half of the fifteenth century, during the
reign of Muhammad Rumfa, son of ~ a ' q t i b (1462/3-1498/9).20 The
2 0 ~ ~ ~ o r d to
i n the
g
Kano Chronicle, "a composition possibly
compiled in its present form, between 1883 and 1893. It lists the
rulers of Kano from Bagauda, the first acknowledged Sarki, to
Muhammad Bello, son of Ibrahim Dabo, giving an account of the
major events in each reign and the number of years each Sarki
ruled. A translation only of this document was published by H.R.
Palmer in the Journal of the Roval ~nthroooloaical~nstitute,
vol. 38 (1908), 63-98 and again in his Sudanese Memoirs, vol. 3,
97-132. The Arabic text from which he translated it is to be
found among his papers preserved in the Jos Museum (Cat. no.
35/K46). (taken from J.O. Hunwick, "The Dynastic Chronologies of
the Central Sudan States in the Sixteenth Century: Some
Reinterpretations", Kano Studies New Series, 1, 1, 1971, 44) . The
present author found a copy of the original Arabic manuscript at
the National Archives, Kaduna, Nigeria. I have left a bound copy
of the original at the Northern History Research Scheme at
A.B.U., Zaria, Nigeria and Arewa House in Kaduna. The same copy
is being used for direct translation in this thesis. For more
information about the ongoing debate surrounding the authorship
and chronology of the Kano Chronicle, see: M.G. Smith, 'The Kano
Chronicle as Historyf, in Studies in the Historv of Kano, ed.
Bawuro M. Barkindo, (Kano: Bayero University, 1983); Elias Saad,
'Islamization in Kano: Sequence and Chronologyf in Kano Studies
N e w Series, 1, no.4, (1979); Paul Lovejoy, "Notes on the As1 alWangariyin" in Kano Studies, New Series, l, no. 3, (1978); J.O.

Kano Chronicle and the As1 A1 Wansarivin

",

of an important group of Wangarawa clerics

report the coming

'' on

route to

~ a k k a h .The
~ ~ leader of the clerics was Shaykh ' ~ b dal-Raman
Zagaiti, a renowned scholar held in high esteem by his people.
His arrival coincided with the coming of a North African scholar
of considerable repute named Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'AMal-Karim
Hunwick, "Not yet The Kano Chronicle: King-Lists with and without
Narrative Elaboration from Nineteenth-Century Kano", Sudanic
Africa: a Journal of Historical Sources, iv, 1993, 95-130, idem,
"A Historical Whodunit: The So-called Kano Chronicle and its
Place in the Historiography of KanoI1 in Historv in Africa vol.
21, 1994, 127-146; Mervyn Hiskett, "The Song of Bagauda",
B.S .O.A.S., 27 (1964) and Murray Last, 'Historical Metaphors in
the Kano Chroniclet, History of Africa, 7, (1980). Other sources
for the history of Kano are Muhammad Zangi ibn Salih, Tasvid
Akhbar ~ama't as-Shavkh allathina bi Kana wa ma Jara bainahum wa
baina at-Tashut min al-Hurtib, (1863-4), NHRS P .lOS/1, Africana
Section, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois; The Kano
Kins List of the Falke Collection #0704, Africana Section,
Northwestern University; and Adam ibn Muhammad al-'~rabi, al'~ttar,~1-'1lan bi Tarikh Kanu, (Kano: 1925-6 C.E., rev. ed.,
1933 C . E . ) , NHRS J.M. 6/94, Africana Section, Northwestern
University. For the basic translation of the Kano Chronicle, I am
using H .R. Palmer, Sudanese Memoirs, (S.M.) , (Lagos, Government
Printer, 1928).
" ~ n anonymous Arabic document, entitled As1 al-Wanqarivin
alladhina bi Kano, and claimed to have been authored in the
seventeenth century. See M.A. A1 Hajj, "A Seventeenth Century
Chronicle on the Origins and Missionary Activities of the
Wangaran in Kano Studies, New Series, 1, no. 3, (1978), 11.

he term Wangara or Ungara seems to have applied to the

Mande speaking people of the Galam, Bambuk, and Bure, in the area
of the upper Senegal and Niger rivers. It was used by the
medieval Arab geographers to refer to gold traders from this
region. (Mervyn Hiskett, The Development of Islam in West Africa,
(London: Longman Group Ltd., l984), 45.)

o or

a discussion on the migration of the Wangarawa see

John Hunwick, " Songhay, Bornu, and the Hausa States " in Historv
of West Africa, Third Edition, 2 (1985), 324-356.

Al-~aghili.24Of the many works performed in Kanc by the two

eminent Shaykhs, their first major action was to cut down a huge
tamarind tree where the inhabitants of the city practised
idolatry. It was an event of great significance to the people of
Kano as this tree had been the most important spiritual site in
the city and, according to As1 al-Wansarivin, "strange devils
that no one can describe came forth from its trunk". Later a
congregational mosque2' was built on the site of the sacred

tree.2 6
The destruction of the sacred tree, one of the leading
shrines of the Iskoki belief system

27,

and the establishment of

the Friday Mosque represented the beginning of a new trend for

A1
.
Hajj, As1 al-Wanqariyin, 11.

25~here
are two mosques associated with the site of this
tamarind tree, one in Madabo and the other in Yan Doya. The
latter, said to have been built by Bilqasim, one of the
companions of Shaykh Zagaiti, is credited with the reputation of
being the oldest mosque in Kano( M.A. A1 Hajj, As1 al-Wansarivin,
footnote 41, 12.
2 6 ~ .A1
~ .Hajj, As1 al-Wanqariyin, 12.

'
'The main Hausa religion at the time was the Iskoki belief
system which involved the worship of various spirits of natural
phenomena. Iskoki was connected with rites pertaining to
agriculture, pastoralism, fishing, and hunting, the protection of
settlements, and various other social endeavour. This belief
system had developed in response to man's preoccupation with
nature and activities most closely identified with it, and was
widely practised throughout Kasar Hausa. For more on the Iskoki
belief system and its relationship to other African belief
systems see '~bdullahRafi Augi, "The Gobir factor in the Social
and Political History of the R i m a Basin C, 1650 to 1808 A.D.",
(Ph.D. dissertation, Ahmadu Be110 University, 1984) 1, 225, 226,
J.H. Greenberg, The Influence of Islam on a Sudanese Relision,
(New York: J.J. Augustin, 1946), and A.J.N. Tremearne, Ban of the
Bori, (London: Frank Cass, 1968).

Islam in Hausaland. Shaykh 'Abd al-Raman and Shaykh al-Maghili

set a new precedent by establishing Islam as a major outward
manifestation of worship. This act of confronting what is
perceived to be evil in the view of Islamic law is known as

' ~ m rbibl MarDf wa al-Nahv 'an al-Munkar (Commanding good and

forbidding evil). Since the early phase of Islamic growth in the

Arabian Peninsula, it was considered to be a primary duty of the
Muslim leadership and a necessary part of a dynamic Islamic
society.28 Al-Maghili continued this approach after the death

of Shaykh ' ~ b dal-Raman and played a key role in the early

evolution of Islam in Hausaland. His life and teachings have
greatly influenced the Muslims of this region and must be
reviewed in order to appreciate later developments.
Al-Maghili was born at Tlemcen (properly Tilimsan), in
what is now, North-West Algeria. After having aroused great
controversy among the

lama of North Africa because of his harsh

stand against non-Muslim elements, and his aggressive preaching

against innovation and liberalism in Islamic practices, AlMaghili was forced to flee. He conducted a missionary tour to the
south, stopping at Air, Takedda, Kano ", Katsina, and GaoO3'
J.R. Willis, " Jihad Fi Sabil Allah - Its Doctrinal Basis
In Islam And Some Aspects Of Its Evolution In Nineteenth-Century
West Africa 'I, J.A.H., 8, no. 3, (1967), 408.

'
'Gwarzo,

A1 Maohili, 63; and Palmer, S .M.,

81.

30~.~.Batran,A Contribution to the Biography of Shaykh

Muhammad ibn ' Ahd-al-~ar~mibn Muhammad ( ' mar-A' ~ a r )Al-Maghili,
A1 Tilimsani ", J.A.H., 14, no. 3, (1973), 381; J . 0 . Hunwick,
Shari'a in Sonshav: The Replies of Al-Maahili (Oxford University
Press, l984), 40-1.

Everywhere he s t o p p e d and i n t e r a c t e d w i t h t h e p e o p l e , s i g n i f i c a n t
c h a n g e s i n Islamic p r a c t i c e s r e s u l t e d . H i s stay i n Air is
e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h o r a l s o u r c e s a n d c o n f i r m e d by t h e w r i t t e n
a u t h o r i t y o f Shaykh Alpad Baba, t h e celebrated s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y
Muslim J u r i s t O 3 ' European t r a v e l l e r s l a t e r f o u n d t r a c e s o f these
r e c o r d s s t i l l b e i n g c i r c u l a t e d among t h e p e o p l e . H e n r i c h B a r t h i n
1850 A.D.

f o u n d t h a t Al-Maghili

h a d e s t a b l i s h e d places of

p r a y e d 2 I n 1 9 2 2 A . D . , F r a n c i s R e n n e l l Rodd, t r a v e l l i n g t h r o u g h
A i r was i n f o r m e d t h a t "The p e o p l e o f A i r b e l o n g t o the M a l i k i

p e r s u a s i o n o f I s l a m , as a r e s u l t o f t h e t e a c h i n g o f a g r e a t
l e a d e r who came amongst them i n t h e e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H i s
name was Muhammad i b n ' ~ b dal-Karim a l - M a g h i l i ,

surnamed A l -

Baghdadi, and h e was t h e A p o s t l e o f I s l a m i n t h e C e n t r a l

S ~ d a n . " ~Al-Maghili
'
m a i n t a i n e d h i s m i l i t a n t a p p r o a c h t o Islamic
p r e a c h i n g and c o n f r o n t e d t h e p r a c t i c e s o f t h e ~ u s l i m swho were
n o t p r a c t i s i n g I s l a m i n t o t a l i t y . Rodd r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g
information :
H i s s t a y (Al-Maghili' s ) was n o t e n t i r e l y p e a c e f u l ,
f o r he was e v e n t u a l l y d r i v e n o u t by t h e s e l a x M u s l i m s
on a c c o u n t of h i s uncompromising a t t i t u d e . I t i s
r e p o r t e d t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h a t he w a s a t t a c k e d b y a p a r t y
o f Aulimmiden i n Western A i r , b u t was n o t a p p a r e n t l y
k i l l e d , f o r t h e r e a f t e r he a g a i n preached i n

" m a d Baba, N a v l a l - i b t i h a i bi t a t r i z a l - D i b a i , on m a r g i n
o f I b n Fahan, A l - D i b a i a1 Mudhahhab, ( C a i r o : 1351 A.H./1932-3
C . E . ) , 331, (Gwarzo, A 1 M a a h i l i , 5 7 ) .
3 2 ~ e n r i cB
h arth, Travels and Discoveries i n North and C e n t r a l
(London: 1 8 5 7 ) 1, 386.

Africa,

3 3 ~ . ~ . R o d dP,e o p l e o f t h e V e i l , (London: l 9 2 6 ) , 2 9 1 .
19

In Kano Al-Maghili had a long lasting, powerful impact.

Here, he came in contact with the Wangarawa, who may have already
begun making important changes in Kano society.35 The presence
of Al-Maghili and the learned men of the Wangarawa must have
given Sarki Rurnfa the Islamic knowledge to actually bring about
r e a l Islamic change. Among the significant aspects of

Islamization in Kano that came about as a result of this

scholarly group were that they persuaded the Sarki to eradicate
the traditional symbol of worship, establish a Friday Mosque and
Islamic schools of higher learning, and institute Islamic Sharia
not only as a theoretical dogma but a legal framework for the
political order of thr state.
Islamic knowledge was also spread throughout the
countryside and Al-Maghili was credited with promoting Islamic
awareness wherever he went. Hassan Gwarzo, in his study of AlMaghilifs life, quoted the following from an unpublished article

of Al-haii Abu Bakr Imam, entitled

I1

The Constitution of Northern

Nigerian:
It c a n n o t be denied, since it was as early as 1493, over
466 years ago, that Shaykh Maghili founded two Islamic
Universities in Northern Nigeria, one in Kano and the
other in Katsina. The site of the one in Katsina is now

Veil

3 5 ~ oar discussion of the reforms o f Sarki Rumfa see "The role

of Al-Maghili in the reforms of Sarki Muhamrnadu Rumfa (1463-1499)
of Kano : A re-examination1' by Bawuro M. Barkindo, Kano Studies
N . S . , (1987-88) 3, no. 1.

the famous Masallacin ~ o b a r a u3".

Another highly significant contribution to the Islamization
of Hausaland made by Al-~aghiliwas his encouragement for the
institutionalization of Islamic Sharia and enhancement of Islamic
government. Sarki Rumfa had already begun to make changes in
Hausa society. The institution of Amir (properly translated as
Ruler and not Prince) was in existence.37 The Amir or (Sarki),

for instance, in Katsina did not assume complete judicial,

military, and political authority over the people. He was merely
the leader of a loose group of saruruwa and birane

je

which

remained largely autonomous in internal affairs?

Al-Maghili, on first arriving in Kano, assisted the Sarki

in appointing an I m m for the ~ r i d a yPrayers and a OBdi for legal

matters.40He also helped established Sharia courts and
personally supervised over the Amir's court?

Sarki Rumfa

approached Al-Maghili requesting his advice in the affairs of

State. ~l-Maghilicomposed a treatise on the art of Islamic rule

36

Gwarzo, Al-Maqhili, 66.

he ruler in Kano was called Sarki.

he Hausa equivalent of towns and cities.
3g~usuf
Bala Usman, The Transformation of Katsina 1400-1883,
(Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd., 1981) 19.
"M.A. A1 Hajj, As1 a1 ~anqarivin,11.

as an Gwarzo's informant M. Isa Sarkin Sharifai reported

that according to local tradition, A1 Maghili had a place in the
court of the Amix where he used to sit. This practice is
monopolized by the descendants of Al-Maghili to our day.( See
Gwarzo, ~l-Maqhili,72 ) ,

a n d t h e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e r u l e r , T h i s t r e a t i s e known a s Tai al-Din

Fima Y a i i b

l la al-Multik

( T a i ) o r The Crown o f Relicrion

C o n c e r n i n a t h e O b l i a a t i o n s o f P r i n c e s became a t y p e o f p r a c t i c a l
. e~ l~a t e r w r o t e
c o u n s e l f o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of Amir i n K a n ~ H
s e v e r a l l e t t e r s t o Rumfa a d v i s i n g him i n m a t t e r s n o t c o v e r e d by
the

Taj

One o f t h e s e l e t t e r s called Wassrvat A l - M a q h i l i i l a

Muhammad Rumfa (known a s Jumla M u k h t a s a r a ) , was q u o t e d c o m p l e t e l y

b y Shehu ' ~ t h m a n i b n FCidi i n c h a p t e r s i x of h i s Tanbih al-Ikhwan

' a l a ahwal

a r d al-SBdan

and b y A b d u l l a h i ibn FCidi i n c h a p t e r o n e

of h i s ~ i v a 'a l - ~ i v a s a t ~T~h e. s e two works, a r e t h e o n l y

p r e s e n t l y e x i s t i n g documents w r i t t e n by Al-Maghili

f o r Hausaland.

B y d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c i n g Sarki Rumfa a n d r e c o r d i n g h i s a d v i c e s and

c o u n s e l , Al-Maghili

l a i d t h e groundwork f o r I s l a m i c r u l e a n d

r e v i v a l f o r t h e n e x t f o u r h u n d r e d y e a r s . T h e r e v i v a l movement o f
t h e Shehu a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s c a n n o t b e s e e n i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m A l -

M a g h i l i , n o r a s a mere r e f l e c t i o n o f some of h i s i d e a s , b u t a s a
d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h e t r e n d s o f I s l a m i z a t i o n t h a t he e s t a b l i s h e d

i n t h e f i f t e e n t h century.
I n t h e T a i , Al-Maghili

stresses t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f God a n d

t h e n e e d f o r a d h e r e n c e t o t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad

4 2 The p r e s e n t a u t h o r h a s d e p e n d e d mainly on t h e t r a n s l a t i o n
made by D r . Kamal I . B e d r i of t h e Department o f A r a b i c , B a y e r o
U n i v e r s i t y , Kano a n d P r i s c i l l a E . S t a r r a t t o f t h e Department o f
P r e l i m i n a r y S t u d i e s , H i s t o r y s e c t i o n , Bayero U n i v e r s i t y . T h i s
t r a n s l a t i o n was b a s e d on t h e c o l l a t e d m a n u s c r i p t e d i t e d by D r .
H a s s a n Gwarzo. Only s l i g h t s p e l l i n g c h a n g e s have been a d d e d . T h i s
t r a n s l a t i o n can be found i n Kano S t u d i e s N . S . ( 1 9 7 4 / 7 7 ) 1, 2.

4 3 ~ . ~ P. a l m e r t r a n s l a t e d W a s i v v a t
i n h i s a r t i c l e tt An E a r l y
F u l a n i C o n c e p t i o n o f I s l a m ", J . A . S . XIV (1914-15), 185-88.

o f Arabia i n a l l a f f a i r s of S t a t e . I n h i s forward he writes:

May God l e a d you t o t h e f e a r o f H i m and p r e v e n t you

from f e e l i n g the effects o f e a r t h l y p l e a s u r e s . For
indeed, the p o s i t i o n of Amirship i s t h a t of a s u c c e s s o r
of God and a d e p u t y of t h e Messenger of God. How great
a r e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . F o r i f t h e Amlr i s j u s t , then
a c t i n g i n f e a r of God w i l l s p o i l t h e joy of h i s
p l e a s u r e s . And i f t h e A m i r i s u n j u s t , e a r t h l y p l e a s u r e s
w i l l r u i n t h e s i n c e r i t y of his p i e t y . And upon you, may
God be m e r c i f u l u n t o you, i s t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o act i n
f e a r of God because each s o u l i s qoing t o t a s t e d e a t h .
You w i l l be g i v e n your wages i n f h l on the Day of
R e s u r r e c t i o n . 44

I n c h a p t e r one of h i s Tai, Al-Maghili,

his definition

Islamic r u l e

after establishing
cont h u e s h i s

I s l a m i z a t i o n of l e a d e r s h i p by s t a t i n g :

. . .Depend on God : and i n y o u r a f f a i r s , a l l o f t h e m ,

seek h e l p from God. And l e t your work, a l l of i t , be
for t h e sake of God. B e m i n d f u l t h a t you a r e merely
one of God's c r e a t u r e s . Many would be more powerful t h a n
you, were it n o t f o r the h e l p o f God. And l e t your
ambition, a l l of it, be f o r t h e s a k e of God. And
your fear, a l l of it, be of God. And your concern, a l l
of it, be f o r t h e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e of t h e c r e a t u r e s o f
God. F o r God d i d n o t a p p o i n t you o v e r them t o be t h e i r
Master. Rather, you were a p p o i n t e d t o improve t h e i r
faith and t h e i r w e l f a r e . 4'
With I s l a m i c t h e o c r a c y c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d as t h e form o f
r u l e , Al-Maghili s k i l l f u l l y went on t o d e s c r i b e the o b l i g a t i o n s

of t h e Amir c o n c e r n i n g h i s p u b l i c appearance. The A m i r , h e

t a u g h t , s h o u l d be w e l l d r e s s e d , d i g n i f i e d but not t o o
e m b e l l i s h e d . H e s h o u l d be t r u t h f u l , t r u s t w o r t h y , and r e s o l u t e .
Even t h e a s s o c i a t e s of t h e A m i r s h o u l d be well chosen.

Do n o t t a k e anyone as your c o u n c i l l o r o r your c i v i l

s e r v a n t who i n t h e eyes o f t h e p e o p l e i s not worthy o f
4 4 ~ e d r iTai
,

bid, 1 7 .

17.

f u l l r e s p e c t , f o r a s men c l o t h e t h e m s e l v e s , s o you must

choose t h e b e s t garments. 4 6
I n r e g a r d s t o t h e d e l e g a t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y i n the kingdom,
Al-Maghili

a d v i s e d Rumfa t o act justly i n w a r and peace. He

s h o u l d form a c o u n c i l c h o o s i n g wise m i n i s t e r s who would s a f e g u a r d

t h e t r e a s u r i e s and d i s p e n s e the wealth i n j u s t i c e . H e s h o u l d take
a d v a n t a g e o f l e a r n e d men and p e o p l e o f sound mind and c h a r a c t e r ,
a n d s e c u r e h i s kingdom w i t h a p o w e r f u l army, s t r o n g f o r t r e s s e s
and a b l e doctors.''

A t t h e end o f e v e r y c h a p t e r , Al-Maghili

would s t r e s s :
Moreover, t h e h e i g h t o f a f f l i c t i o n i s t h e i s o l a t i o n
o f t h e r u l e r from t h e s u b j e c t s ."
I n m a t t e r s o f war, Al-Maghili

a d v i s e d that t h e army s h o u l d

be w e l l o r g a n i z e d and e q u i p p e d . They s h o u l d be on c o n s t a n t a l e r t

a n d t h e i r pay s h o u l d be w e l l r e g u l a t e d . H e r u l e d t h a t Jihad c o u l d
b e u s e d n o t o n l y as a means o f d e f e n s e b u t a s a means t o p u r i f y
c o r r u p t i o n . H e wrote :
So r i d e t h e h o r s e s o f r e s o l u t i o n on saddles of d e t e r m i n a t i o n . U p l i f t t h e c o u n t r y from t h e b a s e n e s s o f
c o r r u p t i o n . Purge it w i t h winds o f battle, and c l o u d s
of d u s t ( o f a r m i e s ) and t h e t h u n d e r o f n e i g h i n g
( o f c a l v a r y ) and t h e l i g h t n i n g f l a s h e s of swords
and t h e t h u n d e r o u s n o i s e of s a b r e s and e n d l e s s waves
of s o l d i e r s . For i n d e e d , s o v e r e i g n t y i s won by the
sword and n o t by p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n . And how can one
d i s p e l f e a r ( o f t h e enemy) except by i n t i m i d a t i n g
him ? 4 9

In Public affairs, Al-Maghili advised Rumfa to investigate

all matters that would bring harm if ignored. He should be
informed of every subject of which he is ignorant. He should
declare all negligent, orphans, and irresponsible people as wards
of the State. He should constantly check the p e r f o r m a n c e of his
employees to g u a r d from corruption and injustice. He should
investigate any breach of the law and punish the guilty according
to Islamic Sharia. Justice, Al-Maghili stressed, is one of the
pillars of the State, and everyone is entitled to it. To support
this concept he established a detailed court procedure for the

administration of justice according to the gravity of the crime.

He even instituted a means by which all people could approach the
Amir directly. This system was later to be adopted by the Shehu
and his successors. Al-Maghili wrote :
E v e r y great A m i r should hold a public audience so that
women and children may a p p r o a c h him (with their
petitions) . It is not-sufficient to appoint Qadis
and court officials, because the complaints of the
subjects might be of the behaviour of these very
appointed officials. And it is the duty of the Amir
to restrain his appointed officials from the exploitation of his citizens. 's

In dealing with the Public treasury Bavt-ul-Ma1 and the

distribution of wealth, Al-Maghlli warned Rumfa that generosity

is the cause of longevity of kingship and greed and extravagant

spending its ruination.5' He admonished him to collect only
those categories of wealth that were allowed by Sharia.

If t h e money i n c r e a s e d , h e said, l e a v e t h e s u r p l u s from it

untouched i n t h e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y i n c a s e of d i s a s t e r s , o r t h e
b u i l d i n g o f mosques o r t h e ransoming o f w a r c a p t i v e s o r t h e
s e t t l e m e n t o f debts, o r t h e s u p p l y i n g o f d o w r i e s f o r t h e
marriages o f b a c h e l o r s o r a s s i s t i n g p i l g r i m s and o t h e r t y p e s
o f e x p e n d i t u r e f o r v a r i o u s needs. 52

S a r k i Rumfa b r o u g h t about a series o f c h a n g e s i n Kano. The

Kano C h r o n i c l e s t a t e s :
Rumfa was t h e a u t h o r o f t w e l v e i n n o v a t i o n s i n Kano.

(palace) . T h e next year he

e x t e n d e d t h e walls ...The n e x t y e a r h e e n t e r e d h i s h o u s e .
H e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e Kurmi Market. H e w a s t h e f i r s t S a r k i
who u s e d Dawakin Z a s u i ( t h e u s e o f s p a r e h o r s e s f o r
t h e r u l e r ) i n t h e war w i t h K a t s i n a . H e was t h e first
S a r k i who p r a c t i s e d K a m e ( b u i l d i n g a s p e c i a l c a s t l e
f o r t h e women). H e a p p o i n t e d Durman t o g o r o u n d t h e
d w e l l i n g s o f t h e Indabawa and t a k e e v e r y f i r s t - b o r n
v i r g i n f o r him. H e was the f i r s t Sarki t o have a
t h o u s a n d w i v e s . H e began t h e custom of K u l l e .
purdah. H e began t h e Tara-ta-Kano
( c o u n c i l of
s t a t e ) . H e was the f i r s t t o have Kakaki ( t r u m p e t s )
a n d F i s i n n i ( o s t r i c h - f e a t h e r s fans) a n d o s t r i c h
f e a t h e r s a n d a l s . I t was i n h i s r e i g n t h a t S a l l a m I d i
( ' 1 d Al-Kabir) was f i r s t celebrated i n Kano a t Shadakoka.
H e began t h e c u s t o m o f g i v i n g t o eunuchs t h e o f f i c e s o f
state. ..53
H e b u i l t t h e Dakin Rumfa

Some o f t h e s e c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f Al-Maghili,

a n d o t h e r s came a b o u t as a r e s u l t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n

o f Kano. To the W e s t l a y t h e Songhay Empire whose c o n t r o v e r s i a l

r u l e r , Sonni ' ~ l hia d d i e d u n d e r m y s t e r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n 1 4 9 2
C.E.

and was r e p l a c e d b y a more I s l a m i c a l l y a w a r e A s k i a Muhammad

T u r e , a former m i l i t a r y

To t h e E a s t lay Borno whose

j 4 ~ . 0 . ~ u n w i c k", Songhay, Borno and t h e Hausa s t a t e s , 14501 6 0 0 " i n A j a y i and Crowder ed. H i s t o r y o f West A f r i c a T h i r d
E d i t i o n , ( N e w York, 1 9 8 5 ) 1, 3 4 1 .

Mai, Ali Ghaji had claimed to be the 'Caliph of Borno'

.55

Sarki

Rumfa probably needed a great scholar and authority such as AlMaghili t o justify his reforms and keep him in tune with the
changes in the region. Al-Maghili merely confirmed these reforms
and did n o t initiate them nor even advise Rumfa as to how to
carry them out. Scholars, who attribute these reforms solely to
~ l - ~ a g h i lare
i grossly exaggerating what actually happened?
The influence o f Al-Maghili and the Wangarawa clerics,
however, spread to other parts of Hausaland. Al-Maghili seems to
have revived Islam in Katsina in the reign of Maje Ibrahim

".

The Katsina King List states :

Maje Ibrahim ordered the people of Katsina to marry
and made them pray. He ordered all t h e inhabitants to
make praying places, and those who did cot obey to be

imprisoned. In his time there were many learned men

(Mallams)
Al-MaghIli is also credited with the establishing a major

j5 Barkindo, Bawuro " Kano relations with Borno, early times

to C. 1800 " in Kano and Some of her Neiqhbors edited by B.M.
Barkindo, Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd., Zaria, Nigeria,
1989, p . 155.

56~.~.~arkindo,
t1 The Role of Al-Maghili in the Reforms of
Sarki Muhammadu Rumfa (1463-1499) of Kano : A Re-examination " in
Kano Studies N.S., 3, no. 1 (1987-88) : 97, 104; Priscilla Ellen
Starrat, "Oral History in Muslim Africa : Al-Maghi11 Legends in
Kano", (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1993) .
57

According to Hassan Gwarzo, Al-Maghilits presence in Katsina

during the time of Maje Ibrahim is well established in oral as well
as written tradition. For more information see Gwarzo, Al-Maqhili,
63. John Hunwick, on the other hand, felt that the ruler at the
time was Ibrahim Sura ( c . 1493-8), (Shari'a in Sonshav, 40-1)

58~almer,
S.M., 81.

Islamic educational institution, finding the direction of

prayer5', and establishing Sharia law in Katsina .60
Thus, the fifteenth century represents an important stage
in the Islamization of Hausaland. Kano and Katsina were virtually
Islamic states and scholars circulated around the countryside. A
solid foundation for Islamic education and government had been
not only taught, but instituted. Moreover, the most significant
development was the initiation and codification of concepts in
Islamic revival. Al-Maghili had emphasized the principals of
Islamic change which would inspire Islamic revivalists in later

time^.^' He had also succeeded, through the writing of his Tai,

his letters to Sarki Rumfa, and later his The Replies o f Al-

5 g ~ w a r z o ,Al-Mashili, 64.
6%
informant Al-haii Habibu, interviewed by Hassan Gwarzo in
Katsina on March 14, 1969, said " We do not have much history
because of the death of the elders but we are certain that it was
Al-Maghili who introduced the Sharia in this land. "This view was
confirmed by many others." See Gwarzo, Al-Mashili, 66.

6'
AS in the case of the jihad of Nasir al-Din (1673-1677
C.E.) who called for an Islamic reform in Mauritania. He was a
manifestation of the revivalist, clerical tradition of the far
Western Sudan. He was part of the 'Zwava traditionf and claimed
to be a successor to the Caliphs of the Islamic world. He took
the title Imamuna (leader of the faithful) which later became
Almami in Fulfulde, and sent missionaries south of the Sahara
desert, through Futa Toro, and the northern Wolof states of
Jolof, Walo, and Cayor. He demanded a return to formal Islamic
rule, an acceptance of his authority, and a literal application
of the law. Nasir a1 Din died establishing an Islamic state buc
his call, which in Islamic tradition would be considered as
Taidid or revival of the original Islamic city state of Madina
set the stage for uprisings in Futa Jallon and later other
regions across the Western Sudan. See Philip Curtin, "Jihad in
West Africa: Early Phases and inter-relations in Mauritania and
Senegal1' in J.A.H., XII, 1, (1971), 18.

M a q h i l i t o t h e q u e s t i o n s of A s k i a a1 Hajj Muhammad

62,

in

d e f i n i n g f o r t h e Muslims o f t h e Western Sudan t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

between Muslims and non-Muslims,

Muslims a n d s y n c r e t i s t s , a n d

Muslim masses and t h e i r r u l e r s .

T h e Era o f I n s t a b i l i t y , Accommodation,

and Islamic Growth ( T h e

S i x t e e n t h and S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s )
Hausaland i n t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s
w i t n e s s e d a n i n t e n s e r i v a l r y between t h e l e a d i n g c i t i e s , Kano a n d
K a t s i n a . With t h e emergence of Kebbi, Zamfara, Y a w r i , Gobir, a n d
Zaria, it e x p e r i e n c e d a n a l m o s t c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f i n s t a b i l i t y a n d

w a r f a r e . T h e a b s e n c e o f any a g r e e d code o f i n t e r s t a t e o r
i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , and a t t e m p t s t o r e a l i s e b o u n d a r i e s most
c o n d u c i v e t o p o l i t i c a l a n d economic s u r v i v a l were p e r e n n i a l
s o u r c e s o f c o n f l i c t . Economic p r o s p e r i t y i n H a u s a l a n d a l s o
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e r i v a l r y of t h e s t a t e s ?

None of t h e

c o m p e t i n g Hausa s t a t e s e v e r p o s s e s s e d t h e power t o impose i t s

hegemony e f f e c t i v e l y o v e r t h e o t h e r s . A s t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f
w a r f a r e was not a d v a n c e d a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e power o f
o n e s t a t e and a n o t h e r was o n e o f d e g r e e r a t h e r t h a n of a b s o l u t e
s u p e r i o r i t y i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d weapons and m i l i t a r y strategy, t o t a l

defeat e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e a b s o r p t i o n of one s t a t e by a n o t h e r w a s
o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n . Hence, a r e c u r r e n t theme i n t h i s era was
f r e q u e n t wars l e a d i n g e i t h e r t o a s t a l e m a t e o r v e r y t r a n s i e n t
6 2 ~ ot r a n s l a t i o n a n d commentary see: J . 0 . Hunwick, Shari ' a i n
Sonshav.
6 3 Murray L a s t ,
" H a u s a l a n d a n d Borno 1600-1800 " i n J . A j a y i
and M . Crowder, H i s t o r y of West A f r i c a , 1, 588,9.

dominance o f one s t a t e o v e r a n o t h e r . More o f t e n t h a n n o t , v i c t o r y

i n a war r e s u l t e d i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f b o o t y and mere b o r d e r
a d j u s t m e n t s .64
D e s p i t e t h i s a t m o s p h e r e o f h o s t i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y , t h e
f e w s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e describe p o s i t i v e growth f o r I s l a m . I n t h e

t i m e o f t h e twenty-second

S a r k i o f Kano, Mohamma K i s o k i , t h e s o n

o f A b d u l l a h (1509-1565 C.E.), Islamic l e a r n i n g was e n h a n c e d by

t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h r e e w e l l known Islamic works. T h e Kano

C h r o n i c l e states:
I n K i s o k i ' s t i m e a Shaykh from T u n i s , who b r ~ u g h t
65 t o ~ a u s a l a n d , came t o Kano. Dan-Goron-Duma
a l s o came, and Shaykh ' ~ b d u s - ~ a l a m ,who b r o u g h t w i t h him
t h e books Mudawwana 6 6 , m mi , u s - S a a h i r 6 7 r and
~ a r n a r k a n d i . ~I' n t h e n e x t y e a r T u b i came from Zukzuk
t o learn from t h e Shaykh from T u n i s and became h i s
c h i e f d i s c i p l e i n ~ a n . 6o9

AS- hif fa'

64~uhammad
B e l l o A l K a l i A Hausa Cornmunitv i n C r i s i s : Kebbi
i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h Centurv, M.A. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Ahmadu B e l l o
U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 9 , c h a p . two; a n d Mahdi Adamu A Hausa Government
i n D e c l i n e : Yawri i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h Centurv,M.A. d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
Ahmadu Be110 U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 8 , chap. o n e .
6 5 ~hif
s fa' f i ' l - t a ' r i f b i h u m q a1 Mustafa i s a w i d e l y
renowned M a l i k i work w r i t t e n by Al-Oadi '1yad b . MUsa a l - S a b t i
( d . 1149 C.E.)
66~
Mudawwanah
1
A 1 Kubra i s a n e x t e n s i v e book on t h e
j u r i s p r u d e n c e o f t h e M a l i k i s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t . I t was w r i t t e n by
Sahntin, b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d by Abu ' ~ b d u r - ~ a Q m a nibn a1
Qasim (745-813 C . E . )

6 7 ~ a m iaAs - S a ~ h i r by Shaykh 'Abd al-Raiyndn A1 S U y u t i i s a

w i d e l y u s e d set o f H a d i t h t r a d i t i o n s .
68~rnongt h e p o p u l a r A r a b i c a u t h o r s s t u d i e d i n H a u s a l a n d was
t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y N Z i s i r a l - D i n i b n Muhammad al-Samarqandi who
compiled a c o l l e c t i o n of Hadith r e l a t i n g t o death, t h e
i n t e r r o g a t i o n i n t h e g r a v e , t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n , Judgement Day, H e l l
Paradise, etc.

6 9 ~ a l m e rS.M.,
,
113.

The t w e n t y - f i f t h

S a r k i (1565-1573 C .E.) a c t u a l l y began

s t u d y i n g t h e s e h i g h e r works o f I s l a m i c l e a r n i n g a n d e n f o r c i n g
I s l a m i c s c i e n c e s on h i s s o n s . T h i s t r e n d , i f c o n t i n u e d , would
h a v e c r e a t e d a l e a r n e d r u l i n g c l a s s i n Kano and might have
changed t h e c o u r s e of I s l a m i c development i n Kano. T h e Kano
C h r o n i c l e d e s c r i b e s t h e S a r k i ' s endeavour a s f o l l o w s :
Abu Bakr b u s i e d h i m s e l f o n l y w i t h t h e r e l i g i o n
( o f I s l a m ) . He d i s d a i n e d t h e d u t i e s of S a r k i . H e
and h i s c h i e f s s p e n t t h e i r t i m e i n p r a y e r . I n h i s
t i m e t h e eunuchs and mallams became numerous. Kano
was f i l l e d w i t h p e o p l e ... Abu B a k r was t h e f i r s t
S a r k i who r e a d t h e book As-Shifa a t t h e house o f Dan
Goronduma Kursiya. H e was t h e S a r k i who made t h e
P r i n c e s l e a r n t h e Q u r a n . T h i s h e d i d b e c a u s e of h i s
own s o n s . They r e a d Q u r a n w e l l , and t h e r e a d i n g
was i n t h e middle of Shaban ." Every morning a f t e r
s u n r i s e , t h e P r i n c e s a s s e m b l e d . The S a r k i came o u t
a f t e r e a r l y morning p r a y e r . H e had seven s o n s , e a c h
of which r e a d a s e v e n t h o f t h e Quran and t h e n made
s u p p l i c a t i o n . H e gave h i s s o n s g r e a t w e a l t h . ''
I n t h e e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Sarkin K a t s i n a , Ibrahim
M a j e was a b l e t o e n f o r c e s t r i c t o b s e r v a n c e of I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e s

as a r e s u l t of a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f I s l a m i c s c h o l a r s i n K a t s i n a

d u r i n g his r e i g n . T h e L i s t o f K i n s s of Katsina s t a t e s

There were t h o s e who d i d n o t m a r r y ; He o r d e r e d them t o

m a r r y . There were t h o s e who d i d n o t p r a y ; H e o r d e r e d
them t o p r a y . If t h e r e w e r e a home which d i d n o t have
a mosque a t t h e door, h e would s a y , b r i n g m e t h e
h o u s e h o l d e r be he a p r o t e c t e d p e r s o n o r Muslim. H e
o r d e r e d p l a c e s of w o r s h i p t o b e b u i l t i n every v i l l a g e .
7 0 ~ h a b a ni s t h e month b e f o r e Ramadan i n t h e I s l a m i c
c a l e n d e r . I t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad u s e d t o spend
d a y s i n f a s t i n g and p r a y e r d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . I t i s c o n s i d e r e d
t o be a h o l y p e r i o d by Muslim s c h o l a r s and m y s t i c s . T h i s a l s o
t e s t i f i e s t o t h e e x t e n t of t h e S a r k i f s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h I s l a m i c
norms a n d p r a c t i c e s .
" ~ a l m e r ,s.M.,
114,
115. Changes have been
t r a n s l a t i o n of Palmer t o r e f l e c t t h e a c t u a l t e x t .

made

in

the

... In

his time there were many learned men.

'*

Despite the personal display of piety of some of the Sarkis

of the leading cities of Hausaland and the presence of learned

men as advisors, Islam was not able to completely eradicate the

Iskoki belief system and its practices. On the contrary, the
palaces remained strongholds of various cults of the Iskoki under
the senior women of the Sarki and his concubines. The rites of
installation of a new Sarki involved flagrant fetishistic
practices in the Soron Bawada (Hall of Bawada) of Katsina and
other places. In some cases, members of the royal family
patronized shrines of the ~ s k o k i During
. ~ ~
the reign of Mohamma
Zaki, son of Kisoki, the twenty-seventh-Sarki of Kano (1582-1618

C.E.), Tchukana and Dirki were begun. This meant that the Quran
would be covered with goat's skin. Afterwards cowhide was used
for the purpose, as many as forty skins in later times. The
covered Quran then became an object of veneration which according

to their belief could bring the people benefit or protect them

from harm.74 The Sarki was apparently trying to fulfil the
immediate spiritual needs of his people in a manner that would be
acceptable to the traditional Iskoki based norms.
In addition to this, the twenty-ninth-Sarki, Kutumbi (1623-

S.M., 81; and Yusufu Bala Usman, The Transformation

72~almer,
of Katsina 1400-1883, (Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press Ltd.,
l98l), 25. For a more detailed translation of the text, I have
consulted both translations.
73

Y.B.Usman

Katsina, 28.

74~almer,
S.M., 116.

1 6 4 8 C . E . ) i n t r o d u c e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e the c o l l e c t i o n o f Jizva
75

known as J a n c r a l i t o be t a k e n f r o m t h e ~ u 1 b e . l ~
However, t h e s e p r a c t i c e s must h a v e h a d t h e o p p o s i t e e f f e c t

on t h e l e a r n e d men of I s l a m , who, b y t h e m i d - s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
b e g a n t o emerge a s l e a d e r s o f t h e i r community, d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e
S a r k i and h i s forces.'l

Islam b e g a n t o make new i n c u r s i o n s i n t o

t h e r a n k s o f t h e common people t h r o u g h i t i n e r a n t s c h o l a r s a n d
m y s t i c s who b a s e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s . E v i d e n c e of
t h e s e c l e r i c s , t h e i r s c h o l a r l y c l a n s , a n d t h e i r f o l l o w i n g c a n be
found i n t h e genealogies of t h e Sokoto j i h a d i s t s of the
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y who m o s t l y came f r o m t h e c o u n t r y s i d e .
The p r e s e n c e of these l e a r n e d men a n d mystics i n t h e r u r a l
areas l e d t o the f o r m a t i o n cf s e t t l e m e n t s which f o r m e d new

s p h e r e s of i n f l u e n c e o u t s i d e t h e r o y a l c o u r t s of t h e m a j o r c i t i e s
of H a u s a l a n d . From t h e s e i n d e p e n d e n t s p h e r e s , I s l a m i c knowledge

was d i s s e m i n a t e d and i d e a s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d which c h a l l e n g e d the

s t a t u s quo and set t h e s t a g e f o r t h e r e l i g i o u s upheaval o f t h e
7 5 ~ i z is
~ a a t a x t a k e n from 'the p e o p l e o f t h e Bookf i n a n
Islamic s t a t e .
7 6 ~ a l m e rS.M.,
,
118, 1 1 9 . The Kano C h r o n i c l e p l a c e s t h e
coming o f t h e F u l b e t o H a u s a l a n d d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f Yakubu, t h e
s o n o f A b d u l l a h i B u r j a (1452-1463) : V n ~ a k u b u l st i m e , t h e F a l a t a
( F u l b e ) came t o Hausaland from M a l i b r i n g i n g t h e s c i e n c e a n d
knowledge o f D i v i n i t y (Tawhid) a n d Etymology. F o r m e r l y o u r
s c h o l a r s had, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e Q u r a n , o n l y books o f t h e L a w and
t h e T r a d i t i o n s ( H a d i t h ) . ( S .M., 111)
77

Y .B.Usman,

Katsina, 27.

78 Nehemiah L e v t z i o n ,
" The E i g h t e e n t h Century,
Background
t o t h e I s l a m i c R e v o l u t i o n s i n W e s t A f r i c a ", i n E i c r h t e e n t h
C e n t u r y Renewal and Reform i n I s l a m e d i t e d by N . L e v t z i o n a n d
J o h n V o l l ( S y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 8 7 ) , p . 2 4 .

nineteenth century.

THE ( Z U I E T I S T TRADITION

I n t h e e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t of I s l a m i n H a u s a l a n d , t h e
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y c h r o n i c l e , A s 1 A 1 Wansarivin r e v e a l e d t h e
e n t r a n c e of a l a r g e Mande c l e r i c a l p a r t y coming o u t of M a l i on
r o u t e t o Makka l e d b y Shavkh ' ~ b da l - R a m a n Z a g a i t e . Shavkh 'Abd
al-Raman,

had m i g r a t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e

t r i b e s t h a t were c o n n e c t e d t o h i s g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r

".

There

w e r e 3 , 6 3 6 e r u d i t e s c h o l a r s among h i s f o l l o w e r s a c c o r d i n g t o o n e

t r a d i t i o n o r one h u n d r e d a n d s i x t y s c h o l a r s , i n a d d i t i o n t o the
common p e o p l e , a c c o r d i n g t o a n o t h e r t r a d i t i ~ n . ~His
'
leadership
a n d t h e t i m e and p l a c e of h i s a p p e a r a n c e , l i n k h i m n o t o n l y t o
t h e Mande h e r i t a g e of m i g r a t i o n and t r a d e , b u t a l s o t o t h e

J a k h a n k e c l e r i c a l d i s p e r s i o n s from t h e i r a n c e s t r a l a r e a s w e s t o f
79

The A s 1 a 1 Wancrarivin refers t o '~bdur- ah man a s a d e s c e n d a n t

o f 'The Shaykhf, a n a p p a r e n t r e f e r e n c e t o Al-Haii S a l i m Suware, t h e
p r o g e n i t o r o f Mande c l e r i c a l t r a d i t i o n . The p a s s a g e reads a s
follows :
Then t h e Shaykh, may God be p l e a s e d w i t h him, e m i g r a t e d
t o g e t h e r w i t h 1 6 0 t r i b e s from t h i s l a n d t o a w e s t e r n l a n d
called M a l i . W e l i v e d t h e r e w i t h t h e s e t r i b e s u n t i l h e became
famous and a c q u i r e d predominance o v e r t h e l a n d by t h e
e f f i c a c y o f h i s sacred b l e s s i n g (baraka) . I t i s b e c a u s e o f
t h i s t h a t t h e o f f s p r i n g o f the Shaykh a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s w e r e
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s l a n d : I mean Mali. They were commonly
known a s Wanqara M a l i .
Then t h e y m u l t i p l i e d a n d d i s p e r s e d i n t h e l a n d e a s t w a r d a n d
westward s o w i d e l y t h a t it was a l l e g e d t h a t t h e r e was no
l a n d i n the W e s t t h a t was n o t i n h a b i t e d b y t h e Wangarawa.
Among t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f 'The Shaykh' t h e r e was Shaykh
' ~ b d u r - I t a l p a n . (M.A. A1 H a j j , As1 a 1 W a n a a r i v i n , 9 - 1 0 . )

...

"M.A. A 1 H a j j ,

A s 1 a 1 Wanqarivin,

10.

Hausaland.
The Jakhanke, according to Lamin Sanneh were a Serakhulle or
Soninke people who acquired the Mande language and cultural
patterns." They called themselves Ah1 Diakha (Jashaf or Dia),
i.e., the people of Diakha, the ancient town of Masina. They did
not distinguish themselves as a separate ethnic group, but they
maintained a remarkable consistency as a clerical orderOe2All
of the widely dispersed Jakhanke communities looked to a common
ancestor, al-Hajj Salim Suware, also known as Mfbemba Laye
Suware, an undoubtedly historic figure who lived around 1147-8

c.E.'~ Ivor Wilks had suggested 1500 C.E. to be the approximate

time of the appearance of al-Hajj Salim, but according to Sanneh
this date would be too late to account for the many developments
in West African Islam which can be directly traced back to
Al-Haj j Salim appears to have migrated from Diakha-Masina

to Jafunu to the west where he spent thirty years. He was

accompanied by numerous students, family members, qabila (clan)
members, sympathizers, and disciples. According to al-Hajj
Soriba, a Senegalese Jakhanke scholar and informant for Lamin

amin in Sanneh, The Jakhanke, (London: International African

Institute, 1979).
82~amin
Sanneh, "Origins of Clericalism", 55.

"1vor Wilks, ' ' T h e Transmission of Islamic Learning in the

Western Sudanw, in L i t e r a c y in Traditional Societies, ed. Jack
Goody, (London: Cambridge University Press, 1968) , 178.

Sanneh, over one hundred aabilas were with al-Hajj Salim.85

After their stay in Jafunu, the Jakhanke migrated to the west
where they founded a clerical settlement, Diakha-Bambukh . From
this settlement and others, founded in earlier times, highly
developed Manding mercantile communities developed. These
communities benefitted from the lucrative gold trade of this
region, and carried out Islamic missionary work alongside their
trade.86
Philip Curtin felt that the Jakhanke were devout Muslims who

were primarily motivated by trade.

According to Lamin Sanneh,

the Jakhanke, in their own accounts saw their community as a

clerical corporation, occupied by (a1 crira'a) diligence in
learning, (a1 harth) farming, and (a1 safar) travel and mobility.
They were never organized as an actual commercial collective, but
assigned members of their community to carry out their trade?
Paul Lovejoy stated:
Jakhanke clerics were not the only Islamic specialists in the
area; nor were their activities divorced from trade. Rather,
they participated in both the religious and economic spheres
under the corporate rubric \Wangarartwhich included those
who played a key role in the social, religious and commercial
life of Songhay and the Central Sudan; namely the merchants

s ami in Sanneh, "Origins of Clericalism", 58.

hili lip Curtin, "Pre-colonial trading networks and traders:
the Diakhankew in The Development of Indisenous Trade and Markets
in West Africa, ed. Claude Meillassoux, (London: Oxford
University Press, l W I ) , 2 2 8 .
%amin

Sanneh, Jakhanke, 19.

and professionals in the middle estate of Muslims.89

Al-Hajj S8lim Suware was one of the scholars who exercised a
profound influence over the Jakhanke clerics by not only
establishing the physical base of education and community
development, but also, laying down the principles of their
traditions.

Local Jakhanke sources tell us that he spent most

of his life in peaceful, missionary tours, making the Pilgrimage

to Makkah (Hail) several times. These activities fell under the
broad Jakhanke category of al-Safar (travel) and led to the
establishment of new mosques, the upgrading of existing mosques,
the founding of Jakhanke educational establishments, and the
recruitment of students.

Education was at the heart of the

Jakhanke clerical enterprise, for the leading savants, in the

tradition of Al-Hajj Salim, regularly conducted missionary tours
and carried a large following along with them on their journey.
These students (tullab) were trained to carry on the Jakhanke
legacy and teach the basics of Islamic learning. They also made
up a large part of the work force who would enable the Jakhanke
agricultural bases (al-harth) to support clerical activity.''
Slaves were also either purchased, received as pious gifts,
''~aul Lovejoy, "The Role of the Wangara in the Economic
Transformation of the Central Sudan in the Fifteenth and
Sixteenth Centuriesr1in Journal of African Historv ( % A . K . ) , XIX,
2

(19781, 1 7 5 .

'Osanneh, ~akhanke, 23. This

themselves, according to Sanneh.
'l~anneh, Jakhanke, 1 9 .

was

made

by

the

Jakhanke,

i n h e r i t a n c e , o r rewards for c l e r i c a l s e r v i c e s . They w e r e p u t t o

e x t e n s i v e u s e on t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l bases t o r e l i e v e t h e s t u d e n t s

of p h y s i c a l l a b o u r . 93
I n t h e t r a d i t i o n of a l - H a j j Salirn, t h e Jakhanke c l e r i c s t o o k
p a r t i n d i v i n a t i o n , special p r a y e r s (DU' a) , and h e a l i n g . These
a c t i v i t i e s , which would f a l l u n d e r a l - O i r 8 * a , had a p r o f o u n d
i n f l u e n c e on t h e W e s t A f r i c a n Muslim and non Muslim p o p u l a t i o n s .
From t h e t i m e o f t h e b i r t h of a new c h i l d , t h e Jakhanke c l e r i c
was c a l l e d upon by h i s h o s t community t o perform a naming
) The words o f the Basmalah o r t h e
ceremony ( I n A r a b i c : ' ~ s i s a h .
Kalima Shahada were s o f t l y r e a d i n t o t h e e a r s o f t h e c h i l d and
t h e c l e r i c would s p i t i n t o t h e e a r s o f t h e n e ~ b o r n . ~T' h i s D U ' ~
c o n s t i t u t e d p r o t e c t i o n from t h e e v i l f o r c e s o f t h e s p i r i t w o r l d .
Later, t h e Jakhanke c l e r i c would be c a l l e d on a t many d i f f e r e n t

p o i n t s i n t h e life of t h e community f o r v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f
p r o t e c t i o n . On s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s s u c h as ' f d al-Adha

the

f e s t i v a l o f t h e s a c r i f i c e ) , t h e c l e r i c would be c a l l e d on t o make
s p e c i a l p r a y e r s . I n t i m e s of d r o u g h t o r c a l a m i t y , t h e c l e r i c
would lead t h e r u l e r a n d his p e o p l e i n S a l a t a l - 1 s t i s q a '

(prayer

f o r Divine i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e w e a t h e r ) o r S a l a t a l - I s t i k h a r a

t h e p r a y e r of D i v i n e choice i n m a t t e r s o f t h e w o r l d ) .
Along with t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f D U ' ~known t o t h e Orthodox
Muslim world, t h e Jakhanke d i s t i n g u i s h e d themselves w i t h a t y p e

" ~ a n n e h , Jakhanke, 1 8 7 . Basmalah i s ' I n t h e name o f A l l a h f ,

a n d t h e K a l i m a Shahada i s t h e t e s t i m o n y t h a t t h e r e i s no god but
A l l a h and Muhammad i s H i s Messenger.

of s p o n t a n e o u s p r a y e r t h a t c o u l d i n c l u d e non-Muslims.

T h i s may

h a v e d e v e l o p e d a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r p r o l o n g e d p r e s e n c e among non
Muslims, and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d a i l y f i v e p r a y e r s of I s l a m a n d
t h e F r i d a y p r a y e r which c o u l d o n l y be p e r f o r m e d by Muslims,
m i g h t have a p p e a r e d e x c l u s i o n a r y t o t h o s e of o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s .
Mungo Park, t h e famous European t r a v e l l e r , who v i s i t e d W e s t
A f r i c a i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y n o t i c e d t h i s p r a c t i c e and w r o t e
o f t h e Mande c l e r i c s (Jakhanke) t h e f o l l o w i n g :

On t h e f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e of t h e new moon, which t h e y l o o k

upon t o b e newly c r e a t e d , the Pagan n a t i v e s , a s w e l l a s
Mahomedans, s a y a s h o r t p r a y e r ; a n d t h i s seems t o be the
o n l y v i s i b l e a d o r a t i o n which t h e K a f i r s o f f e r t o t h e Supreme
Being. T h i s p r a y e r i s pronounced i n a whisper-the p a r t y
h o l d i n g up h i s hands b e f o r e h i s face; i t s p u r p o r t ( a s I h a v e
b e e n a s s u r e d by many d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e ) i s t o r e t u r n t h a n k s
t o God f o r h i s k i n d n e s s ...A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n , t h e y s p i t upon
t h e i r hands, and r u b them o v e r t h e i r f a c e s . 9 5

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , t h e J a k h a n k e , a c c o r d i n g t o Yves
Person,

" b e l i e v e d t h a t a l l j u s t men, e v e n a n i m i s t s , c o u l d b e

s a v e d i f t h e y had led exemplary l i v e s . These men would b e

a d m i t t e d t o I s l a m a f t e r d e a t h i n a s o r t of p u r g a t o r y c a l l e d t h e
~ a b a k o r o n i ."9 6 T h i s p e c u l i a r concept t h a t s e p a r a t e d t h e J a k h a n k e
from a l m o s t a l l p r e v i o u s I s l a m i c t h i n k e r s and c l e r i c a l g r o u p i n g s
may a l s o hzve come a b o u t a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r f r e q u e n t
i n t e r a c t i o n with non Muslim p e o p l e .
The J a k h a n k e f s g r e a t e s t l e g a c y from a l - H a j j

Salim was h i s

p r i n c i p l e d d i s a v o w a l of j i h a d a s an i n s t r u m e n t of r e l i g i o u s a n d

Park, T r a v e l s I n t o t h e I n t e r i o r of A f r i c a ,
gS~ungo
. a n d Books, 1 9 8 3 ) , 2 0 8 .

Person, "Samori and

Willis,

Studies,

(London :

political change, Al-Hajj Salim is reported to have preached to a

wide spectrum of Believers and non-Believers during his travels.

He emphasized the necessity of peaceful witness in the

propagation of Islam, while adamantly opposing the use of
~iolence.'~This was a significant development for West African
Islam and along with the necessity for neutrality that grew out

of the Jakhankefs long distance travelling and business

involvement formed the basis of a spiritual, yet pragmatic
quietest tradition. The Jakhanke deplored involvement in war or
in secular political activity. They withdrew from the mainstream
of the societies they encountered and concentrated on building
"islands of Islamic thought and prayer". They forged unity in
their own ranks and developed strong educational institutions.
This tradition of withdrawal and pacifism could very well
be the reason for the absence of Jakhanke from most of the
significant West African jihads, especially in the nineteenth
century. It may also have lead to the development of a class of
scholars who compromised the principles of Islam in order to
maintain a state of peace and harmony with their non-Muslim
hosts. This compromise, if coupled with a traditional religion
whose influence over its people was deeply rooted

",

could lead

to a superficial form of Islamic monotheism which recognized the

oneness of God, yet confirmed or encouraged the superstitions and
practices of the traditional way of life. This state of affairs
- -

- -

"~arnin Sanneh, Jakhanke, 21.

''AS

in the case of the Iskoki belief system of Hausaland

40

i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e Islamic d i a s p o r a , l e d t o a c o n f r o n t a t i o n
w i t h Islamic s c h o l a r s who claimed a p u r i s t a p p r o a c h t o the spread

o f I s l a m and viewed compromise w i t h n o n - I s l a m i c belief s y s t e m s as

u n j u s t i f i a b l e s y n c r e t i s m a n d , an a c t o f h y p o c r i s y o r d i s b e l i e f .
J a k h a n k e n e u t r a l i t y d i d n o t d e t r a c t from t h e p r o f o u n d e f f e c t
t h a t t h e y h a d on t h e spread o f I s l a m i n t h i s r e g i o n . I t was

p r o b a b l y a great a s s e t . M i l i t a r y c o n q u e s t , i n most c a s e s , lead t o

h o s t i l i t y and b i t t e r n e s s and o f t e n become an impediment t o t h e
a c c e p t a n c e o f a new f a i t h , Jakhanke p a c i f i s m w a s f l u i d and nonc o n f r o n t a t i o n a l b u t d i d n o t e x c l u d e them from a g g r e s s i v e Islamic
p r e a c h i n g o r r e s i s t a n c e t o u n - I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e s . The J a k h a n k e
were known t o a c t i v e l y o p p o s e d i s b e l i e f i n God. T h e case o f
Shavkh ' ~ b da l - R a m a n

Zagaite i s a c l e a r example. These a r e a l l

r u d i m e n t a r y a s p e c t s o f t h e p r o c e s s o f I s l a m i z a t i o n . The J a k h a n k e
p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e growth o f I s l a m i c ideas a n d
i n s t i t u t i o n s i n Hausa s o c i e t y w i t h o u t t h e u s e o f t h e sword. T h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e w i t h numerous c u l t u r e s and e n v i r o n m e n t s e n a b l e d them
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r h o s t s a n d lead them g r a d u a l l y into a s t a t e o f
Islam. T h e i r a c c e p t a n c e o f h o n e s t non-Muslims

as p i o u s p e o p l e

d e s e r v i n g P a r a d i s e p r o b a b l y e n d e a r e d them t o the p e o p l e o f t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n s t h a t they encountered. Therefore, t h e
J a k h a n k e c l e r i c s and t h o s e who f o l l o w e d t h e i r t r e n d o f p a c i f i s m
a n d p o l i t i c a l n e u t r a l i t y s h o u l d be s e e n as a p r i m a r y ,

important

f a c t o r i n t h e e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t of I s l a m i n H a u s a l a n d . They
s h o u l d n o t be a l l c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f ' v e n a l m a l l a m s f
who compromised I s l a m and u s h e r e d i n c o r r u p t i o n .

CHAPTER 2

THE SOCIAL AND P O L I T I C A L CONTEXT OF THE SHEHU'S

TIME

" E v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o economic a n d s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n
H a u s a l a n d from early t i m e s down t o 1214/1800 i s n o t a b u n d a n t .
What t h e r e i s comes mainly from t h e Kano C h r o n i c l e ; f r o m works i n

Arabic, F u l f u l d e and Hausa b y t h e Muslim F u l a n i a u t h o r s ; from t h e

a c c o u n t s o f t r a v e l l e r s from E u r o p e a n d t h e Middle E a s t who
v i s i t e d t h e c o u n t r i e s on t h e b o r d e r s o f the w e s t a n d central
Sudan and l a t e r p e n e t r a t e d i n i n c r e a s i n g numbers i n t o t h e a r e a ;
a n d from o r a l t r a d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e remembered p r a i s e - s o n g s
t o Habe c h i e f s a n d c o u r t i e r s . ' l g 9
T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l give a n o v e r v i e w of the t r a d i t i o n a l
r e l i g i o u s system and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o I s l a m d u r i n g t h i s
p e r i o d , the r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e r u l e r s t o the r u l e d , the s t a t u s
o f women, and some o f t h e significant c u s t o m s ,

THE TRADITIONAL BELIEF SYSTEM

From v e r y e a r l y times, the r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m s

o f H a u s a l a n d were solidly bound t o g e t h e r . I s l a m a n d the I s k o k i

b e l i e f s y s t e m were t h e most p o w e r f u l r e l i g i o u s systems

" ~ i s k e t t , D e v e l o ~ m e n tof I s l a m , 8 3 t 8 4 .
42

i n f l u e n c i n g s o c i e t y . The I s k o k i b e l i e f s y s t e m had p e n e t r a t e d
a g r i c u l t u r a l , p a s t o r a l , and nomadic l i f e . I t a f f e c t e d p e o p l e i n
t h e i r hunting,

f i s h i n g and s o c i e t a l p u r s u i t s . I t i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r

p o l i t i c a l o u t l o o k b y b e i n g t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e a u t h o r i t y of
t h e S a r k i and o t h e r leaders.'''

The Hausa c o n c e p t of Iskoki a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f these

s p i r i t s o v e r human l i f e was s i m i l a r t o o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f
s y s t e m s found among W e s t A f r i c a n p e o p l e . According t o t h i s
b e l i e f , t h e I s k o k i were t o be found e v e r y w h e r e , i n t h e w a t e r ,

the

sky, t h e h i l l s , t h e f o r e s t s , t h e s a v a n n a h , t h e d e s e r t , a n d t h e

h a b i t a t s of human beings.'''

The number o f I s k o k i were s a i d t o

be i n f i n i t e , b u t some o f them were known b y a s p e c i f i c name and

f r e q u e n t a s p e c i f i c p l a c e . T h i s p l a c e c o u l d be a t r e e , a r i v e r , a
rock, an a n t h i l l , a w e l l o r a h i l l ,

a c c o r d i n g t o the l i k i n g o f

t h e I s k a ( s p i r i t ) . T h e I s k o k i w o r s h i p p e r s performed s a c r i f i c e s of
f o w l , goats, s h e e p , o r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a n i m a l t o a p p e a s e t h e I s k a
a n d f u r n i s h t h e s p i r i t w i t h t h e b l o o d needed f o r i t s
s u ~ t e n a n c e . ' P~o~w e r f u l I s k o k i were known t o i n h a b i t trees,
e s p e c i a l l y the baobab, t h e a c a c i a , a n d t h e t a m a r i n d t r e e s . The
s p i r i t s c o u l d b e e i t h e r b e n e f i c i a l t o human b e i n g s o r h a r m f u l .
The e v i l I s k o k i g e n e r a l l y i n h a b i t e d t h e b u s h , away from human

' O o ~ u g i ,G o b i r F a c t o r , 2 2 6 .
" ' ~ o s e p h H . Greenberg, The I n f l u e n c e of Islam on a Sudanese
R e l i s i o n , ( N e w York: 19461, 2 8 .

presence

lo',

while the good spirits could even be protectors of

human settlements as in the case of the famous patron snake of

Daura town which occupied a well?"

Most of the time, in their

spiritual dimension, the Iskoki were said to inhabit their city

of Jansare. This city was said to be in the east, but according
to one of the informants of Joseph Greenberg, it was located in
the vicinity of Argungu in Western Hausaland. Others have
identified their principal dwelling to be in a well next to a
baobab tree near the town gate of Baw'da in the south of Kano
province.
Ceremonial Cults of the Iskoki
Individual ceremony
Any

believer in Iskoki could approach the spirits for

obtaining benefit or protection against evil. The Boka (spirit

medium), would be called upon to pacify a spirit that was
believed to have caused an illness or done an obvious harm.
Appropriate sacrifices would be made, according to the needs of
the particular Iska.
Some individuals practised a more sinister form of spirit
worship by cultivating a relationship with evil bush spirits who
could be brought into a compound by having available an animal

'03+n~d
TBhir, The Social Writinqs of Shaykh '~thmanb.
Ffidi: A Critical and Analytical Study, (Ph-D.dissertation,
McGill University, 1989), 138.
"'~urray Last, "A Note on Attitudes to the Supernatural in the
Sokoto ~ihad"in J.H.S.N., IV, 1, 1967, 3 .
lo5~reenberg,
Sudanese Reliqion, 29.

s a c r e d t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t . I n secret c e r e m o n i e s , I s k o k i
b e l i e v e r s would s p i l l t h e b l o o d o f t h e sacred a n i m a l and summon
t h e e v i l spirit t o b r i n g harm t o t h e i r e n e m i e d o 6
Family Rituals

Above the i n d i v i d u a l r i t e s w e r e t h e f a m i l y r i t u a l s f o r the

I s k o k i . T h e h e a d o f t h e f a m i l y w o u l d assume t h e r o l e o f p r i e s t
a n d p e r f o r m a series of s a c r i f i c e s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s p e c i f i c
k i n d o f a c t i v i t i e s c a r r i e d o u t by t h e family. If i r o n working
w e r e t h e c h i e f o c c u p a t i o n of t h e f a m i l y ,

a n a n v i l would become

t h e s a c r e d o b j e c t and s a c r i f i c e s w o u l d be done o v e r i t . The

s a c r i f i c i a l animal would have i t s t h r o a t s l i t w i t h an i r o n k n i f e

and t h e b l o o d d r a i n e d into a s p e c i a l h o l e . The p r i m a r y s a c r i f i c e

i n c l u d e d a s h e e p , a g o a t , o r a c h i c k e n . T h e main o c c a s i o n s o f
f a m i l y r i t u a l were t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s e a s o n , t h e
h o t s e a s o n b e f o r e the r a i n s , and the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e h a r v e s t
s e a s o n . lo'
Public R i t u a l
The p u b l i c c e r e m o n i e s were a n e l a b o r a t e form o f t h e f a m i l y

r i t e s . The kings, t r a d i t i o n a l l y , s a c r i f i c e d f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f
t h e i r p e o p l e . I n Kano, t h e s a c r i f i c e s were c a r r i e d o u t i n t h r e e
s a c r e d p l a c e s . T h e f i r s t w a s a t K ' o f a r Ruwa, o r t h e g a t e of
water, n e a r t h e a n c i e n t p a l a c e o f t h e Kutumbawa k i n g s w h o ruled

p r i o r t o Muhammad Rumfa ( 1 4 6 3 - 1 4 9 9 C . E . )

T h e second s a c r i f i c i a l

area was t h e w e l l o f Mayburgami, and t h e t h i r d was a g r o v e known

as Kurmin Bak'in Ruwa (the grove of the black water), near

Jakara, a stream which ran through K a n o . The chief men of the
villages were summoned to witness the sacrifice which was carried
out according to the specific need. The high point of the
ceremony occurred when a black bull was sacrificed to appease the
chief spirit,'08

Bori cult
Bori

'09

generally applies to spirit possession, where the

Iskoki enter their worshippers and communicate through them to

other people. Possession may occur during a Bori ritual involving
music, rhythm and group presence."' The possessed person speaks
the language of the spirit and takes on its particular
characteristics. If the Iska is Kure, the male hyena spirit, the
possessed person will howl, but if the Iska is Duna, the person

will bark like a dog. Recovery occurs when the person

sneezes.'I1
Iskoki Belief and Islam
Above the world of the Iskoki, according to Hausa
traditional belief, was a high and distant god who did not
interfere in the mundane affairs of human beings. By the late

logtheplural is 'borurrukal.
110

Greenberg, Sudanese Relision, 28. Also see A.J.N

Tremearne, Hausa Superstitions and Customs, (London: Frank Cass,
1 9 7 0 L 530, and idem, The Ban of the Bori, (London: Frank Cass,
1968).

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e h i g h g o d c a l l e d U b a n g i j i , was c l e a r l y
i d e n t i f i e d w i t h A l l a h and the I s k o k i w e r e s e e n a s an o r d e r of
spirits o r J i n n .

"' T h i s

form o f s y n c r e t i s m a l l o w e d t h o s e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h I s k o k i t o r e m a i n nominal Muslims and s t i l l r e l a t e

t o t h e I s k o k i f o r t h e i r p r a c t i c a l s u r v i v a l . A r a b i c words came
i n t o u s a g e as synonyms f o r I s k o k i : A l j a n ( f e m i n i n e , aliana,
p l u r a l , a l i a n u (from t h e Arabic, J i n n ) ; sav'dan

(from t h e Arabic,

s h a v t a n o r d e v i l ) ; i b l I s ( f e m i n i n e , i b l i s a , p l u r a l , i b l i s a v ) from
t h e Arabic,

I b l i s , t h e p r o p e r name f o r t h e D e v i l i n Islamic

t r a d i t i o n . T h e h i g h I s k a became S a r k i n A l i a n , a n d h i s c h i e f
m i n i s t e r w a s c a l l e d W a z i r i . O t h e r m a j o r I s k o k i were Dan Mnsa ( t h e
s o n of M o s e s ) , a n d Malam A l H a i i ( t h e l e a r n e d P i l g r i m ) , b o t h

feared a n d g i v e n g r e a t r e v e r e n c e ?

The i i n n were a s s o c i a t e d i n

I s l a m i c t r a d i t i o n w i t h i n s a n i t y which was b e l i e v e d t o b e a form

o f p o s s e s s i o n . Thus, t h e i n s a n e p e r s o n w a s c a l l e d mainan
( l u n a t i c ) i n Arabic and I s l a m i c t e r m i n o l o g y . I n Hausaland,

Iskoki

r i t u a l s a c r i f i c e s were employed b y t h e m a s s e s o f common Muslims

a s a means o f a p p e a s i n g t h e e v i l i i n n whose new name o n l y s e r v e d
a s a mask for t h e o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t of I s k o k i s p i r i t d o m i n a t i o n .
Along w i t h t h e c h a n g i n g cosmology o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l
came a f o r m o f s y n c r e t i s m on t h e s t a t e level. S i n c e t h e I s k o k i
b e l i e f s y s t e m p r o v i d e d t h e main j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r a u t h o r i t y

"2~sman, Transformation of Katsina, 68. J i n n i s t h e p l u r a l

f o r J i n n i in t h e Arabic l a n g u a g e . They a r e b e l i e v e d by Muslims t o
be a s e p a r a t e s p i r i t c r e a t i o n made from s m o k e l e s s f i r e . They are
b o t h good and e v i l .

b e f o r e t h e coming o f Islam, Hausa r u l e r s e x p l o i t e d both s y s t e m s

t o e f f e c t i v e l y g a i n o r m a i n t a i n state power .'I4
I n Kasar K a t s i n a , t h e e m e r g e n c e of Muhammad Korau, i n the
f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , as S a r k i n K a t s i n a a t o n e l e v e l r e p r e s e n t e d a
v i c t o r y f o r t h e c u l t o f I s k o k i o v e r t h e a n c e s t o r c u l t s around t h e
tombs of D u r b i - t a - k u s h e y i .

T h e l e g i t i m a c y o f Korau was b a s e d on

h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e e a r t h c u l t a r o u n d 1nna.l"

Inna w a s

t h e I s k a ( s p i r i t ) o f t h e e a r t h , t h e Mother, f o r t h e p e o p l e l i v i n g
i n the a r e a o f Kasar K a t s i n a , s o t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h i s d e i t y
e s t a b l i s h e d for Korau a s t r o n g f o u n d a t i o n for h i s d y n a s t y . T h i s ,
of c o u r s e , w a s carried o u t i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n t o t h e e s p o u s e d

I s l a m i c b e l i e f i n p u r e monotheism which, a l t h o u g h b e i n g a
dominant f o r c e , had n o t y e t p e n e t r a t e d a l l l e v e l s o f s o c i e t y .
Korau's s u c c e s s o r s maintained t h i s s y n c r e t i s m , encouraging
I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e y e t m a i n t a i n i n g I s k o k i l e g i t i m a c y . By t h e
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n had come t o
identify w i t h Islam, yet t h e c u l t o f Inna remained a p o w e r f u l

f a c t o r i n r u r a l l i f e where t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of p e o p l e t o nature
w a s s o i m p o r t a n t . The r u r a l p e o p l e were p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h

m a i n t a i n i n g a b a l a n c e w i t h t h e n a t u r a l phenomena, s o t h e y put
t h e i r t r u s t b o t h i n a c e n t r a l i z e d God a n d a centralized s p i r i t o f
Mother ~ a r t h . The f o l l o w i n g l i t u r g y d i s p l a y s t h i s
l l 4 ~ u g i ,The G o b i r F a c t o r , 2 3 3 .

'%sman, T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f K a t s i n a , 67. Inna i n t h e l i t e r a l

Hausa sense s i m p l y means mother a n d can be u s e d f o r any women
a b o u t t h e a g e o f o n e ' s own m o t h e r .

integration:

Inna uwar mu

Inna, our mother

Inna uwar Ibrahim (Sarkin Rafi)

Irma, mother of Ibrahim

(Owner of the river)

Inna ta Mallam Sambo . . .

I m a , of Mallam Sambo.
(Owner of the cattle)

Domema uwar yau . . .

The necessary one, mother

of today

Inna mai kosson mai nobbom

Inna the owner of butter

and milk

Ta maidawa, dan Jigo

Of the Owner of the

forest, the son of Jigo

Allah abin dogara

Allah, the dependable One

Inna abin dogara

Inna, the dependable One

Inna mai gida bisa kuka

Inna, the owner of the

house on the kuka tree

Inna mai gida bisa suri

Inna, the owner of the

house in the anthill

Inna mai gida bisa labi

Inna, the owner of the

house on the cattle path

Ba dan ke ba
Sai a ce a1jani karya ne!

If not because of you,

It will be said that
spirits do not
exist . 'I7

I n Zamfara, the ~skokibelief system remained firmly

entrenched in all levels of society even though Sarkin Zamfara

Aliyu dan Daka gave instructions in the 1670's for mosques to be
built throughout the countryside

'la.

The call for collective

"'~sman, Transformation of Katsina, 70.

"%arbs Na-Dama, The Rise and C o l l a ~ s e of a Hausa State: A

Social and Political History of Zamfara, (Ph.D. dissertation,
A.B.U., Zaria, l977), 324

worship was a solid step toward Islamization but neither S a r k i

Aliyu nor any of the succeeding Sarakuna were known to have given
any active support towards the spreading of Islam as a way of

life among their people. By the eighteenth century, the

practising Muslim population was confined to the cities and the
power of the Iskoki was deep rooted in the social and political
fabric of society.'lg Abdullahi Ibn Fudi, brother of the Shehu
and a scholar in his own right, described Zamfara as "a land over
whose people ignorance was supreme; the majority of its people
O''
had not smelt the scent of Islam".

In Kebbi, where Islamisation began in the sixteenth

century, Muhammad Kanta, the first Islamic ruler who openly
professed the oneness of God, did not abandon his Tsafi (Iskoki
based) beliefs and practises. Kanta maintained special animals to
sacrifice to Inna at one of the gates of Surame. He was also
reported to have appointed two Islamic officials, Limamin Ciki
and Limamin Leka, but there is no indication that he ever
empowered them to enforce or spread 1slam.l z l The Tsafi
practices in Kebbi included sacrifices to water and land Iskoki
at special rocks and places throughout the countryside.

Individual, family, and public Iskoki rituals were openly carried

12'~bdullah ibn Fudi, Tazvin Al-Waraqat , translation by M.

Hiskett, (Ibadan University Press, 1963) , 86.
'2'~uhammad Bello ~IKali,A Hausa Comrnunitv in Crisis : Kebbi in
the Nineteenth Centurv, (M.A. thesis, A.B.U., Zaria), 121.

out with no opposition and the installation of the head of state

till the end of the eighteenth century was dependent on the
Iskoki ceremony." 2
Such was the state of affairs in Hausaland during this era.
Shrines or fetish objects could be found in and around the homes,
settlements, and palaces of the people in Kano, Zaria, Katsina,
Gobir and throughout the land. Most of the rural people had their
own Iska which satisfied their personal needs. For many of the
townspeople, however, Islam provided the basis on which trust was
established, business was carried out, and community life was
organized. The Iskoki belief system was used as source of magic
and superstition or a treatment for a spiritual disorder and the
basis of their relationship to authority.

"3

THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE RULERS TO THE RULED

The earliest form o f society in Hausaland appears to be

that of small agricultural communities organized around crop

production. The leadership of these hamlets was based on family
units whose individual head was responsible for all matters
outside of agriculture. This leader whose role was only slightly
predominant was the direct descendant of the founding
ancestor(s) . The most commonly used title for this ancient office
was 'priest chieff or 'earth priestf. His role was to be an
intermediary between the living and the deceased ancestors or the

local spirits who had a direct effect upon the earth.

lZ4

With the introduction of the use of iron into Hausaland,

presumably in the early part of the first millennium A.D. and the
centralization of Iskoki religious ritual around large hills,
such as Dutsen-Dala near Kano, conditions became favourable for
the growth of small towns (saruruwa). Here it is probable,
according to Abdullahi Smith, that the overall leadership was
invested in a Sarkin Gari (king of the town) whose main authority

was still connected to agriculture and whose political base was

still the kinship ties and family units that had been established
in the town-lZ5
Recent evidence now supports the notion that the leadership
of the small towns did not evolve into a centralized form at this
point, but became a 'dual' institutional structure/contrapuntal
paramountcy.'" This occured when an outside force of either
conquerors, scholars or merchants established a type of

'24Abdullahi Smith's article, "The Early States of the

Western Sudan",in The History of West Africa, Vol. 1, edited by
J.F . A Ajayi and Michael Crowder (London: Longmans, 1971), 158201, although containing valuable insights and being
revolutionary in its time has been updated in the Third edition
of the same series with the article of Murray Last, T h e Early
Kingdoms of the ~igerianSavannah" 1985. Also see, Finn
Fuglestad, "A Reconsideration of Hausa History before the Jihad",
in J.A.H., 19 (3), 1978, 319-339; J.E.G. Sutton, "Towards a less
Orthodox History of Hausaland", J.A.H., 20, (2), 1979, 179-201,
for more insight into Hausa society before the sixteenth century.
"SAbullahi Smith, "The Early States", also found in A Little
New Liqht, Selected Historical Writinas of Professor Abdullahi
Smith, (2aria:Gaskiya Corporation Ltd., 1987),100.
I2%eepapers presented to the Conference on the History of the
Central Sudan before 1804, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, 1979.

'kingship',

y e t c o u l d n o t t o t a l l y overcome t h e i n d i g e n o u s p r i e s t

chief l e a d e r s h i p . T h e k i n g a n d t h e p r i e s t c h i e f worked w i t h i n t h e

same s y s t e m f o r t h e s a m e e n d s , and a s t r u g g l e e n s u e d f o r power

and a u t h o r i t y .

"'

The o u t s i d e f o r c e ( u s u a l l y Muslim by t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y )
won c o n t r o l o f t h e town a n d e x p e l l e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r t o t h e
c o u n t r y s i d e where a new power base w a s d e v e l o p e d w i t h i t s own
type o f autonomy. After a l o n g series o f w a r s ,

a n d i n some cases

i n t e r n a l coups, t h e u r b a n s t a t e s s u c c e e d e d i n g r a d u a l l y
i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e o n c e defiant c o u n t r y s i d e i n t o a wider s t a t e .
12'

N e w towns were b u i l t a n d t h e o l d o n e s w e r e r e f o r t i f i e d t o

p r o t e c t t h e c e n t r a l i z e d government.
There were many o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t c o u l d h a v e a l s o p l a y e d a
k e y r o l e i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t t h e emergence o f s t a t e s i n H a u s a l a n d .
One o f t h e main o n e s a p p e a r s t o be t h e g r o w t h o f c i t i e s ( b i r a n e )

i n s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n s . T h e s e c i t i e s d e v e l o p e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e
i n f l u x o f d i v e r s e p e o p l e from the o u t s i d e , a s o p p o s e d t o i n n e r
g r o w t h from a p o p u l a t i o n e x p l o s i o n . They a l s o a p p e a r t o be
p r i m a r i l y founded i n a r e a s of f e r t i l e l a n d , a s i n t h e c a s e o f
Kano, which rests on some o f t h e most p r o d u c t i v e l a n d i n Nigeria;
o r i n a s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n f o r t r a d e , as i n t h e c a s e o f K a t s i n a

which s e r v e d a s a t e r m i n u s on t h e edge o f t h e S a h a r a desert.I2'

Another f e a t u r e , a l s o e s s e n t i a l t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
1 2 ' ~ i n nF u g l e s t a d ,

"Hausa H i s t o r y ' ,

324-5.

1 2 8 ~ ~ r rLaays t , t % a r l y Kingdomsf1, 223.

1 2 g ~ b d u l l a hSim i t h , " E a r l y S t a t e s t 1 , 1 0 1 .
53

new s t a t e s was t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f i r o n o r e which e n a b l e d t h e

i n h a b i t a n t s t o produce more advanced f a r m i n g implements and
weapons. T h i s l e d t o r a p i d economic and m i l i t a r y development a n d
empowered t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e b i r a n e t o expand t h e i r s p h e r e s o f
i n f l u e n c e . The b i r n i ( c i t y ) , i n a l l cases, was i n v a r i a b l y
f o r t i f i e d with a w a l l ,

s i n c e i t was i n c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r

b i r a n e o r needed t o be p r o t e c t e d from an o u t s i d e i n v a d e r . T h e
w a l l surrounded t h e c i t y , p r o v i d i n g p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t a
p r o t r a c t e d siege and a r e f u g e f o r t h e p e o p l e o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
c o u n t r y s i d e . The e a r l i e r towns w e r e not n e c e s s a r i l y f o r t i f i e d a n d
l a c k e d t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n and t h e u n i v e r s a l n a t u r e of t h e
birane.13' I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , the l a r g e r b i r a n e by v i r t u e o f
t h e i r s i z e and d i v e r s e p o p u l a t i o n a l s o a f f o r d e d a t h r i v i n g c e n t r e
f o r t h e I s k o k i b a s e d r e l i g i o u s s i t e s , which, a s i n t h e c a s e o f
Kano became a magnet of a t t r a c t i o n t h r o u g h i t s abode o f
Tchunbuburai and o t h e r p l a c e s and o b j e c t s o f v e n e r a t i o n .
The most s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t of t h e e v o l u t i o n of Hausa
s t a t e s , f o r t h i s s t u d y , was t h e development of p o l i t i c a l

a u t h o r i t y . Urban l i f e i n Hausaland with d i v e r s i t y and s i z e

demanded a more complex form of government. T h e d e v e l o p i n g b i r a n e
n e c e s s i t a t e d a h o s t of l e a d e r s t o manage d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f
economic, s o c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l l i f e . Power was g i v e n t o
o f f i c i a l s such a s Magaiin G a r i (manager of t h e t o w n ) , S a r k i n
Kasuwa ( k i n g of t h e m a r k e t ) , S a r k i n Kofa ( g a t e keeper), MaiUnsuwa (ward h e a d ) , and S a r k i n Turawa ( c h i e f o f t h e Arab

t r a d e r s ) . All were u n d e r t h e o v e r a l l l e a d e r s h i p o f S a r k i n Kasa

who h a d h i s s e a t o f a u t h o r i t y i n t h e c a p i t a l c i t y . H i s a u t h o r i t y

e x t e n d e d t o t h e whole of t h e c o u n t r y s i d e i n c l u d i n g t h e f a r m l a n d s ,
towns, and a l l who r e c o g n i s e d h i s s u p e r i o r i t y . " '

I t s h o u l d be

n o t e d , however, t h a t d e s p i t e t h e a p p a r e n t a u t h o r i t y o f t h e S a r k i ,
t h e power of t h e c u s t o d i a n s o f t h e I s k o k i b a s e d b e l i e f s y s t e m was
n e v e r t o t a l l y c u r t a i l e d . On t h e c o n t r a r y , as e a r l i e r m e n t i o n e d i n
t h e c a s e of Kano a n d K a t s i n a , many of the r u l e r s had t o r e s o r t t o
t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u a l s t o overcome t h e i r o b s t a c l e s and t h e p r i e s t
c h i e f s s t i l l had a key r o l e i n s u c c e s s i o n t o power. A s a
consequence, t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f S a r k i became a more e v o l v e d form
of 'sacred animistic kingshipf

13'

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , a c c o r d i n g t o A b d u l l a h i Mahadi i n h i s
s t u d y o f t h e S a r a u t a s y s t e m and t h e s t a t e of Kano, t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h , a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of p e r s o n a l a n d
r e g i o n a l power, was n o t e q u a l . I t f e l l i n t o the hands of a s e l e c t
f e w who used it t o c o n t r o l l a n d , farm implements, and weapons.

T h i s e n a b l e d a s i n g l e r u l e r t o g a i n t h e u p p e r hand over t h o s e who

d i d n o t p o s s e s s t h i s power a n d e s t a b l i s h h i m s e l f and h i s

d y n a s t y . 13' I n Kano, Bagauda, t h e f i r s t S a r k i ( 9 9 9 - 1 0 6 3 C . E .

was n o t o n l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n

indigo p l a n t s

1311bid., 1 0 2 .

1 3 ' ~ i n nF u g l e s t a d , llHausa H i s t o r y w , 339.

""dullahi
Mahadi, "The S t a t e and t h e Economy : T h e S a r a u t a
System and i t f s R o l e s i n S h a p i n g t h e S o c i e t y and t h e Economy of
Kano w i t h P a r t i c u l a r R e f e r e n c e t o t h e E i g h t e e n t h and N i n e t e e n t h
C e n t ~ r i e s ~(Ph.
~ , D . d i s s . Bayero U n i v e r s i t y , 1982) , 1 5 9 .

and the art of weaving, but known for the distribution of gifts

to the local cult priests and leaders. This gained him control
over the inhabitants of the surrounding settlements, for the
people were in awe of the Iskoki based shrines and their
custodians.

134

The Sarauta political system became not only a dynastic

form of rule, but also a type of feudalistic hegemony. It
depended on the service of its populace who, in turn, depended on
the wealth of the Sarki. A successful Sarki was one who
controlled his land, its people, and its produce, and surrounded
himself with courtiers (Fadawa) and high officials who, not only
assisted him in the military and political affairs of the state,
but also became powerful fief holders and in some cases actual

kingmakers.L35
Hausa society became divided into two main categories, the
ruling class (Masu Sarauta) and the general populace

(Talakawa).

Sharp differences developed between the Masu

Sarauta and the Talakawa for the Talakawa lacked political and
military power and had limited upward mobility. The Talakawa (in
this general sense) could be divided into Attaiirai (wealthy
business people), Mallamai (Islamic scholars and clerics), Bayi
(slaves), and the general populace (Talakawa proper)

bid., 159. Also see Kano Chronicle, 98, 99.

"5~bdullahiSmith, Earlv States, 102.
136~urray
Last, "Early Kingdoms", 223.
137~ugi,
Gobir Factor, 236.

Although t h e r e is a p a u c i t y of detailed information about the

s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e g r o u p s , an a t t e m p t w i l l
be made t o p r e s e n t a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f t h e s t a t e o f these

affairs i n Hausaland l e a d i n g i n t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
T h e Masu Sarauta w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e general

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e i r kingdoms. T h e y had t h e a u t h o r i t y t o
p r e s c r i b e t a x e s , p u n i s h t h e i r subjects, and m o b i l i z e a r m i e s for
t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e s t a t e . They d e f e n d e d t h e b o r d e r s as w e l l a s

e x p a n d e d t h e t e r r i t o r y by h a v i n g s o l e monopoly o v e r t h e army, t h e
i m p l e m e n t s o f war, and t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of c a l v a r y . They were
v i r t u a l l y t h e s o l e owners of h o r s e s , e x c e p t f o r a few wealthy
b u s i n e s s m e n who r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f i n f l u e n c e . T h e Masu Sarauta
s u p e r v i s e d t h e b u i l d i n g and m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e w a l l s , giving them
u n d i s p u t e d supremacy in t h e c i t i e s . T h e i r i n f l u e n c e was f e l t
throughout t h e countryside a s w e l l ,

where t h e y owned l a r g e s l a v e

e s t a t e s , s e t t l e d disputes b e t w e e n t h e p e o p l e , p r o t e c t e d t h e trade
r o u t e s , a n d o f t e n c ~ l l e c t e dt a x e s from t h e c a r a v a n s t h a t p a s s e d
through t h e i r territory."'

I n o r d e r t o carry o u t t h e i r

f u n c t i o n s , t h e y d e v e l o p e d , a s p r e v i o u s l y mentioned,

a class of

p a l a c e o f f i c i a l s , many o f whom w e r e t a k e n from t h e Talakawa

c l a s s . S l a v e s , e s p e c i a l l y , were known t o r i s e i n r a n k s a n d become
p o w e r f u l members o f the c o u r t ,
The p a l a c e s o f t h e Masu S a r a u t a r e p r e s e n t e d t h e h e i g h t o f
l u x u r y i n Hausa s o c i e t y . The r u l e r s d r e s s e d i n t h e f i n e s t

materials, o f t e n e m b r o i d e r e d i n g o l d . They owned w e l l t r a i n e d

s t a l l i o n s and a t e a v a r i e t y of d e l i c a c i e s , many o r i g i n a t i n g from

r e c i p e s from t h e Middle E a s t o r N o r t h A f r i c a . They m a i n t a i n e d a
l a r g e r e t i n u e of d o m e s t i c s e r v a n t s , concubines, eunuchs,
m u s i c i a n s , drummers, and e n t e r t a i n e r s . Their p a l a c e s w e r e the
s i t e s o f local f e s t i v i t i e s such as w r e s t l i n g and boxing matches

which were h e l d i n l a r g e open a r e a s i n f r o n t o f t h e i r complexes.

13'

But f i e r c e r i v a l r y developed between t h e r u l i n g c l a s s e s o f

t h e major cities o f Hausaland, a n d w i t h no f o r c e t o check their

a u t h o r i t y , t h e Masu S a r a u t a , known as t h e Habe k i n g s by t h e
Fulbe, mobilized t h e i r s u b j e c t s t o s e t t l e t h e i r d i s p u t e s o r f i g h t
i n wars.
A t t a i i r a i , o r t h e w e a l t h y merchant c l a s s , were a n
i n f l u e n t i a l s e c t i o n of Hausa s o c i e t y by t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
Although i n f o r m a t i o n about t h i s g r o u p i s s c a n t y f o r t h i s p e r i o d ,
the l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of w e a l t h b u i l t from commerce i n Kano,

K a t s i n a , Gobir, and Kebbi s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e were l a r g e numbers

o f merchants i n t h e c i t i e s . They earned t h e i r w e a l t h p r i m a r i l y
t h r o u g h l o n g d i s t a n c e t r a d i n g and l i v e d a l i f e s t y l e c o m p a r a b l e t o
t h e r u l i n g c l a s s . They t e n d e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n t h e c i t i e s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e a p p e a r t o have b e e n some wealthy p a s t o r a l i s t s who
h a d l a r g e h e r d s of animals and w e a l t h y farmers, a s i n the case of
t h e f a r m i n g e l i t e of Zamfara.

The wealthy merchants w e r e

known t o c o n t r o l l a r g e h o u s e h o l d s o f wives, s l a v e s , a n d
c o n c u b i n e s and have a c c e s s t o huge t r a c t s of l a n d . D e s p i t e t h i s

wealth, they were not politically empowered to affect any

meaningful change in society.
The Mallamai class of Islamic scholars, by virtue of their
knowledge and usage of the Arabic language became a highly
influential part of society. By the eighteenth century, they had
become almost sole arbiters of Islamic religious practices and
social customs. There were Mallamai who were patronized by the

State and spent their time in the courts of the Sarakuna (kings)

of Hausaland. One vivid example was the scholars of the court of

Kebbi who had come to occupy important places next to their
rulers.

I4l

The court scholars were used to educate the children

of the noble class and to advise the Sarki in matters of

importance. They served as court scribes, Oadis, and state

spiritual advisors. Their Arabic linguistic ability was an
invaluable resource for correspondence and praise poetry in
Arabic as well as local vernaculars. Their spiritual intervention
often went beyond mere teaching and preaching to justifying the
status quo or rationalizing the edicts and practices of the
rulers, whether they were in conformity with Islamic Sharia or
not, Some of these scholars justified their position based on the
concept of the acceptability of ' ~ r for the customs of the people
which Islamic law does not entirely erase.
Many of the Mallamai avoided the courts and spent their
time teaching and preaching in the countryside, as in the case of
the Torodbe scholars mentioned earlier. They became highly

c r i t i c a l of t h e r u l i n g c l a s s and i n c r e a s i n g l y aware o f t h e i r
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o a p p l y t h e i r Islamic ideals t o t h e i r
society."'

T h e c h i e f o b j e c t i v e o f these s c h o l a r s w a s t o i m p a r t

t h e i r knowledge t o t h e i r d i s c i p l e s and f o s t e r a s t r o n g moral

u p b r i n g i n g . They e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y s i d e
a n d o f t e n i n t h e u r b a n areas. They were h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d ,

along

w i t h t h e w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t s but l a c k e d t h e p o l i t i c a l o r m i l i t a r y

power t o e n f o r c e what t h e y b e l i e v e d o r t a u g h t . T h i s g r o w i n g
n e t w o r k of s c h o l a r s who b y v i r t u e o f t h e P i l g r i m a g e t o Mecca a n d
t h e s c a t t e r e d c o m m u n i t i e s of Muslims t h r o u g h o u t t h e W e s t e r n ,

C e n t r a l and E a s t e r n Sudan, were i n c o n t a c t w i t h new ideas f r o m

a l l o v e r t h e Muslim w o r l d , began t o f o r m a more f o c u s e d g r o u p .
N e w c a l l s t o s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l r e f o r m w e r e c i r c u l a t i n g by t h e

e n d o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d young seekers o f knowledge

began t o echo t h e c a l l for a n i d e a l I s l a m i c s o c i e t y .

The Talakawa o r t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a c e was t h e m a j o r i t y i n

H a u s a l a n d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . They p r o v i d e d t h e l a b o u r f o r c e f o r
t h e s o c i e t y and c a r r i e d o u t m o s t o f t h e s e r v i c e s n e e d e d t o
s u p p o r t t h e r u l i n g c l a s s a n d , i n some c a s e s , t h e M a l l a m a i and
A t t a i i r a i a s w e l l . Mervyn H i s k e t t d i v i d e d the Talakawa i n t o t h r e e
s e c t i o n s . H i s d i v i s i o n s were f i r s t l y , Yan B i r n i o r t h e p e o p l e o f
t h e town and c i t y w h e t h e r f r e e o r s l a v e . They c o n s i s t e d o f
c r a f t s m e n , s h o p k e e p e r s , a r t i s a n s , p e t t y traders, members o f o t h e r
s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s a n d beggars. The b e g g a r s i n some c i t i e s f o r m e d

p o w e r f u l g u i l d s and r e c e i v e d a s s i s t a n c e from t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f
Zakah, which had e x i s t e d i n Muslim Hausa s o c i e t y . Some o f the

b e g g a r s were a l s o b l i n d a n d as a means o f o f f e r i n g a s e r v i c e t o
s o c i e t y t h e y became p r o f i c i e n t i n A r a b i c p r a i s e poems o r
v e r n a c u l a r r e l i g i o u s songs.143 There w e r e a l s o several
c a t e g o r i e s o f s l a v e s among t h e townspeople. S l a v e s s e r v e d i n
t h e i r m a s t e r s h o u s e s o r became s p e c i a l f u n c t i o n a r i e s o f t h e rich
and p o w e r f u l . T h e r e were eunuchs who were a p p a r e n t l y e i t h e r
c a p t u r e d i n t h a t c o n d i t i o n o r o p e r a t e d on, presumably, by non
Muslims, a s I s l a m f o r b a d e c a s t r a t i o n f o r any reason.144 T h e r e
w e r e s l a v e s who w e r e b o r n i n t o s l a v e r y a n d t h o s e c a p t u r e d i n war

r a i d s o r bought i n t h e m a r k e t . They r e p r e s e n t e d t h e l o w e s t
c a t e g o r y i n s o c i e t y b u t o f t e n g a i n e d upward m o b i l i t y t h r o u g h
a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e r u l i n g c l a s s . On o c c a s i o n , t h e y ended up
owning t h e i r own s l a v e s and w i e l d i n g g r e a t power b u t l i m i t e d
authority in society.
T h e n e x t d i v i s i o n was r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n who l i v e d ,

i n some

c a s e s , f a r from t h e c i t i e s , and were a d m i n i s t r a t e d by ' v i l l a g e

headmenr who a c t e d a s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e urban
l e a d e r s h i p . T h e r u r a l p e o p l e i n c l u d e d p e a s a n t f a r m e r s who l i v e d
on s m a l l a g r i c u l t u r a l h o l d i n g s and farmed t h e i r own l a n d , o f t e n

with t h e h e l p o f s l a v e s . T h i s hard l a b o u r would u s u a l l y f i n d t h e

owner, h i s s o n s , a n d t h e i r s l a v e s s i d e b y side and t h e r e was
l i t t l e s o c i a l o r economic d i s t i n c t i o n between them. L a r g e r
1 4 3 ~ e r v yH
n i s k e t t , Development, 9 8 .
1 4 4 ~ b i d . 98;
,
Augi, G o b i r F a c t o r , 2 4 4 .
61

farming units could also be found in the countryside which were

usually owned by merchants and noblemen and produced large
amounts of cereals for the local market and middle distance
trade?

The rural complex also included the people of the

rumada or slave villages which were owned, for the most part, by
larger, absentee slave owners from the noble and merchant class.
It appears, however, that the slaves enjoyed a considerable

amount of freedom, being able to own their own plot and being
subject mainly to the taxes of their masters.l4"
The l a s t group w a s the nomads o r people of the ruggage, the
Fulbe cattle encampments, who lived in the grazing grounds, a
great distance from the cities and towns of Hausaland. They were
subject to their own leadership in matters of grazing rights but
often had to come into the cities to trade with the townspeople.
The ruling class was responsible to maintain balance between the

farmers, townspeople, and the nomads

Farmers were known to

accuse the nomads of trampling over their property or fouling

their w a t e r supplies. Their land claims were often in dispute,
and by the eighteenth century the practice of enclosing the
farming areas was common.'" This may have led to the resentment
that existed among the nomadic Fulbe, especially by the
eighteenth century.

The Excesses of the Masu S a r a u t a

-

bid., 99; Augi, Gobir Factor, 244.

bid., 100; Ibid., 245.

'477#ervynHiskett, Development, 105.

62

The Kano C h r o n i c l e , i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e Habe r u l e r s o f t h e

e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p r e s e n t s a gloomy p i c t u r e of t e n s i o n and
e x p l o i t a t i o n . The n e e d f o r a b s o l u t e power a n d a u t h o r i t y seemed t o
have b l i n d e d the r u l e r s t o t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s l e a d e r s a n d

set them i n o p p o s i t i o n t o a l m o s t every o t h e r group i n Hausa

s o c i e t y . T h e t h i r t y - s e v e n t h S a r k i , Mohamma S h a r e f a , s o n o f D a d i
(1703-1731 A.D.) was a powerful ruler who enhanced Kano's

p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e Hausa s t a t e s , b u t he also
i n t r o d u c e d a number o f t a x e s i n t o h i s government which c o u l d have
appeared t o t h e g e n e r a l populace t o b e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d robbery
a n d e x t o r t i o n . Among them were J i z v a o f maidens on m a r r i a g e , a n d
J i z v a on t h e Kurmi m a r k e t .
O f the t h i r t y - e i g h t h

148

S a r k i , Kumbari, t h e son of S h a r e f a ,

t h e Kano C h r o n i c l e d i s c l o s e s p r a c t i c e s which p r o f o u n d l y a f e c t e d
t h e economy o f t h e l a r g e s t t r a d i n g c e n t r e i n Hausaland.
Mohamma Kumbari w a s a c t i v e i n c o l l e c t i n g Jizva from t h e
Kasua Kurmi ( m a r k e t ) , s o t h a t t h e market was nearly
k i l l e d . The n e x t y e a r h e c o l l e c t e d J i z v a i n Kano and
made e v e n t h e mallams pay. T h e r e was s o much d i s t u r b a n c e
t h a t t h e A r a b s l e f t t h e town a n d went b a c k t o K a t s i n a ,
and most o f t h e p o o r e r p e o p l e f l e d t o t h e c o ~ n t r y . " ~
The S a r k i h a d d e s t a b i l i z e d a l m o s t h i s e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n , by, n o t
o n l y e n d a n g e r i n g , f i n a n c i a l l y , t h e A t t a i i r a i , and the Mallarnai,
b u t a l s o p e r s e c u t i n g the g e n e r a l Talakawa and t h e v i s i t i n g A r a b
merchants.

or

t h e r e f e r e n c e , see P a l m e r ,

9 .Ma, 1 2 3 .

T h e Shehu, i n h i s famous work K i t a b a 1 F a r q

'3I

c o r r o b o r a t e d t h e r e p o r t s o f t h e Kano C h r o n i c l e and p r o v i d e d
d e t a i l s o f t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Masu

S a r a u t a a n d t h e i r s u b j e c t s i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H e stated,
One of t h e ways o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t i s s u c c e s s i o n t o t h e
emirate b y h e r e d i t a r y r i g h t a n d b y f o r c e , t o t h e e x c l u s i o n
of c o n s u l t a t i o n .
And o n e o f t h e ways o f t h e i r government i s t h e b u i l d i n g o f

t h e i r s o v e r e i g n t y upon three t h i n g s : t h e p e o p l e ' s

persons,
t h e i r h o n o u r , and t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n s ; and whomsoever t h e y
w i s h t o k i l l o r e x i l e / o r v i o l a t e h i s honour o r d e v o u r h i s
w e a l t h , t h e y do s o i n p u r s u i t o f t h e i r l u s t s , w i t h o u t a n y
right i n t h e s h a r i a . l s l
T h e Habe r u l e r s l e v i e d a series o f t a x e s on t h e nomadic

p e o p l e , t h e t o w n s p e o p l e a n d t h o s e who i n v o l v e d t h e m s e l v e s i n
prayer. K i t a b a l - F a r q ,

a g a i n , serves as a p r i m a r y s o u r c e f o r t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e s e d r e a d e d i m p o s i t i o n s .
One o f t h e ways o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t i s t h e i r i m p o s i n g on
t h e p e o p l e monies n o t l a i d down by t h e S h a r i a , b e i n g t h o s e
t h e y c a l l ianshali, k u r d i n s h a r i , a n d k u r d i n s a l l a I s 2 .

About t h e m a r k e t , t h e Shehu w r o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g :
One o f t h e ways of t h e i r government i s what t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e m a r k e t t a k e s from all t h e p a r t i e s t o a
s a l e , a n d t h e meat which h e t a k e s on e a c h market day from t h e
b u t c h e r s , and they c a l l t h i s tawasa.

lS0~ervyH
n i s k e t t , " K i t a b a l - F a r q : A work on t h e Habe
Kingdoms a t t r i b u t e d t o Wthntan Dan F o d i o w , (London: B . S 0 .A. S . ,
v o l . 23, 1 9 6 0 ) . Although t h e S o k o t o j i h a d i s t s were i n o p p o s i t i o n
t o t h e Habe r u l e r s and, t h e r e f o r e , n o t i n c l i n e d t o o b j e c t i v i t y ,
t h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e Kano C h r o n i c l e a n d o t h e r documents a t t e s t t o
t h e o p e n c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e Habe r u l i n g c l a s s .

1 5 2 ~ b i d .567.
,
J a n g a l i w a s t h e h a t e d c a t t l e tax imposed on t h e
F u l b e . K u r d i n crhari w a s a t a x o n t h e t o w n s p e o p l e , and k u r d i n s a l l a
w a s a t a x l e v i e d a t t h e t i m e o f I s l a m i c c e l e b r a t i o n s of prayer,
u l f i t r , ' rd u l Kabir, e t c .

'u

And o n e o f t h e ways o f t h e i r government i s t h e c o t t o n and

o t h e r t h i n g s which t h e y take i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e m a r k e t s
a n d t h e y c a l l t h i s aahama.
One o f t h e ways of t h e i r government i s the t a k i n g o f p e o p l e ' s
beasts o f burden w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n t o carry t h e S u l t a n ' s
f o o d t o him. Whoever f o l l o w s h i s b e a s t t o t h e p l a c e where
t h e y u n l o a d it, t h e y r e t u r n it t o him, b u t h e who does n o t
f o l l o w , h i s b e a s t i s l o s t , a n d t h e y c a l l t h i s kamuwa. lS3
I n d e s c r i b i n g l i f e i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , t h e Shehu w r o t e :
One o f t h e ways of t h e i r government i s t o impose tax on
m e r c h a n t s , and o t h e r t r a v e l l e r s .

One o f t h e ways of t h e i r government, which i s a l s o w e l l

known, i s t h a t one may n o t p a s s by t h e i r farms, n o r c r o s s
them w i t h o u t s u f f e r i n g b a d t r e a t m e n t from t h e i r s l a v e s .
One o f t h e ways of t h e i r government which i s a l s o w e l l
known i s t h a t i f t h e p e o p l e ' s a n i m a l s go among t h e i r a n i m a l s ,
t h e y d o n o t come o u t a g a i n u n l e s s t h e y g i v e a p r o p o r t i o n
of them, and if t h e S u l t a n ' s a n i m a l s s t r a y , a n d a r e f o u n d
s p o i l i n g t h e c u l t i v a t e d l a n d and o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e y are
d r i v e n o f f . L54
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e o p p r e s s i v e measures, t h e Habe r u l e r s
o p e n l y d i s r e g a r d e d I s l a m i c law a n d i n j u n c t i o n s .
One o f t h e ways of t h e i r government i s t o change t h e l a w s o f
God . . .whoever dies i n t h e i r c o u n t r y , t h e y t a k e h i s p r o p e r t y ,
a n d c a l l it ' i n h e r i t a n c e f , a n d t h e y know t h a t it i s w i t h o u t
doubt i n j u s t i c e .
One of t h e ways of t h e i r government i s t o compel t h e p e o p l e
t o serve i n t h e i r a r m i e s , e v e n t h o u g h they a r e Muslims, a n d
t h e y c a l l it q h a r s h a d i , a n d whosoever does n o t go, t h e y
impose upon him a money payment.

One o f t h e ways of t h e i r government which i s a l s o w e l l

known, i s t h a t i f you have a n a d v e r s a r y ( i n law) and h e
p r e c e d e s you t o them, and gives them some money, t h e n y o u r
word w i l l n o t b e a c c e p t e d by them, even though t h e y know f o r
1 5 3 ~ b i d .5, 6 8 . Another p r o o f of t h e o b j e c t i v i t y o f the
S h e h u t s c r i t i c i s m of t h e Habe r u l e r s was h i s usage o f t h e p h r a s e
"which i s w e l l known" and h i s i n c l u s i o n o f t h e a c t u a l names t h a t
they l a b e l l e d t h e i r p r a c t i c e s .

'%bid.,

568.

a c e r t a i n t y o f y o u r t r u t h f u l n e s s , u n l e s s you g i v e t h e m more
than your a d v e r s a r y gave.
One o f t h e ways o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t which i s a l s o w e l l known
i s t h a t t h e y w i l l n o t abandon t h e custom which t h e y f o u n d
t h e i r f o r e b e a r s p r a c t i s i n g , even t h o u g h it i s e v i l .
One o f t h e ways o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t i s t h e p u t t i n g o f dust
upon t h e h e a d of t h e one who greets them."'
A c c o r d i n g t o Yusuf B a l a Usman, t h e t r a d i t i o n s of K a t s i n a
r e c o r d a n i n s t a n c e which a l m o s t p r o v o k e d a p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s . Two
p r i n c e s, sons

S a r k i n Kats i n a T s a g a r a n a (c.1767-1768

C.E.),

k i l l e d t h e s o n of o n e of t h e A t t a i i r a i o f Gambarawa d u r i n g a
q u a r r e l o v e r a g i r l . The p e o p l e o f t h e c i t y demanded t h a t the
princes be e x e c u t e d , b u t T s a g a r a n a refused t o c a r r y o u t t h i s
punishment on h i s own c h i l d r e n . A major c o n f r o n t a t i o n w a s a v e r t e d
by a fatwa

g i v e n b y a Mallam o f Yandoto. The Mallam p o i n t e d

o u t the p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e payment o f Dia ( b l o o d money) a n d t h e

f a c t t h a t i n t h i s case it would a l s o be an added b l e s s i n g t o t h e

f a m i l y o f the v i c t i m i f t h e y a c c e p t e d it.'''
The Hikavat Gozo, an anonymous, u n p u b l i s h e d document, g i v e s
u s a n o t h e r look a t Katsina i n t h e l a t e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
K a t s i n a was c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e m o s t c u l t u r e d , i n t e l l e c t u a l c i t y
i n Hausaland.
On t h e whole what c a u s e d t h e government t o pass t o t h e Fulani
o t h e r t h a n that t h e rich men b o a s t e d o f t h e i r h o u s e s f u l l o f
g o l d and s i l v e r ? Every r i c h man had a square h o u s e w h i c h t h e y
f i l l e d w i t h gold and s i l v e r , and t h e r e s u l t w a s t h a t i t was a
-

l S 5 1 b i d . , 5 6 8 and 5 6 9 .
l S 6 ~f o r m a l
l e g a l d e c i s i o n g i v e n by a Mufti who bases his
r u l i n g on I s l a m i c l a w .

15'usman, T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f K a t s i n a , 5 9 .

c i t y o f v a i n g l o r y . I t had s e v e n g a t e s a n d i n it w e r e s e v e n
p l a c e s o f t r e a s u r e ...And t h e k i n g s t r i e d t o evade the
c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h i s by g i v i n g w e a l t h t o t h e Mallamai and t h e
Mallamai t r i e d t o evade t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s b y means o f charms
f o r f e a r o f d i s o r d e r and the k i l l i n g o f one a n o t h e r . . .15'
The P o s i t i o n of Women

Women, t r a d i t i o n a l l y , i n t h e W e s t e r n Sudan have p l a y e d a

v e r y p o w e r f u l r o l e i n r e l i g i o n and c u l t u r e . S p e c i a l p o s i t i o n s
w i t h s p e c i a l t i t l e s were r e s e r v e d f o r f e m a l e members o f t h e

r u l i n g d y n a s t y . T h e l e a d e r o f women, a s o r t o f Queen m o t h e r was

c a l l e d by d i f f e r e n t names and g i v e n v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s , a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e region.'''

The f o l l o w i n g a r e e x a m p l e s o f t h e v a r y i n g

names and f u n c t i o n s o f t h e l e a d i n g woman.

Name

Place

Function

Inna

Gobir

I n c h a r g e of r o y a l m a r r i a g e s , a n d
m o t h e r o f t h e town, t a x c o l l e c t o r

Sarauniya

Abu j a

B o r i c u l t leader

Tambara

Azbin

Leading e n t r e p r e n e u r

Maga ji y a

Daura

L e a d i n g c o u r t o f f i c i a l , heir a p p a r e n t ,
m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l 16'

160

'j81bid., 6 0 . H i k a v a t Gozo i s a n u n p u b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t t a k e n
f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n o f S i r Richmond P a l m e r , a f o r m e r B r i t i s h
c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r first posted i n Katsina i n 1905.
I t c a n now be f o u n d i n t h e N o r t h e r n H i s t o r y R e s e a r c h Scheme a t
A.B.U.,
Zaria, Nigeria (Ms. 1 9 1 ) .
'''&an
Boyd, The C a l i p h ' s S i s t e r , Nana ~ s m a ' u (1793-1865) ,
T e a c h e r , Poet, and I s l a m i c Leader, (London: Frank Cass, 1 9 8 9 ) , 4 2
' " ~ e a n Boyd, Nana ~ s m a ' u , 4 2 .
% a ' a d Abubakar, "Amina o f Zazzau, E x p l o i t s and Impact i n
t h e Savannah Region o f Nigerian, KANO STUDIES, N e w Series, n o . 2

Magira
Waymanzon

Borno

Regent Queen mother

Zaberma
Bori r i t u a l leader
( S o u t h of Gao) 16'

In Hausaland, women p l a y e d s u c h a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e e a r l y
h i s t o r i c a l development, t h a t t h e name o f c i t i e s s u c h a s Daura,
Zaria, K a t s i n a , and o t h e r s were t a k e n from f e m a l e leaders

By t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Bakwa o f Turunku became t h e f i r s t woman

r u l e r ( S a r a u n i v a ) of Zazzau and p r o b a b l y t h e whole o f H a u s a l a n d .
H e r d a u g h t e r , Arnina w a s a p p o i n t e d ' h e i r a p p a r e n t f a n d became

f a m i l i a r with the p o l i t i c s of the c o u r t , t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e

m i l i t a r y , and t h e w i l e s of t h e m a r k e t p l a c e . ' "

I n 1569 C.E.,

Bakwa d i e d l e a v i n g the r u l e t o h e r y o u n g e r b r o t h e r K a r a m a , who

w a s s u c c e e d e d by Amina i n 1576 C . E .

Queen Amina embarked on a n

a m b i t i o u s campaign o f c o n q u e s t a n d e x p a n s i o n t o the w e s t a n d t h e
s o u t h . She became famous a s a r e l e n t l e s s c o n q u e r o r who o n l y s p e n t
a f e w months a t a time i n h e r c a p i t a l , a n d a s a b u i l d e r of c i t i e s

a n d w a l l s . She r u l e d f o r t h i r t y y e a r s a n d l e f t a v a s t and w e a l t h y

( 2 ) , 1981, 9 9 . A c c o r d i n g t o an anonymous document, quoted by

ad Abubakar i n t h i s same a r t i c l e ( p . l O 7 ) , Labarun Hausawa da
Makwabtansu, r e p r i n t e d i n Z a r i a i n 1 9 7 1 (NNPC) , b e f o r e t h e n i n t h
c e n t u r y ( A . D . ) there were e i g h t q u e e n s ( M a s a i i v a s ) b e f o r e t h e
f o u n d i n g of Daura and t h e s e v e n Hausa s t a t e s .
Sat

1 6 * ~ e a Boyd,
n
Nana Asrnaf u, 1 0 7 .
1 6 3 ~ l i y uHamza D a r m a , The C o n t r i b u t i o n o f L e a r n e d Women t o
I s l a m i c E d u c a t i o n , M.A. diss., Bayero U n i v e r s i t y , 1982), 1 8 .
' 6 4 ~ad
a f Abubakar, Amina, 1 0 2 .

Zazzau empire.

Women, i n g e n e r a l , were n o t g i v e n s u c h a p r e s t i g i o u s
p o s i t i o n . They w e r e c a l l e d on t o a s s i s t i n farming, t r e e c r o p
g a t h e r i n g , w a t e r and f u e l g a t h e r i n g and c a r r y i n g , a s w e l l as
c a r i n g f o r s m a l l l i v e s t o c k around t h e homestead. They spun, wove,
and processed f o o d s t u f f s i n a d d i t i o n t o preparing food, looking
a f t e r c h i l d r e n a n d p e r f o r m i n g t h e i n t i m a t e d u t i e s o f w i v e s . Some
women pursued s m a l l t r a d e s and became f i x t u r e s i n t h e
m a r k e t p l a c e , w h i l e o t h e r s p r a c t i s e d s p i r i t p o s s e s s i o n , medicine
a n d more secret a r t s . Only t h e women o f t h e Masu S a r a u t a ,
A t t a i i r a i , and t h e Mallamai a p p e a r t o have been p u t i n t o
s e c l u s i o n , o r purdah and a l l o w e d t o l i v e a l i f e o f l u x u r y . L 6 6
By t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e o v e r a l l

p o s i t i o n of women i n Hausaland was i n a s t a t e o f s t e a d y

d e t e r i o r a t i o n . The Shehu i n h i s K i t a b a1 F a r s described t h e
o p p r e s s i v e c o n d i t i o n o f women u n d e r t h e Habe

r u l e r s with the

following:
One of t h e ways of t h e i r government i s t o ...t a k e what
women t h e y w i s h w i t h o u t m a r r i a g e c o n t r a c t .
One of t h e ways of t h e i r government i s t o p l a c e many
women i n t h e i r h o u s e s , u n t i l t h e number o f women o f
some of them amounts t o one t h o u s a n d o r more.
One of t h e ways of t h e i r government i s t o d e v o u r t h e
alms o f women who are s u b j e c t t o t h e i r a u t h o r i t y .

1 6 5 ~ b i d . 1, 0 4 . Most of Sa'adr s i n f o r m a t i o n w a s t a k e n from an

anonymous c o l l e c t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o A m i n a c a l l e d Amina
S a r a u n i v a r Zazzau, Z a r i a , 1 9 5 4 .
1 6 6 ~ . ~ Smith,
.
The Affairs o f Daura,
o f C a l i f o r n i a Press, l978), 4 2 .

(Los A n g e l e s , U n i v e r s i t y

One of the ways of their government is that (a man)

puts the affairs of his women into the hands of the
oldest one, and every one (of the others) is like a
slave-woman under her.16'
In a Fulfulde poem written for the common people, the Shehu

directed a criticism at the condition of married life in general

by describing the oppressive ways of mature married men:

They fail to dress, house and feed their wives adequately,
they show favouritism between one w i f e and another and
m a k e unwise and hasty marriages without due thought
They revile their wives ... and beat them excessively ...
They do not educate them and if they divorce them, they
spread malicious tales about them thereby ruining their
chances of remarriage. '68

...

Some P r o m i n e n t Customs of the Fulbe

Circumcision
Although circumcision w a s a practice considered to be
compulsory for Muslim men throughout the Muslim world, it was
performed as an initiation rite by the Muslim and non-Muslim
Fulbe. The ceremony was carried out in large groups between the

ages of seven to nine. Boys were expected to demonstrate their

bravery and endurance by not crying during the operation.The
young initiates spent days in the bush after the ceremony and
lived in a special shelter outside their parents compound till
the wounds healed.'69 Clitoridectomy does not appear to have
'67~ervyn
Hiskett, Kitab a1 Farq, 567, 568.
168~ean
Boyd, Nana ~sma'u, 5. This poetry was obtained by
Jean Boyd from the personal collection of the Waziri of Sokoto,
Dr. Junaidu. Alhaii Muhammadu Magaji translated a selection of
poems on matrimonial issues into Hausa, and the original MSS were
filed, labelled, and returned to the Wazirifs archives.
'"Ahmad

Tahir, Social Writinss, 144.

been w i d e l y p r a c t i s e d i n Hausaland, b u t t h e c o n s t a n t i n t e r a c t i o n
with t h e Nile v a l l e y , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g P i l g r i m a g e s e a s o n , made
it an i s s u e o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e s c h o l a r s o f I s l a m .

Soro, t h e Discipline R i t u a l
M a l e y o u t h e l i g i b l e t o marry w e r e required t o show t h e i r

s t r e n g t h p u b l i c l y , by s u b j e c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o a b e a t i n g with a
s u p p l e s t i c k w h i l e s t r i p p e d t o t h e w a i s t . D u r i n g t h e ceremony,
g i r l s o f m a r r i a g e a b l e age formed a c i r c l e a r o u n d t h e young men t o
w i t n e s s t h e i r e n d u r a n c e . Any d i s p l a y o f weakness o r emotion would
e a r n t h e ridicule and contempt of t h e
The Gani Festival

Among t h e nomadic F u l b e , young men who h a d undergone t h e

Soro r i t u a l
-

were a l l o w e d t o c h o o s e young women w i t h o u t m a r r i a g e

and engage t h e m s e l v e s i n d a n c i n g a n d s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s f o r one

m o n t h r s d u r a t i o n . Even m a r r i e d c o u p l e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s
a f f a i r p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e young women had n o t a l r e a d y become
p r e g n a n t . T h i s p r a c t i c e was h i g h l y r e p u g n a n t t o t h e

lama and

t h e s e t t l e d F u l b e , and c a u s e d t h e b r e a k up o f many marriages."'

Inheritance
A t t h e d e a t h of a F u l b e man,

h i s p r o p e r t y w a s i n h e r i t e d by

h i s y o u n g e r b r c t h e r who a l s o m a r r i e d h i s w i f e and t o o k
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s c h i l d r e n . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a younger
b r o t h e r , t h e o l d e s t son would i n h e r i t t h e p r o p e r t y and l o o k after
t h e c h i l d r e n . H e d i d n o t have t h e r i g h t t o marry h i s d e c e a s e d

father's wife,

however, and would b e e x p e c t e d t o h e l p t h e

children get a start i n l i f e i n order t o protect the family

lineage.

"'
CONCLUSION

The e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y i n H a u s a l a n d h a s been d e p i c t e d by
many s c h o l a r s as a s o r t o f " d a r k age" o r e r a of d e ~ 1 i n e . l ' ~
Although o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s p e r i o d i s l i m i t e d , t h e s o u r c e s

do a f f o r d u s a p i c t u r e o f a s o c i e t y i n t h e process o f c h a n g e . The
t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n and I s l a m h a d become t o t a l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n
most of t h e c i t i e s , y e t s c h o l a r s , armed w i t h I s l a m i c c o n v i c t i o n

a n d h a v i n g no a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e r u l i n g c l a s s were p r o l i f e r a t i n g
i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . I s k o k i b a s e d customs t h a t had no r e l a t i o n s h i p
t o I s l a m i c law were openly p r a c t i s e d i n t h e c o u r t s and t h r o u g h o u t
t h e v i l l a g e s . The r u l i n g f a m i l i e s were l i v i n g i n luxury w h i l e t h e
masses c o u l d o n l y a f f o r d t h e b a s i c s of l i f e .
T h e seeds o f r e v i v a l i s m p l a n t e d by e a r l y I s l a m i c s c h o l a r s

a n d f o s t e r e d , p e r i o d i c a l l y , by Hausa r u l e r s , only needed young

a c t i v i s t s w i l l i n g t o resurrect them among the common p e o p l e a n d
t h e s c h o l a r s . The Fulbe, i n p a r t i c u l a r , w e r e ready for economic
a n d p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e . They were f o r c e d t o submit t o o p p r e s s i v e
t a x e s and by v i r t u e of t h e i r m o b i l i t y a n d resentment c o u l d e a s i l y

become a c a t a l y s t for r e v o l u t i o n .
T h e p r e c e d i n g l o o k a t t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t o f

t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y i s only an o v e r v i e w o f a s p e c t s o f a v e r y

complicated society that has yet to be fully u n d e r s t o o d . The

following chapter will delve into the background of the mind, and
thoughts of the socio-political revivalist, Shaykh ' ~ t h m a n ibn
Fiidi .

THE BACKGROUND OF THE SHEHU'S

IDEAS AND W R I T I N G S

Shaykh ' ~ t h m a n i b n FQdi, a l s o known a s Shehu Usrnanu d a n

F o d i o , was b o r n a t M a r a t t a

'14,

somewhere n e a r Konni i n December

o f 1 7 5 4 C . E . H e was descended f r o m Musa J o k o l l o ( h i s e l e v e n t h

a n c e s t o r ) , who m i g r a t e d from F u t a Toro t o t h e c o u n t r y o f Konni
w i t h h i s f o l l o w i n g i n about t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f i f t e e n t h
century?

They c o n s t i t u t e d a Torodbe s c h o l a r l y c l a n and h a d

moved e a s t i n s e a r c h o f a p e a c e f u l l a n d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r

base. 17'

Seven g e n e r a t i o n s o f t h e Shehu' s a n c e s t o r s r e m a i n e d a t

Konni u n t i l Muhammad

ad moved t o M a r a t t a a f t e r Muhammad Damka,

t h e r u l e r o f Konni r a i d e d them,

k i l l i n g a b o u t f o r t y s c h o l a r s and

t a k i n g women and c h i l d r e n captives. L a t e r , t h e S h e h u f s f a m i l y

m i g r a t e d f r o m M a r a t t a t o Degel which would e v e n t u a l l y become t h e
c e n t r e of h i s community.177The l i f e , p e r s o n a l i t y , and i d e a s o f
t h e Shehu were v i t a l t o the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of Hausaland. H e was
a n I s l a m i c s c h o l a r who t r a n s c e n d e d t h e world of ideas and became
" ' ~ r e s e n t l y l o c a t e d i n Sokoto S t a t e , Nigeria.

'"see t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o T a z v i n Al-Warasat,
Mervyn H i s k e t t ( I b a d a n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1963) , 5 .
17'wazir A1 J u n a i d , Dabt A1 M u l t a a a t a t ,
1 7 7 ~ . ~ .E

12.

l Masri, " L i f e o f Shehu Usrnan b .

2, no. 4 , ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 4 3 6 .

J i h a d t t , J.H-S.N.,

t r a n s l a t e d by

Fodio b e f o r e t h e

the leader of an actual state. What distinguishes the Shehu,

however, is the fact that throughout his life he never left the
arena of thought. He continued to write, producing treatises that
reflected his stage of development and implementation of ideas.
He was a product of a long line of Islamic scholars who traced
their scholarship to the generation of the companions of the
Prophet Muhammad in the first Islamic state of Medina. Their
method of teaching and transmission, which in West Africa was
epitomised by the Timbuktu system of Islamic education, was

similar to Islamic learning in many of the major cities of the

Muslim world. A brief look at the Timbuktu system, the
educational background of the Shehu, the scholars who affected

his thinking, and his life between 1774-1804 C.E., is essential

in understanding his perspective on the socio-political state of

affairs of his time- This will also enable the reader to better
appreciate the Shehufs contribution to the social intellectual
history of Hausaland.

THE INFLUENCES ON THE SHEHU'S THOUGHT

The Timbuktu S y s t e m of I s l a m i c L e a r n i n g
Despite a lack of detailed sources on the early
establishment of Timbuktu, it appears that this important trading
centre was founded as an exclusively Islamic settlement by Tuareg

tribesmen around 1100 C . E .

It was later incorporated into the

empire of Mali around 1325 C.E."'

As Islamic learning gained

more uniformity in the region, Timbuktu by virtue of its

excellent location and its constant flow of merchants and
scholars became a centre of Maliki juristic scholarship by the
fourteenth century.

The system of learning developed in the

schools of Timbuktu may have been predated by t h e scholarly

settlements of the Wangara or Dyula. It has been suggested above
that the ancient town of Dia produced a long line of Islamic
scholars such as A1 Haii S l i m Suware.

The Islamic educational system of Timbuktu appears to have

incorporated the Wangara system from early times, and then
distinguished itself in complexity and depth of thought for a
number of reasons. The first was the fact that the Timbuktu
tradition was constantly receiving new input from North Africa,
Egypt, and the Middle East. More prestigious lines of
transmission of the original Islamic traditions were added to
existing scholarship, and therefore, further extended and
certified t h e validity of the teachings being dispensed. This was
extremely important to t h e scholars of Orthodox Sunni Islam, for
the basis of knowledge was the direct transmission from the

''71
~ b d
al-Raman ~ l - ~ di,
a ' Tarikh al-Sadan, edited and
translated by 0. Houdas, Paris: 1898-1900, reprinted in Paris:
Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1966, 20-21; Elias N. Saad, Social Historv of
Tirnbuktu, the role of Muslim scholars and notables 14001900 (London: Cambridge University Press, l983), 24.

1 7 g ~ l i aSaad,
s
Timbuktu, 58. The Maliki school of Islamic
jurisprudence was taken from the traditions of Imam Malik ibn
Anas (d. 795 C.E.) , one of t h e four most distinguished Imams of
Islamic law.

Quranic text, the Hadith literature, and the traditions of the

Imam of the school of jurisprudence.laO
Secondly, the presence of a large body of scholars allowed
the student to specialize and study under more than one teacher.

By the sixteenth century over one hundred and fifty teachers,

each having his own Quranic school flourished in Timbuktu. This
achievement, coupled with the presence of hundreds of Imams,
Judges, and mystics attracted the attention of learned people all
over the Muslim ~orld.~" The third distinguishing factor was
the fact that the curriculum for attaining the status of scholar
was not confined to the reading of a specific set of scholarly
works and their commentaries. The student would enrol in a
Quranic madrasah to obtain the basic skills of Arabic reading,
grammar, and writing along with the basic knowledge of Islamic
doctrine and jurisprudence. Then, if qualified, he would move on
to a specialized system of dunis or lessons given by a recognized
master in a specific field of kn~wledge."~The student or talib
(seeker) would enter into a special relationship with his master
which would involve not only tutorial but an actual living
experience. This was the concept of mulazama whereby the student
not only attended lectures, but acted as an assistant or, in some
cases, a servant to the learned scholar. If the master was living
"O~he Hadith were the sayings and traditions of the Prophet
Muhammad which were recorded by his companions and formed the
basis of Sunna, the second source of the Sharia.
''l~lias Sfad, Timbuktu, 89.
lB2~lias
Sfad, Timbuktu, 60; El Masri, Life of Shehu, 436.

in difficult economic circumstances, he could employ the student

to work on his farm or handle his petty business transactions.
Therefore, seeking out a master was a complex process which could
involve kinship, familial, and economic ties .IE3The acquisition
of direct knowledge from a master or shaykh led to an ijaza
(teaching permit) which would be given to the student after
meeting a set of requirements. A scholar in any part of the
Muslim world would be initially judged on the quality of his
ijazas as they represented the level of scholarship that was
imparted to him. There was no age limit for the seeking of
knowledge and often the student would enter a aulazama
relationship with a master at the age of thirty or forty.le4 A
sincere student would often display the character and qualities

of his master as well as the scholarship. This type of

transmission was the basis of the spread of Islamic revival into
different parts of the Muslim world, as scholars would converge
on centres of learning, spend a period of time seeking knowledge,
and return to their respective areas carrying a new perspective
on Islamic theory and practice.

The A c a d e m i c S c i e n c e s of the Timbuktu system

The academic sciences of the Timbuktu system of education
were of two main categories. The first and most decisive for the
foundation of Islamic learning included Quranic exegesis
(tafsir), sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad
%lias

Sf

ad, Timbuktu, 61.

lE41bid., 61; El Masri, Life of Shehu, 436.

78

(hadith), Islamic jurisprudence (ficrh), and the study of the

sources of sharia (ustil). Emphasis was placed upon the governance

of society and the character and conduct of individual Muslims.
The teachings could range from ethical standards to precise legal
principles and laws. The first three subjects were required of
all students, but the last subject, us01 was only attempted by
the students who had the aptitude and ability to specialize in
the law.
The other category of academic science was the subjects

connected to Arabic language and Islamic doctrine. These included

Arabic grammar (nahw), literary style and rhetoric (balasah),
logic (mantiq), and doctrinal theology (tawhid). Along with these
subjects would be added the science of astronomy, history, the
biography of the Prophet Muhammad (seera), mathematics
(especially for use in inheritance), medicine (especially

Prophetic medicine taken from Muhammadfs traditions), and in some

cases special teachings of mystical doctrine (tasawwuf or
sufism) . l a '

An advanced student could be involved in teaching and

learning at the same time. In this way, a complex system of
education was developed which by its very nature was dynamic and
capable of absorbing new ideas and trends. Close teaching and
learning would often lead to marriage as the students would
occasionally be incorporated into the extended family of the
master, thereby linking the family of the master to that of the
'%lias

S' ad, Timbuktu, 74-75.

79

student. Timbuktu was a meeting ground for scholars of the

Tuareg, the Songhai, the Malinke, the Fulbe, the Berber, the
Arab, and other groupings. It solidified the pre-eminence of the
Maliki way and revitalised the chains of transmission to the
heartland of the Muslim world- The Shehu '~thman,the Torodbe,

and the scholars of Hausaland in the eighteenth century were,

also, products of this system.

THE EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF THE S H E W

The Shehu began his education in his own home by studying

the rudiments of Arabic during his reading and memorization of
the Quran which he accomplished at the feet of his own father,
Muhammad ibn SEilih, a well known Torodbe scholar. Then he learned
A1 ' ~shrinivatla' and similar works from his Shaykh, ' ~ t h m d n ,
known as Biddu a1 ~abawi?'

In accordance with the influence of

Timbuktu system of education, he learned Arabic grammar and

.syntax from A1 Khulasa '"'and other works from Shaykh ' ~ b da1
Rahman ibn Hammada. He read A1 Mukhtasar with his paternal and
maternal uncle '~thmlnknown as Bidduri. This Shaykh was
Iat~his
work was compiled by 'Abd al-Rahman Al-Fazazi, one of
the well known, North African scholars. It is one of the basic
works of praise of the Prophet used in the Western Sudan.
l"Abdullahi ibn FOdi, ' ids' al-Nustikh man akhadhtu ' anhu min
aL-ShuWikh (The Repository of Texts-those of the Shaykhs from
whom I took Knowledge). translated by Mervyn ~iskett-in"Material
relating to the State of Learning among the Fulani before the
Jihad", B.S.O.A.S., vol. 19, no. 3 , (1957), 563.

his work called Alfiwat Ibn Malik was an abridgement of

A1 Kafivah Al-Shafivah written by Ibn ~ a l i ka1 Dimashqi (d.672
A.H., 1273 A . D . ) .

apparently highly learned and pious, and according to the Shehu's

brother Abdullahi, had a reputation for commanding righteousness
and forbidding evil- The Shehu was reported to have imitated him

in character and deeds by accompanying him for two years and

moulding himself according to the Shaykh's example.'a9 This
quality of commanding righteousness and forbidding evil meant

that the Shaykh was not satisfied with imparting knowledge but he
applied his beliefs to the environment around him. During these
two years, another Shaykh and maternal uncle, Muhammad Thanbu,
also left a strong impression of the importance of being precise
in reporting Islamic knowledge and meticulous in storing
information. He apparently learned and mernorised most of what he
read for he knew the Commentary of A1 KarFtshi

by heart and

would correct the Shehu whenever he made a mistake or let

something slip without looking at the book."'
At this stage in his education, the Shehu was sent away in

the tradition of rnul%zama where the student accompanies and often

serves the master of a specialized area of Islamic sciences. He
went in search of knowledge to Shaykh ~ibrilibn

mar

and

accompanied him for a year until he reached the town of Agades.

Under this learned scholar, the Shehu qualified in theology, usU1
al-Fish (the foundations of the Islamic law), and Arabic grammar
i89Abdullahiibn F t i d i , ' ZdEi' a1 Nustikh, 5 6 3 . El Masri, Life of
Shehu, 437.
'''~1 Karashi was a famous Maliki scholar who commented on &
Mukhtasar.
ibn Fiidi ,

a n d s y n t a x . H e a l s o s t u d i e d t h e p r i v a t e w r i t i n g s o f Shaykh Jibril
and was i n s t r u c t e d i n h i s p r i v a t e c o n c e p t i o n s o f I s l a m i c
a p p l i c a t i o n . l g 2 The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e t e a c h i n g s on t h e Shehu
w a s s o g r e a t t h a t he w r o t e :
If there b e s a i d o f m e t h a t which i s s a i d o f good r e p o r t ,
t h e n I a m b u t a wave of t h e waves of ~ i b r i 1 . l ' ~

Shaykh Jibril appears t o h a v e been t r a v e l l i n g and c o n t i n u e d

on t o Mecca f o r t h e P i l g r i m a g e . T h e Shehu r e t u r n e d home t o h i s

f a m i l y . T h i s short s t a y w i t h Shaykh J i b r i l had a p r o f o u n d a f f e c t
on t h e Shehu and f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s d e s i r e t o apply his
knowledge t o s o c i e t y and b r i n g a b o u t r e a l change. T h e Shaykh
J i b r i l had a t t e m p t e d a J i h a d i n t h e A i r r e g i o n and h a d been

e x p e l l e d b y t h e Tuareg. H e a l s o had been p r e a c h i n g r e f o r m i n

Hausaland which greatly annoyed the Hausa S a r a k u n a . l g 4
A f t e r t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , t h e Shehu s t u d i e d Q u r ' a n i c e x e g e s i s

( t a f s i r ) w i t h t h e s o n of h i s m a t e r n a l and p a t e r n a l u n c l e Ahmad
i b n Muhammad a 1 Amin a s w e l l as Shaykh Hashim a 1 Zamfari who
c o m p l e t e d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e whole Q u r a n . Then he m a s t e r e d
t h e s c i e n c e of Hadith ( p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n s ) , completing t h e
whole o f S a h i h a 1 ~ u k h a r i , 'from
~ ~ h i s u n c l e Muhammad ibn Raj

ibn Mudibbi. The s o u r c e s a r e n o t c l e a r a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h e life

' g 2 ~ b d u l l a hiib n F a d i ,

' f da' a1 Nusilkh, 5 6 6 .

Masri, L i f e of Shehu, 438. A b d u l l a h i i b n FOdi,

l g 4 ~ 1

Nusnkh,

' ida'

564.

l g s s a h i h al-Bukhari is considered by t h e s c h o l a r s o f t h e

Sunni schools t o be t h e most authentic set o f t r a d i t i o n s after

t h e Quran i t s e l f .

a1

of the Shehu, but Abdullahi i b n Fndi in his description of the

Shehufs education reported that the Shehu studied under numerous
masters of Islamic sciences.

lg6

Throughout his career, the Shehu remained loyal to the

basic teachings of Maliki jurisprudence, but his broad Islamic

education gave him the ability to benefit from the different
schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Madhahib) and a wide variety of
scholars. He was highly influenced by Shaykh 'Abd al-Wahhab Al-

ha' rani (d.937 A.H.) a famous Islamic scholar who followed the
~hafi'i'~' school of jurisprudence and was renowned for his
flexible approach to the other
The Shehu also benefited greatly from the ideas and
writings of Shaykh Jalal al-DTn al-Suy0f i (1445-1505 C .E. )

the

prolific Egyptian scholar who was known to have taught many West

African students and corresponded with the rulers and sultans of

the Western Sudan. He advised them how to rule their subjects and

how to avoid un-Islamic practices.

Another Islamic scholar whose writings and life made a
profound impact on Shehu was Shaykh Muhammad ibn ' ~ b dal-Karim
Al-Maghili. Many of his works were still in circulation in

197~uhammad
ibn Idris, A1 ~hafi'i was an Islamic scholar and
jurist (767-820 C.E.) . Re was a student of Imam Malik ibn Anas,
founder of the Maliki school of thought. Imam A1 Shafirs rulings
formed the basis of a new and widely accepted school of thought
c a l l e d the ~hafi'i school.
lg8~hmad
Muhammad Kani, The Intellectual Orisin of the Sokoto
Jihad, (Ibadan, lman Publications, 1405 A.H. ) , 5 3 .

Hausaland and the Shehu drew heavily upon his philosophy of

enjoining right and forbidding evil. He found parallels between
the socio-political conditions of nineteenth century Hausaland
and sixteenth century Songhay. The Shehu was quoted to have said,
If you contemplated what has been said by Al-Maghili on
Sunni ' ~ l iand his supporters and what judgement has been
passed on them, you would understand beyond any doubt that
these are the same (political and social) circumstances i n
which we have found the Sultans of Hausa, their supporters,
and their neighbours to the West and the South.lg9

TRAVEL, STUDY, AND PREACHING, 1774-1804 C.E.

At the age of twenty, in 1188 A.H./1774-5 C.E., the Shehu

began a new phase in his scholarly life. He had become confident
enough and sufficiently well grounded in Islamic sciences to
preach as well as

During the week, he taught his

students Islamic sciences such as Hadith, Tafsir, Fiqh, etc.,

and, on the weekends, he lectured to the general public. His
brother, Abdullahi, came to study with him during this period and
later became his trusted assistant. The main thrust of the
Shehufs teaching appears to have been the expounding of the
fundamentals of Islam and correcting the bad practices that had

"'A.M. Kani, Intellectual Oricrin, 55. The original quote can

be found in '~thmanibn Ftidi, Naim al-Ikhwan (N.H.R.S.).
200~he
basic text for Shehurs early life, especially this
phase is Abdullahi ibn FUdi, Tawin A1 Waraqat, 85. Mention is
also made in El Masri, Life of Shehu, 439; M.A. A 1 Hajj, Meaninq
of Sokoto Jihad, 7; 1sma' il A.B. Balogun, The Life and Works of
Uthman Dan Fodio, (Lagos, Islamic Publications Bureau: 1975), 33;
Murray Last, The Sokoto Caliphate, (London: Longman Press,
1967),6; A. M. Kani, Intellectual O r i s i n , 31; Mervyn Hiskett,
The Sword of Truth, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973),42.

developed over the centuries in Hausaland. He confronted rigidity

and extremism among the scholars and false claims made by psuedomystics.201From the outset, the Shehu distinguished himself
from many of the traditional scholars by his concern and
interaction with the common people. His brother, Abdullahi, a
great scholar in his own right explains in T a z v i n al-Waraqat,
Then we rose up with the Shaykh (Shehu) helping him in his
mission work for religion. He travelled for that purpose
to the east and the west, calling the people to the religion
of Allah by his preaching and his poetry in other languages
and destroying customs contrary to Muslim law.2o2

He began his travels outside of his home base at Degel by

journeying to Kebbi. There he also encouraged the people to not
only reform their practice of the faith, but also to drop local
customs that were contrary to Islamic lifestyle such as grave
worship, the veneration of trees and objects, sorcery, indecent
exposure, free mixing of males and females, unlawful bowing,
unfair business practices, and un-hygienic personal habits. This
combination of religious preaching and calling for social change
gave him instant notoriety and allowed him to affect large
numbers of people.203The Shehu was not in the habit of visiting
the rulers, but when his following became too large he decided to
visit the Sultan of Gobir, Bawa Jangwarzo, a powerful and warlike
chief. The Shehu, according to Abdullahi ibn Fudi, explained the

'"M.A. A1 Hajj, Meanins of Sokoto Jihad, 7, A.M.

Intellectual Oriqins, 31,
202~bdullahi
ibn Fudi, Tazv in Al-Waraaat , 85.
'031bid., 86.

Kani,

t r u e Islam t o the S u l t a n , commanding h i m t o o b s e r v e it and

e s t a b l i s h j u s t i c e t h r o u g h o u t h i s lands.'''

T h i s i n t e r a c t i o n with

t h e r u l e r o f G o b i r a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d a p o s i t i v e effect on t h e

p r e a c h i n g a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Shehu, f o r he soon a f t e r w a r d s l e f t
for Z a m f a r a where h e s t a y e d f o r f i v e years summoning t h e p e o p l e

t o Islam and c o r r e c t i n g e x t r e m e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s c h o l a r s s u c h a s
c o n s i d e r i n g Mulims t o b e u n b e l i e v e r s f o r minor f a u l t s i n t h e i r
faith and r e f u s i n g t o r e g a r d s c h o o l s of I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e

other t h a n t h e M a l i k i t r a d i t i o n . I n Zamfara, t h e Shehu c o n f r o n t e d

t h e issue o f m a l e / f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h e e x c l u s i o n o f women
focused
be
on c o r r e c t i n g the bad
from Islamic e d ~ c a t i o n - ~ ~
i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t had d e v e l o p e d in the p e o p l e f s d a i l y l i f e s t y l e
and b r i n g i n g t o l i f e t h e Sunna o f t h e Prophet Muhammad a s a
p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n . Near t h e end o f t h e y e a r 1 2 0 2 A.H.(1788-9
C.E.), t h e r u l e r of Gobir, B a w a ,

s e n t word t o t h e Shehu and the

s c h o l a r s of h i s country t o assemble a t h i s c o u r t i n a p l a c e
c a l l e d Maghami, d u r i n g t h e f e s t i v a l o f ' fd u l - A q a .

'06

Although

some sources a l l u d e t o t h e f a c t t h a t Bawa had i n t e n d e d t o k i l l

t h e Shehu and h i s f o l l o w e r s , t h e Shehu managed t o c o n f r o n t t h e
S u l t a n , r e f u s i n g a b r i b e of f i v e hundred m i t h q a l s of g o l d and
i n s i s t i n g on f i v e demands :
1. T o a l l o w m e t o c a l l t o A l l a h i n your c o u n t r y .
-

2 0 4 ~ b d u l l a hi bi n Ftidi, T a z v I n Al-Waraqat,
Truth, 43.
2 0 5 ~ d ~ l l a ihbin FOdi,
I n t e l l e c t u a l O r i a i n , 33.

Tazvin

86; H i s k e t t , Sword o f

Al-Waraqat,

2 0 6 A b d u l l a h i i b n FOdi, T a z v i n Al-Warasat,

88.

8 6;

A.M. Kani,

2 . Not t o s t o p anybody who i n t e n d s t o r e s p o n d t o my c a l l .

3 . To t r e a t w i t h r e s p e c t any man w i t h a t u r b a n .
4 . To free a l l ( p o l i t i c a l ) p r i s o n e r s .
5 . Not t o b u r d e n the s u b j e c t s w i t h taxes .207

Sultan Bawa a g r e e d t o t h e s e demands and among t h e p r i s o n e r s

freed w a s A b a r s h i , t h e P r i n c e ( o r S u l t a n ) o f Zamfara.208 T h i s

move b y t h e Shehu was e x t r e m e l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t it d i s p l a y e d

h i s a c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e p e o p l e t o whom he

w a s p r e a c h i n g . S u r e l y t h e f r e e i n g o f a l e a d i n g member o f t h e
Zamfara e l i t e would e n d e a r him t o the l e a d e r s h i p of t h a t r e g i o n
a n d s p r e a d t h e news of h i s a u t h o r i t y . T h e demand f o r a r e m o v a l of
taxes from t h e m a s s e s o f t h e p e o p l e would b r i n g t h e r e a l i t y o f

h i s presence a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n p r o h i b i t i n g e v i l i n t o e v e r y
home i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e . The Shehu a l s o s o l i d i f i e d his a b i l i t y t o
p r e a c h openly and t o o k p r e s s u r e o f f h i s s t u d e n t s and f o l l o w e r s
who were known f o r t h e w e a r i n g of turbans i n a c c o r d a n c e t o t h e

Sunna o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad. S o u r c e s a l s o s t a t e t h a t a l l o f t h e
s c h o l a r s p r e s e n t a t Maghami, who numbered o v e r a t h o u s a n d ,

joined

t h e r a n k s of t h e S h e h u t s f o l l o w i n g . Bawa d i e d t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r ,
1789-90

C.E.

*09

After completing h i s object o f preaching, forbidding e v i l ,

e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e Sunna and t h e community, t h e Shehu r e t u r n e d t o
Degel around 1791-2

C.E.

Hausa t r a d i t i o n c o n t e n d s t h a t the Shehu

g a v e p r i v a t e l e s s o n s t o Yunfa, t h e s o n o f t h e S u l t a n o f G o b i r ,
'071bid.,

88; E l Masri, L i f e of Shehu, 4 4 1 .

2 0 8 Masri,
~1
Life of Shehu, 4 4 2 .
z o s .~ L a s t ,

O r i s i n s , 36.

Sokoto Caliphate,

7;

A.

M.

Kani,

Intellectual

Nafata, a n d assisted him i n g e t t i n g t o t h e t h r o n e . S u l t a n s ,

h o p i n g t o g a i n f a v o u r a n d s e i z e power, w e r e s u p p o s e d t o h a v e
v i s i t e d t h e Shehu a t Degel i n o r d e r t o g r e e t himm210D u r i n g t h i s
p e r i o d , he, a l s o , t r a v e l l e d W e s t t o Kebbi w i t h h i s companions and
wandered a l l o v e r t h e r e g i o n . They r e a c h e d t h e r i v e r Kuwarra
(middle N i g e r ) a n d 1110, f u r t h e r t o t h e West. A f t e r p r e a c h i n g a n d

t e a c h i n g t h e r e l i g i o n , t h e y returned t o Degel. T h e y c o n t i n u e d
t h e i r p r e a c h i n g t o u r s by v i s i t i n g Zauma

'"

where t h e p e o p l e ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e r u l e r , w e r e h i g h l y a f f e c t e d by t h e message.
A f t e r t h i s journey,

around 1793 C.E.

'",

2"

there i s no more

m e n t i o n o f t r a v e l u n t i l t h e famous H i j r a o f 1 8 0 4 C . E .

I t appears

t h a t p e o p l e were coming from a l l o v e r H a u s a l a n d t o Degel t o

r e c e i v e t h e S h e h u t s t e a c h i n g s and h i s s t u d e n t s h a d r e a c h e d t h e
p o i n t o f b e i n g q u a l i f i e d t o p r e a c h a n d teach t h e m s e l v e ~ . ~T' h~e
Shehu c o n c e n t r a t e d on d i s s e m i n a t i n g knowledge t o h i s e a g e r
s t u d e n t s and a d d r e s s i n g t h e n e e d s o f t h e l a r g e g r o u p s o f p e o p l e
who came t o embrace h i s l e a d e r s h i p . H e composed a number o f l o n g
poems i n F u l f u l d e a n d wrote a number o f b o o k s i n A r a b i c . The m o s t
-

- -

210~.

Last, S o k o t o Caliphate, 8 .

2'1~aurna, a c c o r d i n g t o H i s k e t t c o u l d be e i t h e r east of Gumi,

i n Kano r e g i o n , o r i n N i g e r ( s e e f o o t n o t e #6 i n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n
o f T a z v i n Al-Waraqat, 9 6 ) .
2 " ~ b d u l l a h i ibn F t i d i , T a z v i n Al-Warasat,
Shehu, 442.

9 6 , E l M a s r i , Life o f

* 1 3 ~ e n t i o ni s made o f t h e d e a t h o f t h e i r m a t e r n a l u n c l e
Muhammad Thanbu just a f t e r t h e i r r e t u r n . T h i s o c c u r r e d i n A p r i l ,
1 7 9 3 C . E . ( T a z v i n Al-Waraqat, 9 6 . )
2 1 4Masri,
~1
L i f e of Shehu, 442.

i m p o r t a n t work o f t h i s p e r i o d was I h v a al-Sunnah

w a Ikhmad a1

~ i d ' a(The R e v i v a l o f t h e Sunna and t h e N u l l i f i c a t i o n o f

I n n o v a t i o n s ) , w r i t t e n i n 1793 C . L 2 l 5 The d e p t h o f a n a l y s i s a n d
i n s i g h t i n t o t h e a f f a i r s of Hausaland and t h e I s l a m i c s o l u t i o n s
t o p r e s s i n g problems d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h i s work from a l l o t h e r s .
By 1794-5 C . E . ,

S u l t a n Bawa and h i s s u c c e s s o r Yaqub w e r e

d e a d . The power o f G o b i r , i n h e r i t e d by t h e new S u l t a n N a f a t a , was

on t h e d e c l i n e a n d t h e power of t h e Shehu a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s w a s
on t h e r i s e . The Shehu's son, Muhammad B e l l o , i n h i s InfBq A 1
Maisur, r e c o r d s t h a t t h e k i n g s o f Hausaland began t o p e r s e c u t e
t h e community of t h e Shehu and c o n f i s c a t e t h e i r p r o p e r t y . 2 1 6 I n
t h i s period,

t h e Shehu had a m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e which h e

d e s c r i b e d a s a m e e t i n g between h i m s e l f , the P r o p h e t Muhammad,

Shaykh ' ~ b d - a 1 Qadir a l - ~ i l a n i ~ " ,and a h o s t o f s a i n t s . The
Shehu r e p o r t e d l a t e r t h a t he was g i v e n a g r e e n m a n t l e , a s p e c i a l
t u r b a n , and ' t h e sword o f t r u t h f t h a t h e was supposed t o
u n s h e a t h e a g a i n s t h i s enemies. This s y m b o l i s e d for t h e Shehu t h e
a c c e p t a n c e of t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o change e v i l w i t h h i s hands o r i n
By' ~1 7 9 4 C . E . ,
~ i h a d . ~

t h e Shehu began t o u r g e h i s Community

2 1 5 ~ s m a ' iA
1 y i n l a Babtunde Balogun, A C r i t i c a l e d i t i o n o f t h e
I h v a Al-Sunna Wa-IkhmBd ~ l - ~ i d 'of
a ' ~ t h m a nDan Fodio, (Ph.D.
d i s s . , U n i v e r s i t y o f London, l 9 6 7 ) , 6 8 .

216~uhammadB e l l o , Infacr a1 Maisur fi T a r i k h B i l a d al-TakrGr

( C a i r o , M i n i s t r y o f Awqaf, l964), 9 6 .

he t w e l f t h c e n t u r y S u f i m y s t i c a n d f o u n d e r of t h e Q a d i r i y y a
Order.
" ' ~ i s k e t t , Sword of T r u t h , 6 6 . The o r i g i n a l s o u r c e is t h e W i r d
of Shehu 'Uthman ibn F u d i , 2-4.

(~ama'a)to equip themselves with weapons of war as this was part

of the Sunna. This move frightened the rulers of Hausaland and

Sultan Nafata made a public proclamation in the marketplace.

1. Nobody except the Shehu in person was allowed to preach.
2. No more conversions to Islam would be allowed and those
who were not born Muslims should return to their former
religion.
3. Men should not wear turbans and women should not wear
veils.219

These commandments represented the extreme in oppressive

measures for the Shehu and his ~ama'a for they were a community
of Islamic scholars whose primary mission was to propagate the
religion of Islam and explain its fundamentals and laws. In 121617 A.H. (1802-3 C.E.), Yunfa, the son of Nafata, became Sultan of

Gobir. He intensified the war against the Shehu by trying to

assassinate him at Alkalawa in 1803 C.E., and then attacking one
of the sections of the ~ama'a of the Shehu under his student 'Abd
al-Salam.

220

The Shehu wrote ~asa'il Muhimma Yahtaiu ila

~a'rifatuha Ah1 al-SOdan (Important Questions that need to be

Known by the People of the Sudan) in 1802-3 C.E., wherein he
explained the obligation of the Muslims to leadership, Hiira
(migration) and Jihad. This exemplified his transition into
political writings that were necessary to deal with the crisis of
his Community. By 1804 C.E., the beginning of the Jihad against
the Habe rulers of Hausaland, the Shehu had laid a solid
foundation of Islamic education and awareness. He had addressed
21g~bdullahi
ibn FOdi, Tazvin Al-Waraqat, 107; El Masri, Life
of Shehu, 444-5.
2 2 0 ~ b i d .107;
f
Ibid., 14.

t h e immediate n e e d s of the masses of t h e p e o p l e o f H a u s a l a n d and

s e t t h e p a c e f o r a new era i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Islamic

s c h o l a r s h i p t o the s t a t e .
THE SHEHUfS STYLE O F WRITING

Shehu ' ~ t h m a n i b n FUdi d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i m s e l f f r o m most of

t h e I s l a m i c s c h o l a r s and a u t h o r s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Sudan.
H i s w r i t i n g s were known f o r t h e i r s i m p l i c i t y and c l a r i t y o f

t h o u g h t . H e had become p r o f i c i e n t i n A r a b i c l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h h i s
i n t e n s i v e s t u d y o f A r a b i c grammar, s y n t a x , r h e t o r i c , a n d p o e t r y .
H i s knowledge

o f I s l a m i c s c i e n c e s was comparable t o a n y o t h e r

l e a d i n g s c h o l a r o f h i s time, y e t h e s t o o d o u t for h i s w e l l
documented u s e o f I s l a m i c s o u r c e s and h i s a b i l i t y t o a d d r e s s t h e
i s s u e s o f d i f f e r e n t l s v e l s of s o c i e t y . The Shehu was n o t w r i t i n g

i n a vacuum, but he t a i l o r e d h i s p r e a c h i n g and w r i t i n g t o meet

t h e needs o f t h e s i t u a t i o n t h a t h e was c o n f r o n t i n g . B e s i d e s h i s
A r a b i c w r i t i n g s , h e was known t o h a v e p r o d u c e d works i n F u l f u l d e

and Hausa ( A i a r n i )

Most of t h e s e w r i t i n g s , which number a b o u t

f o u r hundred a n d e i g h t y on i s s u e s r e l a t i n g t o t e a c h i n g a n d
d e s t r u c t i o n o f bad customs a l o n e , were done i n t h e form o f
p o e t r y . H e was a l s o known t o have p r e a c h e d i n Tamajek, one of t h e
Tawariq l a n g u a g e s . 2 2 '

Unlike o t h e r s c h o l a r s i n H a u s a l a n d s u c h a s A b d u l l a h i i b n
Flldi,

h i s brother,

o r Muhammad B e l l o , h i s son, he d i d n o t w r i t e

on a wide v a r i e t y o f t o p i c s . They were known t o have w r i t t e n on

prosody, rhyme, grammar, p h i l o l o g y , m e d i c i n e , and h i s t o r y , b u t
Kani, I n t e l l e c t u a l Oricrin, 37-8,

2 2 1 ~ . ~ .

91

49.

the Shehu restricted himself to the pure religious sciences of

aaidah (fundamentals of Islamic faith), ficrh (Islamic law), and
tasawwuf .222

wrote

simple but classical Arabic style

that would not confuse any student of the Arabic language. His
books were filled with quotes from the classical sources of
Islamic science, the Quran and the Sunna, as well as the opinions
of well known scholars. This frequent use of other sources is

actually considered by many orthodox scholars to be a higher form

of writing because it leaves less room for subjective analysis
and depends more on totally acceptable sources. The Shehu was
quoted to have said:
Nothing is m y own, in all that I elaborated for you. I am
only following the footsteps of traditional schofars to
bring to your notice what they have said. I have never
mentioned anything without ascribing it to its author.
If you wish, you can look up every book which I have
copied.223

So the Shehu wrote to meet the need of the hour and to

equip his followers with the information necessary to understand
and eradicate t h e customs and teachings that were in opposition

to Islamic Sharia, His writings were like textbooks that could be

used by his students as the basis for their own instructions.
They were in some cases like the notes of speeches or the answers

2 2 2 ~ . ~ .El Masri, translation and edition of '~thmanibn

Fadits, Bayan Wuiflb a1 Hiira ' la al-' bad, (Khartoum: Khartoum
University Press, 1978), 1 3 .

223~halil
Malpntid, "The Arabic Literary Tradition in Nigeria",
Unpublished paper written at Ibadan University Library, April,
1976, 12; El Masri, Bavan WuiGb a1 Hiira, 14; Original quote
taken from 'Uthman ibn Fudi, ~asa'ih a1 Umrnat a1 Muhammadivva,
manuscript preserved in the Ibadan University Library (82/113).

t o q u e s t i o n s g i v e n by t h e Shehu d u r i n g h i s p r e a c h i n g t o u r s . T h i s
form o f w r i t i n g g i v e s u s n o t o n l y an i d e a of t h e S h e h u f s p o s i t i o n
on c e r t a i n p e r t i n e n t i s s u e s , b u t it a l s o g i v e s u s i n s i g h t i n t o
how he approached s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l

problems. B y a n a l y z i n g t h e

S h e h u f s p o e t r y and Arabic w r i t i n g i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e a c t u a l
c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f h i s t i m e s , t h e s t u d e n t o f H i s t o r y w i l l be a b l e
t o view t h e Shehu n o t only a s an I s l a m i c s c h o l a r , b u t a s a s o c i o p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t who a c t u a l l y changed the i d e a s and l i f e s t y l e
o f Hausaland.
CONCLUSION

The Shehu was u n i q u e l y e q u i p p e d t o b r i n g a b o u t p r o f o u n d

c h a n g e i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Sudan. H i s e d u c a t i o n was
c l a s s i c a l , on t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l of the Timbuktu t r a d i t i o n . H i s
a p p r o a c h had mass a p p e a l , i n t h a t h e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e p e o p l e
o u t s i d e t h e Habe c o u r t s and began t o demand s e r i o u s c h a n g e s i n
t h e i r s o c i a l , economic, and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t

t o remember t h a t h i s main t h r u s t i n t h e f o r m a t i v e y e a r s o f 1 7 7 4 1 8 0 4 C.E. was t o e s t a b l i s h t h e basis o f a u t h e n t i c I s l a m i c

e d u c a t i o n , t o c o r r e c t t h e e x t r e m i s t e l e m e n t s among t h e s c h o l a r s ,
a n d t o d e s t r o y t h e un-Islamic customs o f t h e whole s o c i e t y . T h i s
a p p r o a c h b r o u g h t a b o u t an adverse r e a c t i o n from t h o s e i n
a u t h o r i t y . The Shehu was p r e p a r e d t o undergo t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
h i s a c t i o n s . The f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r h i s
eventual hiira,

jihad,

and f o r m a t i o n o f a v a s t I s l a m i c s t a t e . The

e f f e c t s o f h i s message w i l l be b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d t h r o u g h an i n
d e p t h a n a l y s i s o f h i s e a r l y t e a c h i n g s . T h e hundreds o f books and

poems produced b y t h e Shehu and t h e s c h o l a r s of the S o k o t o

Caliphate and preserved u n t i l now are a testimony to their

p o p u l a r i t y and i m p o r t a n c e . They produced an i n t e l l e c t u a l

r e v o l u t i o n t h a t r a d i c a l l y changed t h e ideas and customs of
Hausaland t o such a n e x t e n t t h a t w r i t i n g s c i r c u l a t e d in t h e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a r e s t i l l being read, a n a l y z e d a n d a p p l i e d t o
Hausa s o c i e t y t o d a y .

PART TWO:

ANALYSIS

THE SHEHU'S

C O W N T ON SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS IN HAUSALAND

On R e v i v i n s t h e Sunna and D e s t r o y i n s I n n o v a t i o n s

O f t h e many books and poems,

p r o d u c e d by t h e Shehu du-ing

t h e f i r s t t h i r t y y e a r p e r i o d o f h i s teaching and p r e a c h i n g career

(1774-1804 C.E.),

I h v a al-Sunna was t h e f i r s t major work i n

A r a b i c . I t a p p e a r s t o have been w r i t t e n a t a c r u c i a l t i m e after

Shehu had r e t u r n e d from h i s t o u r s a n d s e t t l e d i n ~ e g e l . ~The
~'
m i s s i o n a r i e s who were l e f t i n t h e c i t i e s where t h e Shehu h a d
t a u g h t were i n need o f a work t h a t would r e f r e s h t h e i r memories
a b o u t what he had p r e a c h e d . I h v a al-Sunna p r o v i d e d a t e x t b o o k
summary o f key a r e a s o f I s l a m i c l i f e t h a t c o n t a i n e d t h e e s s e n c e
o f Shehu's m i s s i o n and needed t o b e e m p h a s i z e d . I t w a s s o v i t a l
t h a t c h a p t e r s from i t were l a t e r made i n t o s e p a r a t e works t o

stress t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e . For i n s t a n c e , t h e Shehu wrote W a t h i q a t

a n d Sawq al-Umma
224 I

Balogun,

L i f e and Works,

c o n f i r m and f u r t h e r
49;

idem, C r i t i c a l E d i t i o n of

Ihva, 36.

2 2 5 ~t~
i t1
l e1: Wathicrat al-Ikhwdn li t a b v i n d a l I l a t wujUb
i t t i b a ' a1 Kitab w a al-Sunna w a al-1ima' w a d a l i l i i t i n a b a l ~ i d ' aliman v u d a v i n bi d i n a l - I s l a m w a a l - d a l i l ' a l a w u i l l b
i t t i b a ' a l - k i t a b (The E x p o s i t i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e s which o b l i g e
f o l l o w i n g t h e Kitab (A1 Quran), t h e Sunna, and t h e 1jma4 (the
unanimous c o n s e n s u s o f t h e s c h o l a r s o f I s l a m ) a s w e l l as t h e
e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a v o i d a n c e of i n n o v a t i o n f o r h e who f o l l o w s t h e
r e l i g i o n o f I s l a m , a n d t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f f o l l o w i n g t h e Book);

e x p l a i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e

P r o p h e t Muhammad as t h e b a s i s f o r I s l a m i c l i f e s t y l e . H e a l s o
w r o t e Bavan a l - ~ i d ' a a l - S h a v t a n i v v a

227

during t h i s period t o

f u r t h e r e x p o s e a n d v i l l i f y t h e l o c a l c u s t o m s and p r a c t i c e s t h a t

were c o n t r a r y t o I s l a m . Another work of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e w a s

K i t a b N U r ul-Albab

"' which

a d d r e s s e d t h e problems of a b r o a d

c r o s s s e c t i o n o f s o c i e t y and r e s p o n d e d t o a v a r i e t y o f q u e s t i o n s .
T h e Shehu a l s o p r o d u c e d p o e t r y i n t h e l o c a l l a n g u a g e s t o e x p l a i n

t h e s e works t o t h e masses of t h e p e o p l e a n d was v e r y c a r e f u l t o

c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e h i s t h o u g h t s o r a l l y a n d i n p u b l i c . Muhammad
B e l l o d e s c r i b e d h i s p r e a c h i n g method a s f o l l o w s :
When h e ( t h e Shehu) r e a c h e d a m e e t i n g of p e o p l e , h e would
greet t h e a u d i e n c e i n a l o u d v o i c e which a l l c o u l d h e a r .
On c l i m b i n g t h e p u l p i t , he would g r e e t them a g a i n t h r e e
times, p o l i t e l y , and g r a c e f u l l y . Then, h e would a s k them
t o l i s t e n , a n d would n e v e r g e t a n g r y o r bored, t h o u g h h e
was b u r d e n e d w i t h a group o f ill mannered common p e o p l e who
d i d n o t l i s t e n when h e a s k e d them t o , and d i d n o t s t o p
B a s h i r Muhammad, E d i t i n s , Commentary, and T r a n s l a t i o n o f :
W a t h i s a t al-Ikhwan li-TabvIn D a l i l a t Wuitib I t t i b a ' a l - K i t a b w a
as-Sunna wa a l - 1 i m a 4 , (M.A. d i s s . , B a y e r o U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 8 8 ) .
2 2 6 ~ u tl il t l e : Sawq al-Umma ila i t t i b a ' al-Sunna ( M o b i l i z i n g
the I s l a m i c N a t i o n t o f o l l o w t h e S u n n a ) ; Kamaldeen Abdul Azeez
Balogun, A C r i t i c a l e d i t i o n of ' ~ t h m a nb . Ftidi's Saws al-Umma ila
1 t t i b a 4 al-Sunna,
(M.A. diss., U n i v e r s i t y o f Ibadan, 1 9 8 2 ) .
2 2 7 ~t ~
i t1
l e1: Bavan al- id' a a l - S h a v t a n i v v a a l l a t z a h d a t h a h a
a l - n a s fi abwab a l - M i l l a al-Muhammadiwa (Exposing t h e S a t a n i c
i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t t h e p e o p l e have p e r p e t r a t e d i n the domains o f
t h e community o f Muhammad).

2 2 8 ~ h iwork,
s
a l t h o u g h n o t d a t e d , a p p e a r s t o have b e e n
w r i t t e n i n t h e p e r i o d b e f o r e 1 8 0 4 C . E . T h e beginning i n c l u d e s a
p r e - j i h a d i c p h r a s e : " ( T h i s book) . . . i s u s e f u l , i f A l l a h w i l l s ,
f o r t h o s e who r e l y on i t . I have l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n i n it for
t h e r u l e o f t h e H a u s a l a n d . " A l s o , j i h a d i s n o t mentioned
anywhere i n t h e book.

t a l k i n g when h e a s k e d them t o desist. Then he would give h i s

t a l k i n a l o u d , a u d i b l e v o i c e , n e v e r d i r e c t i n g h i s speech t o
o n e p e r s o n a p a r t from t h e o t h e r s . H e w a s n e v e r f r i g h t e n e d by
h i s a u d i e n c e e v e n t h o u g h it may c o n t a i n some famous s h a y k h s
o r r i v a l s c h o l a r s . H e would preach t o t h e whole c o n g r e g a t i o n
i n a r e a s that would b e n e f i t them r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e s . And i f a q u e s t i o n was asked i n the c o u r s e o f
h i s t a l k , he would stop and answer it."'
From t h e o u t s e t , t h e Shehu i n h i s w r i t i n g o f Ihva al-Sunna

made h i s i n t e n t i o n s v e r y c l e a r :
L e t t h e c r i t i c o f t h i s book know t h a t my i n t e n t i o n i n it
i s t h e r e v i v a l o f t h e Sunna o f Muhammad a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
of Satanic innovation
My i n t e n t i o n i s n e i t h e r t o b r i n g

...

shame upon t h e people n o r t o e n g a g e i n f i n d i n g f a u l t s w i t h

them.
The Shehu went t o g r e a t l e n g t h s i n h i s w r i t i n g s t o prove
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f f o l l o w i n g t h e Q u r a n , the Sunna, a n d t h e

~ i r n a ' ' ~a' s a basis f o r a l l d e c i s i o n s .

H e d e f i n e d the l i n g u i s t i c

meaning o f Sunna a s " t h e way, customs, o r p r a c t i c e s t 1 . I n h i s

Islamic u s a g e , it meant "That which was p r o m u l g a t e d n o t t h r o u g h
t h e Quran, b u t by t h e P r o p h e t , h i m s e l f ,

s a y i n g s , and s i l e n t approval. "

232

from h i s a c t i o n s ,

T h e r e f o r e , t h e Sunna, i n t h i s

s e n s e , was t h e ideal p r a c t i c e t h a t a Muslim c o u l d decide t o

f o l l o w i n a l l aspects o f l i f e . I f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad w a s t h e
best example f o r Muslims, t h e n c h o o s i n g h i s p a t h would be t h e

22g~uhammad
Bello, I n f a o a 1 Maisur, 6 7 .
2 3 0 ~ h e h u% t h a n ibn FCidi, Ihva al-Sunna w a Ikhmad al-~ida',
( B e i r u t : Dar u l - F i k r , T h i r d E d i t i o n , l98l), 5.
' 3 1 ~ u oi tn g from A 1 S u y a t i i n h i s work, A 1 Niqavah, the Shehu i n
1 2 , d e f i n e d the 1imaA a s "The a g r e e m e n t o f t h e
J u r i s t s o f any p e r i o d on t h e r u l i n g f o r a new occurrence i n any
t i m e periodett

I h v a al-Sunna,

232

'Uthman i b n F u d i , I h v a al-Sunna,
98

11.

most desirable action and choosing another would be the most

detested.
The Shehu, then, distinguished the Sunna from ~ i d a

(innovation in religion) with the following quote from Shaykh

Zarrouq

233

in his work

(The

Support of the True Seeker) :

T h e reality of ~id'a, according to the law, is that it is
an innovation in the Islamic way of life that appears to be
part of it but it is not; whether this be theoretical or
actual. This is based on the saying of the Messenger of
Allah,
All innovations are id' a, and all ~id'a
will take you astray." 2 3 4

Then the Shehu added,

T h e scholars have clarified the meaning in the above
mentioned Hadith. It refers to the changing of an
Islamic judgement with t h e belief that it will gain
the pleasure of Allah, but it actually does not. It
does not refer to any innovation, especially if the
Law of Islam encompasses it.235

To further clarify the concept of ~id'a, he divided it

into five sections :
Waiib (compulsory) by 1ima4: As in the case of the writing
and preservation of the Quran and the Sharia when it

was feared that they would be lost.

Muharram (prohibited) by ~ima': As in the case of illegal
taxes or putting ignorant people in positions of authority
in front of scholars because they (the ignorant) are the
descendants of the one who held the position.
Mandtib (recommended): As in the case of the establishment

'"AQmad b. m a d b. Muhammad b. ' 1 s a b. Zarrouq A1 Fasi

(846-899 A.H./1442-3-1493-4 C.E.). He was a follower of the
Shadhiliya Tariqa of tasawwuf whose students later formed a
Tariaa after him, named Zarrouqiya.

n i g h t p r a y e r s i n t h e month o f Ramadan (Tarawih S a l a h ) .

Makroh ( u n d e s i r a b l e ) : A s i n t h e case o f s p e c i f y i n g
p a r t i c u l a r days f o r r e l i g i o u s h o l i d a y s by p e r f o r m i n g
s p e c i a l types of worship a t t h a t t i m e .
Mubah ( p e r m i s s i b l e ) : A s i n t h e c a s e o f h a v i n g b e a u t i f u l

c l o t h i n g o r homes. 236
H e c o n c l u d e d t h i s d i s c u s s i o n by s t r e s s i n g t h a t o n l y t h e

p r o h i b i t e d and u n d e s i r a b l e forms o f ~ i d ' a s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d

237

and t h a t a l l Muslims, male o r female, s h o u l d t a k e s e r i o u s l y w h a t

he h a d b r o u g h t f o r w a r d . H e w r o t e :
I f you have become c e r t a i n f r o m w h a t I have s a i d o f t h e
o b l i g a t i o n o f f o l l o w i n g t h e K i t a b , t h e Sunna, a n d t h e 1irna'
t h e n l e t t h e weight o f your deeds conform w i t h them. F o r
e v e r y r e l i g i o u s d u t y you i n t e n d t o perform, a s k t h o s e who
know whether it i s Sunna, s o t h a t you may c a r r y it o u t , o r
~ i d ' as o t h a t you may l e a v e it a l o n e . 2 3 8

T h e r e f o r e , I h v a al-Sunna and the works t h a t were p r o d u c e d

f r o m i t s h o u l d n o t be v i e w e d a s m e r e l y t e x t b o o k s o f I s l a m i c
t h e o l o g y o r law, b u t t h e S h e h u r s p r a c t i c a l g u i d e t o e s t a b l i s h i n g

Islamic l i f e s t y l e a n d d e s t r o y i n g t h e c u s t o m s c o n t r a r y t o t h e
I s l a m i c way. They r e p r e s e n t t h e s o c i a l commentary o f a n Islamic
s c h o l a r who saw s o c i e t y through the e y e s o f h i s s c h o l a s t i c
t r a i n i n g and o r i e n t a t i o n .
Shehu q u o t e d c o p i o u s l y from many c l a s s i c a l s c h o l a r s o f
I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n s on Sunna a n d ~ i d ' a . H i s
g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e seemed t o have come from Shaykh Muhammad ibn

2 3 6 ~ b i d .18-20;
,

I . Balogun, C r i t i c a l E d i t i o n o f I h v a ,

2 3 7 ' ~ t h m t i ni b n Ftidi, Ihva al-Sunna,

21, 22.

84, 8 5 .

al-Ha j j a l - ' ~ b d a r i ( d . 1336-7 c .e. ) who w r o t e a l - ~ a d k h a l ' ~ 'for

h i s f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y N o r t h African community.

I n some p l a c e s ,

Shehu c l e a r l y q u o t e d f r o m t h i s t e x t , b u t i n o t h e r s h e put the

i d e a s o f I b n al-Haj j i n h i s own w o r d s , T h i s method, a t f i r s t
g l a n c e , may a p p e a r t o be t h e work o f a ' p r o l i f i c c o p i e r ' ,

but i n

t h e c o n t e x t o f the S h e h u ' s development, i t w a s a logical

s t r a t e g y . The Shehu w a s a young s c h o l a r f a c e d w i t h t r e m e n d o u s
c r i t i c i s m from a weli e s t a b l i s h e d , c o n s e r v a t i v e g r o u p o f l e a r n e d

men. B y b a s i n g h i s a r g u m e n t s and f o c u s on the 1ima4 and t h e

p r e c e d e n t s set by w e l l known Islamic a u t h o r i t i e s , t h e Shehu was
p r o t e c t i n g h i m s e l f f r o m h i s o p p o s i t i o n . I n the c l a s s i c a l s c i e n c e s
o f e x e g e s i s ( t a f s i r ) a n d f i q h (Islamic j u r i s p r u d e n c e )

t h e most

a u t h e n t i c works were a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h o s e which l e a n e d

most h e a v i l y on p r o o f s from t h e Q u r a n , t h e h a d l t h , t h e s a y i n g s of
t h e companions o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad, a n d t h e l e a d i n g s c h o l a r s

of t h e s u c c e e d i n g g e n e r a t i o n s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , t h e Shehu would e n d most o f h i s

s e c t i o n s by i n t r o d u c i n g h i s own d i r e c t v i e w s , s a y i n g " Q u l t u " ( I
say). These s t a t e m e n t s would c o n f i r m t h e c o n c e p t s of t h e
p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d s c h o l a r s and e m p h a s i z e f o r t h e r e a d e r t h e
Shehufs d i r e c t contribution t o t h e subject

.240

239~uhammadi b n Muhammad i b n al-Ha j j, a l - ' ~ b d a r i ( d . 1336-7

c . e . ) , al-Madkhal, ( E g y p t : S h a r i k a Maktaba w a ~ a f b a a' M u s t a f a alBabi al-Halabi, 1960) .
2 4 0 ~rne v i e w i n g t h i s s e c t i o n i n the l i g h t o f al-Madkhal o f I b n
a l - H a j j , t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r found t h a t t h e Shehu d i d n o t c o p y t h e
sections v e r b a t i m b u t u s e d o n l y a few s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s o f I b n alH a j j ' s e x t e n s i v e work. T h e r e f o r e , t h e S h e h u ' s o r i g i n a l i t y was i n
c h o o s i n g t h e s p e c i f i c p r e c e d e n t s s e t by e a r l i e r s c h o l a r s a n d

The format in this period, therefore, was very academic and

sometimes repetitive, but its importance lies in the content.
which delved into the most intimate affairs of the lives of the
1slamic community of Hausaland.
In Personal ~ y g i e n e

In the fifth chapter of Ihva al-Sunna, the Shehu began his

exposition on practical Islamic jurisprudence (fish) by delving
into one of the most sensitive areas: personal cleanliness and
the practices of relieving nature. He stated that the basis of
relieving nature should be to follow the way of the Prophet
Muhammad by doing the following:
Do not face the direction of Makkah nor put one's back
towards it - '"
Say the appropriate prayers said by the Prophet at this
time .'42
applying them to his own community.
'"~hehu was orienting his followers to a fundamental concept
of Islamic lifestyle. The demand that a Muslim be constantly
"Makkah-centric".This meant that all Masjids and places with
prayer areas should be built facing Makkah, so that the prayers
could be performed facing the Qibla (direction of Makkah). Even
toilets should not be constructed facing Makkah, in order to not
insult the direction of prayer by facing it in relieving nature.
This type of directional consciousness was intended to strengthen
the international unity around the centre of prayer and help the
believer to constantly remember his Creator.
"'~mong the Sunna prayers, mentioned by Shehu. to say on
entering the toilet area are: " 0 Allah, I seek refuge in you from
the evil of male and female Jinn". Muslims believed that the Jinn
inhabited the toilet areas, so spiritual protection was needed
before entering that area. Another prayer said on finishing was
the following: "All praises to Allah who made this food in a good
form and brought it out of me in its bad form." In another
version the prayer read: "All praises to Allah who has provided
me with the tasty part (of the food), brought out of me the
coarse part of it, and kept in my body the nutrients from it."

Do n o t l i f t up y o u r c l o t h i n g u n t i l you n e a r t h e ground,
u n l e s s t h e r e i s nobody p r e s e n t .
C l e a n y o u r p r i v a t e p a r t s a f t e r r e l i e v i n g your n a t u r e w i t h
e i t h e r water o r a smooth s t o n e . I t i s p r e f e r a b l e , however,
t o use both.243
Never use t h e r i g h t hand t o t o u c h o r clean your p r i v a t e
p a r t s . 244
The Shehu, t h e n went on t o e x p l a i n t h a t n o t c l e a n i n g
o n e s e l f p r o p e r l y c o u l d lead t o p u n i s h m e n t i n t h e h e r e a f t e r , s i n c e
t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad w a s g i v e n a v i s i o n o f a p e r s o n b e i n g
punished i n h i s g r a v e f o r n o t c l e a n i n g himself p r o p e r l y a f t e r
u s i n g the t o i l e t . H e a l s o h i g h l i g h t e d t h a t e v i l i n n o v a t i o n s had
c r e p t i n t o t h e p r a c t i c e s o f t h e Muslim w o r l d . H e t h e n w r o t e :
Concerning what t h e p e o p l e h a v e i n n o v a t e d i n t h e s p h e r e of
( I b i d . , 47, 4 8 )

2 4 3 ' ~ t h r n a ni b n F t i d i , I h v a a l - S u n n a , 47,8; al-Madkhal, I , 269 . The c o n c e p t o f u s i n g t h e s t o n e a n d t h e water d a t e d back t o the

P r o p h e t Muhammad, h i m s e l f , who p r a i s e d t h e p e o p l e o f Quba i n a l Madinah al-Munawwarah f o r u s i n g b o t h a f t e r a n s w e r i n g t h e c a l l t o
n a t u r e . The s t o n e a c t e d a s t o i l e t p a p e r d o e s t o d a y a n d t h e water
gave an e x t r a c l e a n i n g of t h e unclean m a t e r i a l s . A r e c e n t s t u d y
done i n S r i n a g a r a n d D e l h i showed t h a t Muslim women who washed
r e g u l a r l y a f t e r u s i n g t h e t o i l e t had no cases o f c e r v i c a l c a n c e r ,
a s opposed t o t h o s e who d i d n o t . F o r t y p e r c e n t of c a n c e r cases i n
I n d i a are c e r v i c a l , m a i n l y c a u s e d b y
r h y g i e n e . The s t u d y
a p p e a r e d i n The T i m e s o f I n d i a ( J u n e
1 9 9 4 ) an d was d i s c u s sed
i n ( C r e s c e n t I n t e r n a t i o n a l (Markham, Ont a r i 0 ) v o l . 23, n o . 1 2 f
S e p t . 1-15, 1994, 7 . Shehu was b r i n g i n g t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f
I s l a m i c hygiene t o h i s people.
2 4 ' ~ . ~ . Balogun,
~ .
Saws al-Urnma, 1 1 0 . Shehuf s e m p h a s i s on t h e
u s e o f the r i g h t h a n d f o r c l e a n a c t i v i t i e s i s a l s o p a r t o f t h e
t r a i n i n g of t h e Sunna. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e P r o p h e t
Muhammad, t h e r i g h t hand s h o u l d b e used t o e a t , s h a k e hands, o r
c a r r y o u t any c e r e m o n i a l l y p u r e a c t i v i t y . T h e l e f t hand s h o u l d be
used f o r c l e a n i n g f i l t h o r i n v o l v i n g i n a n y c e r e m o n i a l l y u n c l e a n
a c t i v i t y . T h i s t y p e of o r i e n t a t i o n would a l s o p r e p a r e t h e p e o p l e
o f Hausaland t o be i n c o n t a c t w i t h Muslims from t h e h e a r t l a n d o f
I s l a m who were a l s o o r i e n t e d t o f u n c t i o n w i t h t h i s type o f
discipline.

relieving nature is the following:

The person relieving his nature is often totally naked and
is seen by other people. This is a prohibited innovation
by the consensus of the scholars ...
Moving one's bowels in the churches, synagogues, and
houses of worship of the non-Muslims. This is a
prohibited innovation as it leads to their doing the same
action in our Masjids.,.
To pull hard on one's penis is a prohibited
innovation for it is harmful to the body and the penis is
like a teat in that it gives off liquid if it is pulled.
This leads to uncleanliness and loosens up the urinary
passage.245
To come out among other people to clean oneself
while holding the penis in hand under the clothing
is an undesirable innovation 2 4 6 . . . I fthe person has a
dire necessity to meet other people immediately, he
should put a piece of cloth on his private parts and then
come out. After he has totally relieved himself, he should
clean himself properly.
To exceed the limits in cleaning oneself after
relieving nature by cleaning the inside of the anus with
the fingers. This is an undesirable innovation and the
actions of the worst of people.247
Concerning the acts of ceremonial purification, WudG,

24S~rine
is considered to be one of the ceremonially unclean
substances which has to be removed from clothing or the place of
prayer before engaging in worship.
246Wndesirable,' in this translation, refers to the Arabic
word Makrtih which in Islamic law is the action a little better than
Haram which is being translated as \prohibitedr.The difference
between the two levels in Islamic law is that the doer of Haram
will be punished for his action in the next life unless he makes
repentance.
247~bid.,
49, 50; '~thmanibn Fadi, Bavan al-~id'a alShavtanivva allati ahdathaha al-Nds fi abwab al-Milla alMuhammadivva, K. 82/52, University Library, Ibadan, Nigeria, l, 2,
Also found in Ibn al-Hajj, al-Madkhal, 11, 29, 30.

Ghusl, and Tavammum

the Shehu stressed that they should be

done in accordance to the Sunna without adding or subtracting

from the original practices of Islam. He noted that among the
evil innovations that had entered Hausaland in the performance of
ablution was the following:
Pouring too much water over the parts of the body is a
prohibited innovation by the consensus of the scholars.
Especially those who consider it to be a higher form of
religion."'

The sound of spitting out water when washing the mouth is

an undesirable innovation.
Following evil prompting (whisperings) that may come
from the devil in order to comfort onefs self. Especially,
if the person thinks that following the prompting is a
higher form of religion.
Exceeding the limits in wiping the ears is an undesirable

(basically) means the minor ceremonial ablution done

248~~dti
before praying or circumambulating the ~a'ba in Mecca. It
includes rinsing the mouth and nose; washing the face, hands,
arms, and feet; and wiping the head. It is preferable for a
Muslim to be in a state of Wuda all of the time. Ghusl
(basically) is the major ceremonial washing done on entering
Islam, after sexual intercourse or after nocturnal sexual
emission. It includes washing the unclean areas, making WudG, and
putting water over the entire body. Tayammurn is the symbolic
performance of WudU or Ghusl done in the absence of water
performed by tapping the earth, a stone, wood, etc. and wiping
the face and arms.
2 4 g ~ hobvious
e
wisdom in conserving water in a desert climate
is that water is the essence of a clean, healthy society. If the
religion is being used to waste the water, a real problem could
develop. Shehu made it clear that washing more than three times
is a waste and should be avoided completely. Ihvd al-Sunna, 54,
Ec

J J .

2So~hehu
was trying to bring total concentration to his
followers in their performance of prayer by advising them to
avoid listening to any voices or evil prompting that may occur
while making prayer.

innovation because wiping itself is a reduction.25'

This intimate critique of society, taken from the Quran,

the Hadith and the sayings of the classical scholars of the
Muslim world, shows that the Shehu focussed on areas that would
bring about more than an intellectual change in the minds of the
people. He wanted to alter their social behaviour. He emphasized
cleanliness, and modesty as the basis of personal care and
interpersonal relations. This emphasis was in direct line with
the Sunna which commanded Muslims to cover their private parts
and most of their bodies, and to avoid looking at the nakedness
of any person, dead or alive. Islam was in total opposition to
sexual relations before marriage, so the Shehu stressed outward
modesty as a type of protection. The concept of ceremonial purity
and impurity (Tahara wa Naiasa) is also highly visible in Islamic
jurisprudence. The Shehu's keen accentuation on the awareness of
what is clean and how to stay away from what is unclean was an
Islamic jurist's way of preparing his people to carry out their
religious duties properly. Worship in Islam requires the proper
intention and ceremonial purity. It was also a method of raising
their standard of living, as most of the materials considered to
be ceremonially impure were, in fact, hygienically impure and

251~bid.,
5 6 ' 57. Shehu reminded his followers that too much
pressure in wiping the ears could even cause bleeding to occur
and damage the person's hearing. This, of course, defeats the
whole purpose of prayer which is supposed to be a means of
lightening the person's earthly burdens. This discussion can also
be found in '~mdatal-Murid al-Sadiq.

causes of disease.

The Shehufs advice to have tolerance with non-Muslims,

especially in regards to their houses of worship, was probably a
very wise strategy in a land filled with Iskoki worship and
powerful cult leaders. It also shows his early approach in the
formative stage of his message. He was not in a position to
change the practices of unbelief with his hands, so he chose a
path of moderation and apparent acceptance.
In Menstruation and C h i l d b i r t h

In approaching the area of menstruation and childbirth, the

Shehu highlighted the general guidelines of the Sunna. He
followed this with a commentary on some of the bad practices
plaguing women in Hausaland. This is an area that did not have
much detailed commentary from the sources of Sharia. It left a
lot of room for the customary habits of the people as long as
they did not clash with the spirit of Islamic law. The Shehu
wrote :
Women and their husbands should make a great effort to
follow the Sunna in this sphere.
Women should leave prayer and fasting during the time of
menstruation. This does not include extra feminine
excretions that may occur in some women...252
It is lawful to sleep together in the same bed with a

252~slamic
Sharia makes a distinction between menstruation
(Havd) which is the normal monthly courses and feminine
excretions (Istahdda) which is described as the liquid that
sometimes, flows from the woman (usually as a sign of sickness)
after the normal Havd has been completed. Each woman is supposed
to count her normal menstrual periods to arrive at an average
monthly period. The amount of days may vary from person to
person.

m e n s t r u a t i n g woman as l o n g as she wears a l o i n c l o t h o r

gown.
Sexual i n t e r c o u r s e o f any k i n d i s n o t p e r m i t t e d , b u t
sexual intimacy i s a l l o w a b l e i n t h e a r e a above t h e
l o i n c l o t h of t h e woman.
When t h e m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d i s complete, t h e woman s h o u l d
c l e a n h e r s e l f w i t h c o t t o n dipped i n t o Musk f r a g r a n c e o r
any o t h e r a v a i l a b l e s w e e t s m e l l i n g f r a g r a n c e ...
The r u l e s f o r t h e p e r i o d o f a f t e r b i r t h a r e b a s i c a l l y t h e
same.
Concerning husbands: I t is p r o h i b i t e d t o d i v o r c e a woman
d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . 253
Regarding some o f t h e e v i l i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h i s area t h e
Shehu wrote:
There are some women who f a s t d u r i n g t h e i r menstrual p e r i o d s .
T h i s i s a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e consensus o f
t h e s c h o l a r s . I n al-Madkhal 254, it s t a t e s : There are
women who f a s t d u r i n g t h e i r menstrual p e r i o d s and make it up
a g a i n , a f t e r w a r d s . T h e d o e r of t h i s a c t i s a s i n n e r ...There
a r e t h o s e who do n o t f a s t d u r i n g t h e i r p e r i o d s b u t s t a r v e
themselves. They b r e a k t h e i r fast w i t h o n l y a d a t e o r
something l i k e it, t h i n k i n g t h e y are g e t t i n g reward from
A l l a h . Both a c t i o n s are i n n o v a t i o n s . The woman i s s i n n i n g i n
h e r r e l i g i o n by d o i n g i t . H e r c o n d i t i o n i n Ramadan i n
menstruation i s t h e same as i n any o t h e r month.
P r a y e r d u r i n g m e n s t r u a t i o n i s also a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n
by t h e consensus of t h e s c h o l a r s , j u s t as f a s t i n g .
Leaving pray d u r i n g t h e t i m e of female e x c r e t i o n s ( I s t a h a d a )
i s t h e same. . 255

P u t t i n g t h e hand i n s i d e t h e p r i v a t e p a r t s i n o r d e r t o
clean them a f t e r m e n s t r u a t i o n i s a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n .

' " ~ n t h e case o f I s t a h a d a , t h e Muslim woman i s supposed t o

c l e a n h e r s e l f b e f o r e p r a y e r and perform i t . If l i q u i d i s flowing,
s h e i s supposed t o put c o t t o n o r c l o t h i n t h e a r e a and complete
h e r prayers.

I t i s h a r m f u l t o t h e woman and h e r husband, i n t h a t t h e

w a t e r that reaches t h e i n s i d e o f t h e vaginal area w i t h
t h e f i n g e r s makes it loose, c o l d , a n d t o o w i d e . T h e
Sunna i s t h a t she s h o u l d c l e a n h e r s e l f l i k e a v i r g i n
and no more. .

Also, some women s t a y inactive f o r f o r t y days a f t e r c h i l d b i r t h , even t h o u g h there b l o o d has s t o p p e d f l o w i n g . T h i s

i s a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n . .256.

The S h e h u r s o b s e r v a t i o n again d i s p l a y s an u n u s u a l c o n c e r n
f o r t h e p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o u r and w e l l b e i n g o f h i s p e o p l e . I t a l s o
a l l u d e s t o t h e fact t h a t h e must have h a d d i a l o g u e w i t h women on
t h i s i s s u e ; e i t h e r t h r o u g h h i s own m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s o r the
i n t e r a c t i o n he h a d w i t h o t h e r women d u r i n g h i s p r e a c h i n g t o u r s .
The Shehu t o o k t h e p o s i t i o n o f I s l a m i c S h a r i a which d i d n o t l o o k
upon female e x c r e t i o n s o r m e n s t r u a t i o n as a t o t a l i m p u r i t y . I n
some r e l i g i o n s , m e n s t r u a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d a serious i m p u r i t y and
women must l e a v e t h e i r homes d u r i n g t h e i r m o n t h l y c o u r s e s . O t h e r
s o c i e t i e s , o v e r l o o k e d m e n s t r u a t i o n and e v e n a l l o w e d s e x u a l
i n t e r c o u r s e . The Shehu t o o k t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t the monthly c o u r s e s
p r e v e n t e d women f r o m i n v o l v i n g i n f o r m a l w o r s h i p o r s e x u a l
i n t e r c o u r s e , b u t d i d n o t e x c l u d e them from n o r m a l a c t i v i t i e s .
T h i s t y p e o f d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s about a s u b j e c t t h a t appeared t o

be t o t a l l y l e f t o u t o f d a i l y o r academic d i s c u s s i o n i n H a u s a l a n d ,
must have g i v e n a b r o a d e r s c o p e t o t h e r e l e v a n c e a n d a p p e a l o f
t h e Shehuf s t e a c h i n g s .
In Circumcision and F e m a l e In fibulation

The p r a c t i c e o f female i n f i b u l a t i o n was known t o have b e e n

2 5 6 ~ h v al-Sunna,
a
Madkhal .

64-66.

These quotes w e r e n o t f o u n d i n al-

practised in Africa, especially along the Nile river before the

spread of Islam out of the Arabian Peninsula in approximately 619

C.E. Islam re-established circumcision as the Sunna of the

Prophet Muhammad, but Muslims living along the Nile incorporated
female infibulation into their religious practices as though it
was an important or necessary part of Islam, By the nineteenth
century in Hausaland, female infibulation must have been known to
the Muslims, as the centuries old trade routes linking Egypt,

Sudan, and Ethiopia, to the Western Sudan were strengthened by

the yearly Pilgrimage to Mecca. Scholars and merchants were
constantly importing new goods and ideas from the ~ a s t . ~ ' ~

The Shehu, in Ihva al-Sunna, gave an in depth analysis of

circumcision and its position in Islam and in Hausaland. He began
by establishing that it was an established part of the Sunna of
Muhammad. The Sunna also included trimming the hair under the
armpits, above the private parts, and on the mustache, as well as
combing, dyeing and grooming the hair on the head, and growing
the beard. The Shehu emphasized that cutting the hair and leaving
only a tuft, wearing wigs, wearing tattoos, widening the gap in
the front teeth, and plucking the eyebrows were not part of the
Sunna and should be strictly avoided.258
Umar Al-Naq%r, The Pilsrimaqe Tradition in West Africa,
(Khartoum: Khartoum University Press, 1972) .
257 4

258'~thman
ibn FUdi, Ihva al-Sunna, 2 1 7 . It is interesting
that Shehu extended the section on circumcision to include the
Sunna of the personal appearance. He was trying to give the
limits of how a Muslim man or woman should groom themselves and
appear in public. Tattoos, scarification, and widening the gap in
the teeth were practices that had existed in Hausaland and much

The Shehu e x p l a i n e d t h a t c i r c u m c i s i o n f o r b o y s s h o u l d be
c o m p l e t e d between t h e a g e s e v e n a n d t e n , and t h a t it w a s a s t r o n g
Sunna p r a c t i c e f o r men a n d a l l o w a b l e f o r women.

259

His

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e a c t u a l circumcision i s a s follows:
F o r men, it is t h e c u t t i n g o f t h e f o r e s k i n ... a n d f o r women
i t i s t h e c u t t i n g of t h e c l o s e s t p a r t o f t h e s k i n ( c l i t o r i s )
which i s on t o p o f t h e v a g i n a . T h i s s h o u l d n o t be a b u s e d f o r
t h e r e i s a h a d i t h a b o u t Om ' ~ t i y y awhere t h e P r o p h e t said,
"Take o n l y s l i g h t l y a n d do n o t go t o e x t r e m e s f o r it i s
b e t t e r f o r t h e c o u n t e n a n c e ( o r f a c e ) o f t h e woman a n d t h e
r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e h u s b a n d . " I n o t h e r words, d o n o t e x c e e d
the l i m i t s a s it i s b e t t e r f o r her p e r s o n a l i t y a n d t h e i r
s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s which w i l l be more p l e a s u r a b l e d u r i n g
i n t e r c o u r s e . T h e c l i t o r i s expands with t h e p e n i s
a t the t i m e o f e x c i t e m e n t a n d t h i s i n c r e a s e s s e x u a l desire
and f u l f i l m e n t . If t h e r e i s no c l i t o r i s , t h e o p p o s i t e w i l l
happen. 2 6 0
T h e Shehufs c l e a r ,

s i m p l e , y e t deep d i s c u s s i o n of t h e

l i m i t s o f c i r c u m c i s i o n i n t h e Sunna h a s f a r r e a c h i n g
i m p l i c a t i o n s . Female i n f i b u l a t i o n a n d g e n i t a l m u t i l a t i o n have
c a u s e d c o u n t l e s s h y g i e n i c , s o c i a l , a n d m a r i t a l p r o b l e m s f o r women
o f t h e W e s t e r n and E a s t e r n Sudan f o r c e n t u r i e s . Shehu, i n
a c c o r d a n c e t o t h e Sunna, c o n s i d e r e d t h e s e a c t i o n s t o be c h a n g i n g
t h e c r e a t i o n o f A l l a h a n d a c t i o n s o f t h e D e v i l . P r o h i b i t i n g wigs
o r h a i r e x t e n s i o n s was a l s o a v e r y p r i v a t e m a t t e r , b u t n o t f o r
Shehu who wanted t o i n f o r m h i s p e o p l e o f e v e r y I s l a m i c o r d i n a n c e .
I f Islamic t e a c h i n g s c o u l d a f f e c t e v e n t h e most i n t i m a t e ,
p e r s o n a l p r a c t i c e s o f the p e o p l e , Shehu would b e c o n s t r u c t i n g a
s t r o n g f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e Muslim p e r s o n a l i t y which c o u l d , t h e n ,
be p r e p a r e d t o make t h e o u t w a r d , e x t e r n a l c h a n g e s i n s o c i e t y .

2 5 9 ~ hpeo s i t i o n o f t h e M a l i k i a n d Hanifi s c h o o l i s t h a t
c i r c u m c i s i o n i s a Sunna p r a c t i c e for men and o n l y o p t i o n a l f o r
women. The ~ h a f i ' is c h o o l placed more emphasis on women, s a y i n g
t h a t it i s ' h o n o u r a b l e t . None o f t h e s c h o o l s o f j u r i s p r u d e n c e
a l l o w e d female i n f i b u l a t i o n . S e e t h e Fatwa no. 212 o f Shaykh
Husayn Muhammad Makhkuf, d a t e d 1, Shaban, 1 3 6 8 A . H . i n A 1 Fatawa
A l - I s l ~ m i v v a min D a r u l - I f t a a l - M i s r i v v a , v o l . 2, 1 9 8 1 , 4 4 9 .
260'Uthman i b n Ftidi, Ihva al-Sunna, 221. T h i s q u o t e was n o t
f o u n d i n al-Madkhal a n d a p p e a r s t o be t h e d i r e c t words of t h e
Shehu.

in the areas where it is practised. Infection, abdominal pains,

miscarriage, fear of sexual intercourse and childbirth,
psychological trauma, prolonged animosity, and resentment are
only a few of the bad side effects, The fact that Hausaland after
the nineteenth century has not been plagued by this harmful
custom has to be attributed, to some extent, to the stand of the
Shehu whose writings eventually reached all sections of the
Sokoto Caliphate and became the standard of the leading people in
the region. Many writers today have either ignored or not been
made aware of the actual presence of detailed Islamic insight and

analysis in this highly volatile subject. A survey of the

literature written about Hausaland in the nineteenth century

shows only cursory looks being given to this important sphere.

The Prophet Muhammad, himself, was known to have answered the
most intimate questions for his companions. Islam, therefore, was
looked upon by many subsequent scholars as a way of life that by
its very nature would delve into all issues.

The Shehu did not stop at his prohibition of evil practices

concerning women, but continued on in his chapter on circumcision

to look at the practices in Hausaland for the men. He added:

Also, in the area of circumcision, intimidating young boys
so they do not cry at the time of circumcision is a
prohibited innovation by the consensus of the scholars ...
Postponing young boys who are old enough for
circumcision until others reach the age limit for
circumcision, then circumcising them all on one day
all together. This is a prohibited innovation if it
leads to postponing the boys till the age of puberty.
If it does not reach this extent, it is still an undesirable
innovation.

Gathering the young boys together in the desert

for the operation is a prohibited innovation for it
is unsafe and could lead to the loss of the youth . . .
This also includes gathering women together in one house at
the time of female circumcision. The women play prohibited
games and shake their anklets and bracelets-while singing.
This is a prohibited innovation?'
The Shehu's stance in this regard put him in direct

opposition to the Fulbe who had established special manhood rites

and tests of strength not known to the Islamic life~tyle."~He
appeared to be determined to oppose any practice that was clearly
outside of Islamic limits or harmful to the people. To strengthen
his argument he declared in one of his Fulfulde poems entitled,
Modinore (The Instructive One):
Wad nazaru he fi mo julniki
Sukabe, don bo tauroya be ma j juki .
B e kulna kon inke to kon mboyan be,
B e zama boido durn jalede mabbe
Be moba kon t o ladde ton kon kaura,
KO ngele wartata he maire hoiraTake, for instance, the question of circumcision
of youth, here too, you will find them ignorant.
They instil fear into them so that they must not c r y ,
For indeed, he who cries will be ridiculed.
They gather them in the bush together,
And no (child) will leave until he heals.263

In Kitab N U r ul-Albab1 the Shehu, again, highlighted the

Fulbe manhood rituals along with other practices considered unIslamic by the Sharia. He wrote:

2 6 2 ~ eChapter
e
3 of this thesis, under 'Some prominent Customs
of the Fulbe'.

263~aher,
Social Writinqs,
A.H./1789 C.E.

210.

The poem

is dated

1204

And among t h e a f f a i r s t h a t have c a u s e d a g e n e r a l c a l a m i t y

i n t h e s e l a n d s i s what t h e i g n o r a n t do by s l a u g h t e r i n g sheep
i n o r d e r t o comb wool i n t o t h e i r h a i r , a n d s a c r i f i c i n g t h e
s t r a n g e o f f s p r i n g o f t h e i r cows a n d s h e e p . They a l s o p u n i s h
t h e i r youth f o r disobeying p a r e n t s and n o t r e s p e c t i n g e l d e r s
i n a manner t h a t i s n o t a l l o w e d by t h e law. They g o w i t h
t h e i r y o u t h i n t o t h e desert a n d i l l e g a l l y p u n i s h them. These
a c t s are p e c u l i a r t o t h e F u l a n i t r i b e who l i v e i n these
l a n d s 2 6 4 , a n d t h e y a r e p r o h i b i t e d i n t h e Quran, t h e Sunna,
a n d t h e agreed upon c o n s e n s u s o f t h e s c h o l a r s . 265
T h e Shehu's d i s c u s s i o n on t h e manhood r i t u a l s o f t h e Fulbe

leads t o a g r e a t e r q u e s t i o n o f t h e r i t e s o f p a s s a g e a n d t h e

c o n c e p t i o n o f manhood a n d womanhood, which h e a p p e a r e d t o be

r e a l l y f o c u s i n g on. The Shehu p o i n t e d o u t c o n s t a n t l y i n h i s
w r i t i n g s t h a t " t h e w o r s t p e o p l e t ' a r e t h o s e who f r i g h t e n t h e youth
t o r e f r a i n from c r y i n g d u r i n g c i r c u m c i s i o n , o r who g a t h e r
t o g e t h e r a t the t i m e o f c i r c u m c i s i o n t o l a u g h , p l a y o r e a t food.
E x p o s i n g young men and women t o p u b l i c embarrassment o r b a s i n g

'" I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t he referred t o h i s own t r i b e a s

J u h h % l ( i g n o r a n t p e o p l e ) , a t e r m which i n A r a b i c c a r r i e s a
d e r i s i v e meaning. The Shehu h a s b e e n o f t e n referred t o as a Fulbe
leader who lead a F u l b e r e v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e Hausa s t a t e s . ( S e e
J. S p e n c e r Trimingham, A H i s t o r v o f I s l a m i n W e s t A f r i c a ,
(London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 0 0 ; E.W. B o v i l l , The
Golden Trade o f The Moors, (London, 1 9 5 8 ) ; E . J . A r n e t t , The R i s e
o f t h e Sokoto F u l a n i , (Kano, 1 9 2 2 ) . Here, he a p p e a r s t o be
d e t e r m i n e d t o c h a l l e n g e some o f h i s t r i b e ' s e s t a b l i s h e d c u l t u r a l
p r a c t i c e s . H i s c r i t i c i s m f o l l o w s t h e same t r e n d a s h i s g e n e r a l
comments on H a u s a l a n d . H e f o c u s e s on a p e r s o n a l p r a c t i c e , i n this
c a s e , t h e combing o f lambs wool i n t o t h e i r h a i r , t h e n h e expands
t o p r a c t i c e s that are h a r m f u l t o f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s , a n d f i n a l l y he
a d d r e s s e s t h o s e customs t h a t h a v e r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e . The
c h o o s i n g of a s p e c i a l , a b n o r m a l a n i m a l f o r s a c r i f i c e w a s a
p r a c t i c e u s e d by many p e o p l e who t r i e d t o s a t i s f y t h e i r s p i r i t u a l
d e i t i e s t h r o u g h t h e s h e d d i n g o f b l o o d . I t was s h u n n e d by I s l a m i c
l a w which requires t h e sacrifice t o be o n l y f o r A l l a h a n d t h e
s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l t o b e normal i n i t s p h y s i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n . The
S h e h u ' s s h a r p c r i t i c i s m f o r h i s p e c p l e hih n o t e n d e a r h i s message
t o t h e i r t r i b a l l e a d e r s i n t h e early p e r i o d . I t p l a c e d h i m i n
o p p o s i t i o n t o a l l of t h e i r c u s t o m s t h a t were c o n t r a r y t o Islam.

the worth of a young person on physical endurance was, in the

eyes of the Shehu, a practice of ignorant people. The youth
should be left alone to cry, for in it there is great blessing.
He quoted Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Salim ibn Ibrahlm al-Zaghawi in
his Risala to support this position. Muhammad declared:

The moaning of a sick person is Tasbih (glorifying Allah),

his shout is Tahlil (repeating the formula-There is no god
but Allah, his breathing is charity, his sleep is worship,
his moving from side to side is Jihad f1 Sabil-Allah, and
his reward will be written from the best that he does while
he is in good health.266
The rites of passage in the Shehu's

conception seemed to be

connected to the implementation of the Sunna in the life of the

young person as opposed to the ability to withstand pain. The
Sunna for the Shehu required circumcision as an act of
purification and preparation for mature sexual relations. The
Sunna required the young person to study and implement Islamic
lifestyle and take on responsibility as duty to Allah and the
community. This strict application of Islam within the context of
Hausaland would put the Muslims under the Shehufs guidance at
odds with the existing Hausa/Fulbe/Tuareg cultural systems, and
create a community that had more than a theoretical unity. It
would be a culture unto itself, based on the principles of Islam

yet slightly affected by the temperament of the different ethnic

groupings.
In Marital Relations

The Shehu wrote about the corrupt practices surrounding

266'~thman
ibn FQdi, Ihva al-Sunna, 222.

some of the f o u n d a t i o n s of I s l a m i c m a r r i a g e ( n i k a h ) l i k e the

dower, t h e sexual u n i o n of t h e man a n d the woman, and t h e s e c r e c y

o f m a r i t a l a f f a i r s . H e , a g a i n , q u o t e d from l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t i e s o f
t h e Muslim world,

s t r e s s i n g t o t h e s c h o l a r s of Hausland what h a d

happened i n o t h e r l a n d s . H e d e c l a r e d :
One of t h e i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a of m a r r i a g e i s t h a t
a c q u a i n t a n c e s o r r e l a t i v e s t a k e t h e dower of t h e woman.
T h i s i s an u n d e s i r a b l e i n n o v a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n s e n s u s
o f the scholars.

A l s o , t h e m a r r i a g e r e c e p t i o n (walima) which i s u n i t e d w i t h
c o r r u p t r i t u a l s and p r a c t i c e s i s a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n . Do
n o t assume, however, t h a t t h i s i s an a t t a c k on the c o n c e p t o f
walima f o r it i s a Sunna a c c o r d i n g t o t h e S h a r i a .
Another form o f i n n o v a t i o n i s t h e t a k i n g o f a g i f t b y t h e
w i f e from her husband i n o r d e r f o r him to s l e e p w i t h her.
T h i s i s a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n f o r it a p p e a r s l i k e a d u l t e r y
o r p r o s t i t u t i o n .267

According t o I s l a m i c law, t h e dower b e l o n g s e x c l u s i v e l y t o

t h e b r i d e , h e r s e l f , and c a n n o t be t a k e n from h e r w i t h o u t h e r
p e r m i s s i o n . I t s e r v e d , n o t only a s a symbol o f the b r i d e g r o o m ' s
a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e for h e r (which was one o f h i s primary
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ) , b u t a l s o f u r n i s h e d w e a l t h f o r the b r i d e w h i c h
s h e c o u l d r e l y on i n t h e e v e n t of d i v o r c e . T h e dower c o u l d be
l i v e s t o c k , c l o t h i n g , g o l d and s i l v e r , o r any v i a b l e form o f
w e a l t h . The amount w a s n e v e r f i x e d by I s l a m i c law and v a r i e d
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e economic c o n d i t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y and t h e s t a t u s
of t h e b r i d e ' s f a m i l y . The b r i d e and h e r f a m i l y had the r i g h t t o

n e g o t i a t e t h e amount b u t were e n c o u r a g e d by t h e Sunna t o keep the

amount w i t h i n r e a s o n a b l e l i m i t s . The S h e h u ' s p r o t e c t i o n of t h e

267'

Uthman i b n F i i d i ,

bride's

right to her dower validated her right to private

property and empowered her in her marriage. Islamic law allowed

~ h u l 'a, a form of divorce initiated by the woman, wherein the
bride could leave the marriage from her own desire, if she paid
back the dower or part of it. If the bride did not possess her
dower than she did not have this valid recourse to separation.
By trying to distance the Walima from all forms of
corruption, the Shehu was raising the institution of marriage.

The Walima was supposed to be a time of celebration, joy, and

relaxation. The Prophet Muhammad, himself, encouraged chanting
and dancing on this occasion. Because of the proximity between
the need for people to relax themselves and celebrate, in
general, and the temptation of listening to lewd singing,
engaging in sexually provocative dancing, and partaking of
drinking of intoxicating beverages, the Shehu was very clear in
setting the limits of entertainment at the time of the Walima.
Apparently, a newly wedded woman, in Hausaland, had to be
given certain gifts before she would agree to talk to the
bridegroom. This was known in Hausa as saven baki which literally
means " buying the mouthw. The Shehu felt that it lowered the
concept of marriage to involve only the material aspects and took
away from the spiritual aspects of marital life.26B
The Shehufs concern for the proper union of men and women
took him into the most intimate sexual affairs of marriage. He
wrote :
268~aher,
Social Writinss, 208.
117

Sexual intercourse while being watched is a prohibited

innovation for the act is private and intimate and involves
the intimate parts of the body which should be covered.
Also, approaching the wife for sex, suddenly, before fondling
and playing with her in preparation for intimacy is a
prohibited innovation.
Also, grunting noises and worthless speech during sexual
intercourse is a prohibited innovation.
Performing the sex act in the anus of the woman is also a
well known prohibited imovation. . .
It is even an undesirable innovation for a man to picture
another woman in his mind while he is having sex with his
wife, This makes him think he is having sex with the other
woman! The same rule would apply for the woman for she will
imagine that the other man is having sex with her.
Also, if the husband informs other people about what went on
in his bed between himself and his wife, this is an
undesirable innovation for it leads to making the other men
desire the woman. The same would apply to a woman who
described her night with her husband to other
This intimate look into the marital affairs of the people
of the Muslim world and the guidance in improving them displays
the immediacy and relevance of the Shehurs message. He seemed to
be concerned about strengthening the relationship between married

couples. Sexual relations should be private and sensitive. The

man should prepare his wife for intercourse by playing with her
and not demeaning the relationship by entering her anus or
involving her in useless speech. The Shehu xas very careful to
mention that women also played an important role in the sexual
bond and they should be conscious of their responsibilities to
this intimate union. The Shehu penetrated the inner core of the

'"'~thman ibn Fudi, Bayan al-~id'aal-Shaytaniyya,

Hajj, al-Madkhal, 11, 188-202.

Ibn al-

marital relationship by showing his community proofs that they

should retain the honour and respect for the sexual partner even

in thoughts. Even to imagine another person while having

sex

was

a forbidden act and could lead to an imagined illegal sexual

relationship!
Stability in the family units could bring stability to the
whole society. As previously mentioned, even Sarki Muhammad
Rumfa, who could be considered one of the most Islamically

progressive early rulers of Hausaland, fell drastically short of

Islamic limits in the area of marriage. He was known to have had
a thousand wives and to have been totally oblivious to their
Islamic rights, yet he was still revered in Kano.
In the Area of Food and Drink

One of the most important areas of social contact for any

society is the activity of eating and drinking. At the time of
eating, social status is recognized, thanksgiving is often made,
and group identity is confirmed. In large family units, eating

can serve as one of the only occasions when every member of the
family is present. Parents assert their authority through
feeding, children develop etiquette and often learn the basics of
survival over dinner. News is shared, questions are asked and
sometimes, decisions are made. The Shehu presented for his
followers important aspects of the proper system of Islamic
etiquette in the area of eating and drinking and used this highly

relevant discussion to establish principles for inter-personal

relationships. He stressed on eating together and sharing food.

Even i f a f a m i l y had a s e r v a n t , t h e s e r v a n t s h o u l d s h a r e t h e f o o d
w i t h them and s i t w i t h them. Each p e r s o n s h o u l d t r y n o t t o lean
on t h e i r arms w h i l e e a t i n g and always u s e t h e i r r i g h t hand. When
the v e s s e l of d r i n k is b e i n g passed around,

it s h o u l d go

c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e (i.e. t o the r i g h t ) , t h e d r i n k e r s h o u l d n o t
b r e a t h e i n t o t h e v e s s e l n o r p u t h i s mouth d i r e c t l y on a water
s k i n . I f t h e l i q u i d i s m i l k , he s h o u l d r i n s e h i s mouth o u t a f t e r
d r i n k i n g , i n a c c o r d a n c e t o t h e Sunna o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad, who
s a i d , "Milk h a s a t y p e o f g r e a s e i n i t , " A l l o f t h e v e s s e l s o f
f o o d and d r i n k s h o u l d remain c o v e r e d when n o t i n use.*''
Concerning t h e bad p r a c t i c e s s u r r o u n d i n g e a t i n g and
d r i n k i n g t h e Shehu w r o t e :
Food and v e s s e l s t h a t a r e r e s e r v e d s p e c i a l l y for t h e man a r e
a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n , i f pride and arrogance a r e
i n t e n d e d from i t . If h a v i n g t h i s s p e c i a l arrangement i s t h e
normal way of l i f e , it i s an u n d e s i r a b l e i n n o v a t i ~ n . ~ ' ~

2 7 0 ~ b i d .244-246;
,
I b n al-Ha j j, al-Madkhal, I , 2 0 9 - 2 1 1 . These
p r i n c i p l e s i n group e a t i n g have i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l and h e a l t h
i m p l i c a t i o n s . By s t r e s s i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e r v a n t e a t i n g
w i t h t h e g r e a t e r f a m i l y , t h e Shehu may have been t r y i n g t o b r e a k
down c l a s s c o n s c i o u s n e s s . The P r o p h e t Muhanunmad had a l s o p o i n t e d
o u t t h a t a s e r v a n t s h o u l d e a t t h e same f o o d and wear t h e same
c l o t h e s a s h i s m a s t e r . Using t h e r i g h t hand and p a s s i n g t h e
v e s s e l s t o t h e r i g h t c o n f i r m e d the I s l a m i c s y s t e m of u s i n g t h e
r i g h t side f o r c l e a n , p u r e a c t i v i t i e s . The left hand which was
u s e d f o r t h e t o i l e t would n o t enter t h e f o o d .

2 7 1 ~ hShehu
e
f u r t h e r r e l a t e d that g r o u p e a t i n g i n c r e a s e s t h e
b e n e f i t s and b l e s s i n g s t h a t p e o p l e g e t from e a c h o t h e r . I t a l s o
s e r v e s as a p r o t e c t i o n from any s p e c i a l harm t h a t was meant f o r a
p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n . I n Hausaland, ( t h e Shehu mentioned) women w e r e
i n t h e h a b i t of p u t t i n g s p e l l s on men t h r o u g h p o t i o n s mixed i n
w i t h t h e i r f o o d . T h i s p r a c t i c e c o u l d n o t be c a r r i e d o u t i f t h e
t a r g e t e d man a t e i n a g r o u p . Also, t h e p e r s o n who e a t s by h i m s e l f
o f t e n w i l l be s e e n a s an a r r o g a n t p e r s o n s o p e o p l e o f knowledge
and i n t e l l i g e n c e should a v o i d f a l l i n g i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y . ( I b i d . ,
248.)

Also, eating with spoons or other utensils is an undesirable

innovation.272
When eating, taking another mouthful before swallowing the
previous one is an undesirable innovation.
Joking around while eating is also, an undesirable
innovation.
Talking too much over food or refraining from talking
completely.273
Also, eating without having something to drink present is
an undesirable innovation.
Making loud noises in chewing or in gulping down liquid
is an undesirable innovation.
Some women take special measures to fatten themselves up.
This is a prohibited innovation by the consensus of the
scholars because it causes the person to drop some of the
compulsory acts of Islamic lifestyle. It is also harmful
to the health and well being of the woman.274

he he Shehu, on the authority of al-Madkhal, reasoned that

eating with utensils was not only going against the established
tradition of eating with the hands-setPby-theProphet Muhammad
and his companions, but it also was a form of class distinction
in Hausaland at the time. From the health point of view, the
Shehu felt that using the utensil was not recommendable ( i n group
eating) for the utensil was used to take the food from the group
plate, then it entered the mouth (picking up residue from the
saliva), then it was put back into the plate. The residue of the
mouth could affect the food in the group area in an unhealthy
way.
2 7 3 ~ hShehu
e
appeared to be trying to strike a
make eating a relaxed gathering that did not upset
involved in eating. This type of eating could very
good affect on digestion which can be upset at the
emotional or disturbing topics.

balance and
the people
well have a
mention of

2 7 4 ~ h Shehufs
e
rationale for opposing the forced fattening of
women, taken directly from al-Madkhal 11, 65-70. This practice
was in contradiction to the Sharia, it was a waste of wealth, it
caused unclean things to come from the body of the woman i n
prayer, it caused the women to be so fat that they exposed their
bodies without a just cause, and it caused women to be so fat
that they could not stand up or bow properly in prayer. These
were all impositions on Islamic lifestyle which were not
excusable if caused intentionally.

Taking on t o o many expenses i n o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e

g u e s t s . 275
The Shehu, h e r e , a g a i n , c l e a r l y showed h i s c o n c e r n for t h e
s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s w e l l - b e i n g

of h i s f o l l o w e r s b y b r i n g i n g

c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d I s l a m i c precedents f o r food and d r i n k . H e

a p p e a r e d t o be t r y i n g t o weed o u t bad l o c a l p r a c t i c e s and d e v e l o p
a s o p h i s t i c a t e d form o f e a t i n g e t i q u e t t e t h a t would d i s t i n g u i s h
t h e Muslim f a m i l i e s and lead t o h e a l t h i e r i n t e r a c t i o n s .
I n the A f f a i r s of t h e M a s i i d

(Mosque)

Regarding t h e h o u s e s o f worship and t h e p r a c t i c e s a n d

customs t h a t had d e v e l o p e d i n Hausaland t h r o u g h Iskoki f o r m s of
d e v o t i o n , t h e Shehu made a s t r i c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e Sunna. H e
d e c l a r e d that t h e m a s i i d s h o u l d b e s t r i c t l y u s e d f o r performing
p r a y e r s , l e a r n i n g t h e t e a c h i n g s of Islam, and r e c i t i n g t h e
remembrances o f A l l a h . A l l o f t h e Sunna p r a c t i c e s o f t h e P r o p h e t
i n e n t e r i n g ( w i t h t h e r i g h t f o o t ) , s i t t i n g , w o r s h i p and e x i t i n g
( w i t h t h e l e f t f o o t ) s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d . H e was c o n f r o n t i n g a
p e o p l e who had been p r a c t i s i n g a p e r v a s i v e form o f s p i r i t w o r s h i p
t h a t c o u l d be h i g h l y p e r s o n a l o r c o l l e c t i v e . He w r o t e :
The m a s j i d s a r e t h e Houses o f A l l a h , s o it i s n o t b e f i t t i n g
f o r t h e worshipper t o busy h i m s e l f i n a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n
t h e worship of A l l a h . In a Hadith it s t a t e s , " Whoever s i t s
i n a m a s j i d h a s v i s i t e d Almighty A l l a h , s o it i s t h e r i g h t

2 7 S ~ s l a demanded
m
t h a t a Muslim always be p r e p a r e d t o feed a
g u e s t i f t h e y came b y h i s h o u s e and t o p u t up a t r a v e l l e r f o r
t h r e e d a y s . I t a p p e a r s t h a t i n Hausaland d u r i n g t h i s period,
people were p u t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n debt i n order to impress other
by h a v i n g g u e s t s over t h e i r h o u s e s . T h i s p r a c t i c e was r e j e c t e d b y
t h e Shehu, f o r owing d e b t s w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o be d a n g e r o u s i n t h e
eyes of Allah.

of the visited to be r e s p e c t e d by his visitor". .

276

Concerning the innovations, the Shehu appeared to be

targeting customs and organisation of the Iskoki belief system
which was known to encourage religious shrines and places of

devotion in every housing complex. He presented his followers

well established Maliki precedents for the proper development of
the rnasiids by writing:
Among the innovations in the affairs of the masiid is
establishing too many in one location. This is an
undesirable innovation.277
Spreading carpets or using Sans in the masiid is an
undesirable innovation.
Raising the voice in it, even in teaching, is an
undesirable innovation.
Having storytellers in the masiid is also an undesirable
innovation.278
Also, calling the people to prayer in a group with one voice
is an undesirable innovation.
Sounding the call to prayer over and over again from the same
masiid at early morning prayer is an undesirable innovation.
And also, calling the people to prayer with other words,
different than the normal words of the call (AdhZin) is

276' Uthman ibn Fodi, Ihya al-Sunna, 70; similar staements

the Sunna and ~id'aof the masjid can be found in al-Madkhal,

277~he
Shehu explained that one of the signs of the last days
would be a large number of mosques and few praying people.
Islamic lifestyle stressed group worship and unity. He may have
been trying to discourage individuals or smaller groups from
starting their own mosques when t h e y were not necessary. This
would ensure the cohesiveness of his following and the unity of
the ideas and practices that would be emanating from t h e mosque.
2 7 8 ~ h val-Sunna,
a
73-75. This position was taken from the words
of Imam Malik, himself, and found also in al-Madkhal.

an u n d e s i r a b l e i n n o v a t i o n .

. .2 7 9

The Shehuf s c a l l f o r the p r o h i b i t i o n o f s t o r y t e l l e r s i n

t h e m a s i i d i s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t step f o r t h e establishment o f a

p u r e r f o r m of I s l a m i c l i f e s t y l e . S t o r y t e l l e r s and g r i o t s i n the
Western Sudan were t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e c u s t o d i a n s o f h i s t o r y and
n a t i o n a l customs. T h e i r b a s i c medium of t r a n s m i s s i o n was o r a l
t e s t i m o n y . By e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s t u d y of Arabic and Islamic
l i t e r a t u r e a s t h e main s o u r c e o f l e a r n i n g , t h e p e o p l e would be
more c a p a b l e of b e i n g r e c e p t o r s o f w r i t t e n I s l a m i c i d e a s . The
i m p a c t o f t h e l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s and beliefs would c o n s e q u e n t l y be
c u r t a i l e d . I t must b e n o t e d , however, t h a t t h e A r a b i c passas
( s t o r y t e l l e r ) does not n e c e s s a r i l y apply t o the griot who carried
t h e h i s t o r i c a l s t o r i e s of the f o u n d i n g of e m p i r e s , t h e l i n e a g e s
o f people, o r s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y of t h e r e g i o n .

The Shehu, h e r e , a p p e a r s t o b e f o c u s i n g on s t o r y t e l l e r s who

d i s t r a c t e d t h e w o r s h i p p e r s b y t e l l i n g s t o r i e s o f low m o r a l
q u a l i t y . T h i s s t a n c e , a s e x p l a i n e d i n al-Madkhal,

was s i m i l a r to

t h e I s l a m i c p o s t i o n of t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad, h i m s e l f ,

a n d t h a t of

t h e many s u c c e e d i n g I s l a m i c s c h o l a r s throughout t h e Muslim world.

A t t h e same t i m e , t h e Shehu appeared t o b e o v e r l y a u s t e r e

i n h i s c a l l f o r t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of putting c a r p e t s i n t h e m a s i i d
o r u s i n g f a n s . T h i s c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s z e a l t o implement
t h e l i t e r a l Sunna of t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad, whose m a s i i d w a s
d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g v e r y s i m p l e and t o t a l l y v o i d o f any
d e c o r a t i o n ; o r due t o h i s own F u l b e c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e f o r

a n i m a l s k i n s o r t h e bare e a r t h .
R e g a r d i n g the B i r t h of a Child and Blood S a c r i f i c e

The b i r t h of a c h i l d was an i m p o r t a n t o c c a s i o n f o r Muslims

as w e l l as t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I s k o k i s p i r i t worshippers. T h e Shehu

t o o k a very s t r i c t s t a n d on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Sunna in t h i s

r e g a r d . H e emphasized t h a t t h e s a c r i f i c e s f o r t h e newborn s h o u l d
be s t r i c t l y done i n t h e name of A l l a h and t h a t t h e ceremony

s h o u l d be simple, f o c u s i n g on naming t h e c h i l d , s e e k i n g b l e s s i n g s
f o r t h i s l i f e , and d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e meat t o t h e poor and t h e
needy.
The I s k o k i s p i r i t worshippers were known t o p u t g r e a t
emphasis on a p p e a s i n g t h e s p i r i t s t h r o u g h t h e s a c r i f i c e of
s p e c i f i c animals a t s p e c i f i c p l a c e s . They revered s p e c i a l o b j e c t s
a n d connected t h e f l o w o f blood a t t h e r i g h t time, f o r t h e
s u s t e n a n c e of the I s k a , w i t h t h e success and p r o t e c t i o n of t h e
s a c r i f i c e r . * " The Shehu c r i t i c i s e d un-Islamic p r a c t i c e s a t
b i r t h which were p r a c t i s e d i n North A f r i c a and o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
Muslim world by w r i t i n g :
If you s a i d , "What i s t h e r u l i n g f o r what some women do
who put t h e k n i f e t h a t t h e y c u t t h e navel o f t h e newborn
baby with, b y i t s head? " I would s a y t h a t it i s an
u n d e s i r a b l e i n n o v a t i o n ... I f t h e mother g e t s up s h e c a r r i e s
t h e k n i f e w i t h h e r . She w i l l do t h i s f o r f o r t y days on t h e
j u s t i f i c a t i o n t h a t it i s p r o t e c t i n g h e r from b e i n g harmed
by t h e J i m .

Also, a caution s h o u l d be taken a g a i n s t t h e p r a c t i c e o f

some of the women. If a mother l e a v e s her c h i l d a t home
f o r an emergency and does n o t have anyone t o s i t w i t h t h e
2 8 0 ~ b i d .1, 8 0 .
'"see

Chapter 3 of this t h e s i s .

c h i l d , s h e l e a v e s a jug o f w a t e r and some i r o n . 2 8 2

As previously mentioned,

I s k o k i w o r s h i p p e r s had

s u b s t i t u t e d t h e J i n n for t h e i r l o c a l s p i r i t s i n o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e
t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n an Islamic l i f e s t y l e . T h e Shehu

was c o n f r o n t i n g t h i s belief a t t h e most basic l e v e l i n o r d e r t o

make a complete b r e a k w i t h t h e I s k o k i system. H e w r o t e :
And among them ( t h e u n b e l i e v e r s ) i s h e who c l a i m s t o be a
Muslim and p e r f o r m s t h e d u t i e s of I s l a m , b u t a l o n g w i t h
t h i s he w r i t e s t h e names o f A l l a h o r t h e Quran on u n c l e a n
s u b s t a n c e s s u c h a s t h e bones of t h e d e a d and t h e h e a d s of
dogs; o r w r i t e s t h e names o f A l l a h and t h e Quran w i t h
b l o o d o f a n i m a l s b u t c h e r e d i n s a c r i f i c e ; o r writes t h e
names o f A l l a h and t h e Q u r a n and washes them w i t h water,
a n d t h e n s p l i t s t h e s k i n o f a s n a k e and mixes them t o g e t h e r .
T h i s i s also an u n b e l i e v e r , upon whom t h e laws of I s l a m
do n o t a p p l y . 283
Use o f t h e n i n e t y n i n e names of A l l a h as a means of
b l e s s i n g and p r o t e c t i o n i s a p r a c t i c e f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e Muslim
w o r l d . D e i f i c a t i o n o f the names, however, would be c o n s i d e r e d as
un-Islamic b y I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e . The u s a g e the Shehu m e n t i o n s
above a p p e a r s t o be d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e I s k o k i p r a c t i c e
o f u s i n g blood s a c r i f i c e as a means of g a i n i n g t h e favour o f t h e

s p i r i t world. W r i t i n g t h e names of A l l a h o r t h e Quran w a s a

p r e f e r r e d a c t i n I s l a m , b u t n o t on the bones of the dead, t h e

2 8 2 ~ b i d . 180,181;
,
I b n a l - H a j j, al-Madkhal, 111, 2 9 1 . S p i r i t
c u l t s and f e a r of t h e J i n n a t t h e b i r t h o f a c h i l d were common
t h r o u g h o u t t h e Middle East a n d A f r i c a .
Z83' ~ t h m a ni b n Ftidi,
K i t a b NUr-ul-Albab,
(Kaduna, Shoyemi
P r i n t i n g Works), 5-6; Yusuf W a l i , "The T r a n s l a t i o n of t h e Nor-alAlbab ( o f 'UthmBn I b n F U d i ) , (Kano S t u d i e s , N e w Series, v o l . 2,
n o . 1, 1 9 8 0 ) , 13. The t r a n s l a t i o n s o f Kitab Nnr-ul-Albab i n t h i s
t h e s i s were made d i r e c t l y from t h e A r a b i c t e x t , b u t i n
c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e A r a b i c e d i t i o n and t r a n s i a t i o n of Yusuf
Wali.

head of a dog, and other Islamically unclean substances. The

combining of these elements although it may have served as a
connecting measure for the local spirit worshipper, was
considered to be sacreligiaus by the Shehu. He, therefore,
classified it as disbelief.
In Medicine and t h e S u p e r n a t u r a l

In the field of medicine and the curing of ailments, the

Shehu maintained that the best cure was that which conforms to
the Quran and the Sunna of the Prophet Muhammad. He recommended
that Muslims should follow the traditional Islamic method of
seeking cures to ailments by first, praying to Allah and invoking
His blessings and then applying the necessary medicine. This

medicine could include reading the words of Allah from the Quran
or special prayers of the Prophet, in case of headaches, the evil
eye, or spiritual maladies; and drinking honey for stomach
ailments. The Shehu also prescribed some of the well known
medical practices allowed by the Prophet Muhammad in his time and
accepted as the Sunna. They included the cupping of blood, nonintoxicating forms of snuff, and cauterization.2 8 4
Concerning the un-Islamic forms of medicine in Hausaland,
the Shehu declared:
Regarding what the people have innovated in the area of
medicine and incantations is seeking cures by using
unclean substances ( n a j a s a )28"or
internal or external
ibn
Z 8 5 ~ a i a sis
a defined as ceremonially unclean substances in
Islamic law. That would include human urine and faeces, the mouth
and saliva of a dog, the body and flesh of swine, alcoholic

treatment. This is a p r o h i b i t e d innovation according t o t h e

consensus of t h e s c h o l a r s .
Also, s e e k i n g c u r e s t h r o u g h t h e u s e of f o r e i g n words t h a t are
unknown t o t h e p e o p l e . his i s a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n i n t h e
Maliki school of j u r i s p r u d e n ~ e . ~ ~ ~
The Shehu, t h e n b r o u g h t a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s
p r a c t i c e f o u n d i n A 1 Madkhal o f I b n a l - H a j j .

H e wrote:

And i n A 1 Madkhal,

it s t a t e s , "If a p e r s o n i s s t u n g o r bitten
b y a s n a k e o r a s c o r p i o n , some p e o p l e t a k e a k n i f e a n d p u t it

on t h e p l a c e where the p o i s o n h a s reached. T h i s i s made known

b y t h e p e r s o n who w a s b i t t e n when t h e k n i f e i s p a s s e d o v e r
h i s body t o t h e p l a c e o f t h e b i t e . They t h e n , s p e a k i n a
f o r e i g n unknown t o n g u e . "
I n A 1 Madkhal, it a l s o p r o h i b i t e d a n y t h i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e d
t h i s a c t . T h a t would i n c l u d e t h e unknown t h i n g s t h a t a r e
w r i t t e n on p a p e r , o r e n g r a v e d i n t o t h e c e i l i n g o r t h e w a l l .
I t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s would g i v e p r o t e c t i o n f r o m maqic,t h e e v i l e y e , bedbugs, f l e a s , a n t s , snakes, s c o r p i o n s ,
r a t s , e t c ...T h i s i s p r o h i b i t e d by t h e S h a r i a a n d i s a n
u n a c c e p t a b l e a c t , even i f some b e n e f i t c o u l d come f r o m
7

i t . 287

B y t r y i n g t o b r i n g t h e medical p r a c t i c e s o f H a u s a l a n d i n t o

c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e Sunna, t h e Shehu was a d d r e s s i n g a s e n s i t i v e

a r e a which e v e r y p e r s o n whether r i c h o r poor would b e p r o f o u n d l y
a f f e c t e d b y . The I s k o k i s p i r i t s y s t e m had i n c o r p o r a t e d a s y s t e m
of cure through i t s s a c r i f i c e s , invocations, and r i t u a l s . I f

Islam were t o g a i n r e a l s u p r e m a c y i n Hausaland, it would have t o

p r o v i d e s o l u t i o n s t o t h e r e a l p r o b l e m s of l i f e . T h e Shehu must
h a v e been w e l l aware o f t h i s f a c t f o r he t r i e d t o c o n n e c t even
t h e most m i n u t e d e t a i l o f l i f e s t y l e t o t h e b e l i e f
-

b e v e r a g e s and i n t o x i c a n t s , e t c .
2 8 6 ~ b i d .263.
,

bid., 2 6 3 .

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And among them is he who claims to be a Muslim and performs

the duties of Islam, but along with this he bewitches people
and separates two people who are friends or a man from his
wife. This is also an unbeliever upon whom the laws of Islam
do not apply.291
And among them is he who claims to be a Muslim and performs
the duties of Islam, but along with this he measures the
Quran by beating on a tambourine. This is an unbeliever upon
whom the laws of Islam do not apply.'92

~ a g i cand the secret arts have always been a source of

great fear and superstition in almost all societies. Hausaland
was no exception. The Iskoki belief system, although having very
open practices and a world view shared by people throughout
Africa, contained o m s of secret cult worship and practices. The
average person in Hausaland seemed to have been very pre-occupied
with the fear of spirit possession or attack. Bori mediums, as
previously mentioned, were highly influential, even with the
ruling classes, and were constantly consulted for predictions and
protection against adversaries and evil forces, The use of secret
practices and unknown languages therefore, was a specialization
that had tremendous leverage on all levels of society. The Shehu
specific practice of the secret arts practised in Hausaland.
291

The separating of a man from his wife or a friend from

another friend is considered by Islamic law to be one of the most
dangerous forms of magic. In second chapter of the Quran, verse
102, mention is made of this form of magic and its origin in
ancient Babylon. The Shehu, again, decisively condemned the act,
even if it is done by a ~ u s l i mand warned his followers that not
only is the person a disbeliever but the laws of Islam do not
apply to him. This implied that if the person died or were
killed, the normal rituals of ceremonial washing (Ghusl), and
funeral prayer (Janaza) would not be performed and none of the
other Islamic responsibilities (like paying off the debts) would
be shouldered by the Muslims.
2g2'Wthmanibn Fudi, NGr-ul-Albab, 4, 5.

adopted a f i r m s t a n c e a g a i n s t a l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h e s e

practices w r i t i n g :
0 my b r o t h e r s , beware of u s i n g magic s u c h a s i n c a n t a t i o n s ,
s p e l l s , and l e t t e r s w i t h an unknown meaning, as w e l l a s
w r i t i n g A l l a h f s name, t h e Quran, o r t h e P r o p h e t s f names
i n o r d e r t o b r i n g l o v e o r enmity between p e o p l e ... And
a n y t h i n g c o n n e c t e d t o magic and i s u s e d t o g a i n some
b e n e f i t o r ward o f f e v i l is d i s b e l i e f . A l l a h , t h e Most High,
has s a i d , nThe magician w i l l n e v e r be s u c c e s s f u l , no m a t t e r
what s k i l l he a t t a i n s . I ' (Quran, 2 0 : 69) 293
O t h e r Local Customs of a R e l i g i o u s Nature

In the f i r s t p a r t of h i s book,

the

Shehu c r i t i q u e d a number of o t h e r l o c a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t had v e r y

s e r i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s . H e l i s t e d them i n a v e r y s i m p l e s t y l e and
l e f t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n t o t h e s t u d e n t o r t e a c h e r who probably had

some f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h h i s d e t a i l e d d i s c o u r s e . He a l s o c l a s s i f i e d
t h e people of Hausaland a s t h r e e t y p e s , d e c l a r i n g :
Know, my b r o t h e r t h a t t h e p e o p l e i n t h i s l a n d a r e of t h r e e
k i n d s . One group t h a t performs t h e acts o f I s l a m and d o e s
n o t show any deed of t h e u n b e l i e v e r s . You do n o t h e a r from
them a n y t h i n g which i s devoid of I s l a m , and t h e y a r e p u r e
Muslims o v e r whom t h e law of I s l a m has t a k e n e f f e c t .
Another group i s mixed. They p e r f o r m t h e a c t i o n s of Islam,
b u t you s e e t h e a c t i o n s of t h e u n b e l i e v e r and you h e a r i n
t h e i r speech t h a t which i s d e v o i d o f I s l a m . These are pure
u n b e l i e v e r s upon whom t h e laws o f I s l a m do n o t a p p l y .
And a n o t h e r group who have n e v e r s m e l l e d t h e s c e n t o f I s l a m

and do n o t c l a i m i t . The r u l i n g f o r them i s v e r y c l e a r t o

all.
And i f you s a y , "Explain for u s t h e s i g n s of t h e mixed group
that w e may be aware o f them", I would s a y , "1 w i l l show you

( w i t h t h e p e r m i s s i o n o f A l l a h ) t h e i r a c t i o n s by which t h e y
became u n b e l i e v e r s , s i n c e it i s t h e mark by which they a r e
known. 2 9 4

293'~thmani b n FBdi, Wathicrat al-Ikhwan,

'"'
Uthman

i b n Ftidi, NUr-ul-Albab,
131

1-3.

76, 77.

In the V e n e r a t i o n of Trees
The tree was an i m p o r t a n t symbol o f n a t u r a l power a n d
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s p i r i t u a l f o r c e s f o r the I s k o k i worshippers.
Blood s a c r i f i c e s and o t h e r r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s were c a r r i e d o u t
u n d e r t h e shadow of many a g r e a t tree i n Hausaland. Islam
r e q u i r e d t h e b e l i e v e r t o renounce t h e d i v i n i t y of n a t u r a l o b j e c t s
a n d f o c u s s o l e l y on t h e C r e a t o r . I n t h i s l i g h t , Shehu w r o t e :
And I s a y (and a l l s u c c e s s i s w i t h A l l a h ) , among t h o s e w h o
a r e mixed i s he who claims t o be a Muslim and p e r f o r m s the
d u t i e s of Islarn, b u t a l o n g w i t h t h i s he e x a l t s t r e e s a n d
s t o n e s b y s a c r i f i c i n g t o them a n d g i v i n g alms, o r p o u r i n g
a type of p a s t e on them. T h i s i s an u n b e l i e v e r upon whom
t h e laws of I s l a m do n o t a p p l y . 2 9 5
T h e Shehu was c h a l l e n g i n g t h e s y n c r e t i s m t h a t had

d e v e l o p e d over t h e c e n t u r i e s , b y c r i t i c i s i n g t h e p e o p l e who t r i e d
t o c a r r y o u t b o t h forms o f r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n
s p e c i f y i n g e x a l t a t i o n , s a c r i f i c e , a l m s g i v i n g , and t h e p a s t e

pouring r i t u a l , he was trying t o e l i m i n a t e some o f the main

r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s h e l d a r o u n d t h e v e n e r a t e d t r e e s . T h i s would
have a profound e f f e c t on t h e c o r e o f I s k o k i r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s .
I t was a l s o S h e h u f s c l e a r c o n f i r m a t i o n o f the d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e

s a c r e d t r e e s c a r r i e d o u t by Al-Maghili,

t h e Wangarawa, and o t h e r

I s l a m i c s c h o l a r s who e r a d i c a t e d t h i s form o f i d o l a t r y .

In Denial o f the Resurrection

2 9 5 ~ b i d .4, . T h i s r u l i n g i s p r o b a b l y t a k e n d i r e c t l y from The

replies of Al-Mashili t o t h e O u e s t i o n s o f Askia Al-Haji Muhammad.
The Shehu added " t h e p o u r i n g of a type o f p a s t e on them ( t h e
t r e e s ) " which a p p e a r s t o be H a u s a - s p e c i f i c . T h i s a g a i n shows t h a t
t h e Shehu was g u i d e d by t h e p r e c e d e n t s set by e a r l i e r Islamic
s c h o l a r s b u t was a p p l y i n g them t o H a u s a l a n d . See 3.0. Hunwick,
~ h a r i ' a i n Sonshay, 7 7 .

B e l i e f i n t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e dead and t h e Day of

Judgement i s o n e o f t h e fundamental p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e I s l a m i c
f a i t h . Many s p i r i t b a s e d b e l i e f s y s t e m s d e n i e d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n
o f t h e dead a n d a f i n a l t i m e o f a c c o u n t i n g . A d d r e s s i n g t h i s
i s s u e , t h e Shehu w r o t e :
And among them i s h e who claims t o be a Muslim a n d p e r f o r m s
t h e d u t i e s o f Islam, b u t a l o n g w i t h t h i s h e d e n i e s t h e
r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e dead a n d s a y s chere i s n o r e s u r r e c t i o n
a f t e r d e a t h . T h i s is a l s o an u n b e l i e v e r upon whom t h e l a w s
o f I s l a m d o n o t a p p l y . 296
T h e Shehu, above, e s t a b l i s h e d a c l e a r d e m a r c a t i o n between
t h e two belief s y s t e m s b y linking d e n i a l o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n w i t h
t h e s t a t e o f d i s b e l i e f . The c a n c e p t of t h e afterlife a n d i t s

r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s was c o n s i d e r e d f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e s h a p i n g
o f a n Islamic c o n s c i o u s n e s s by Muslim t h e o l o g i a n s . T h e Shehu,
a g a i n was p o i n t i n g o u t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f o n e who c l a i m s t o
p r a c t i c e I s l a m y e t d e n i e s i t s basic b e l i e f s .
In C l a i m i n g t h e Knowledge of t h e Unseen

The knowledge of t h e u n s e e n a n d t h e f u t u r e w a s
t r a d i t i o n a l l y one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e C r e a t o r
i n I s l a m i c l i t e r a t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , p e o p l e who claimed t o see i n t o
t h e f u t u r e o r c o n t r o l t h e destiny o f o t h e r s were c o n s i d e r e d b y

t h e s c h o l a r s of Islam t o b e h e r e t i c s . One o f t h e most p o w e r f u l

claims o f t h e c u s t o d i a n s o f t h e I s k o k i s h r i n e s o r t h e
p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f t h e B o r i r i t u a l s was t h e a b i l i t y t o communicate
w i t h the s p i r i t u a l world and g a i n m a s t e r y o v e r t h e knowledge o f

t h e u n s e e n . T h e c l a s s i c a l Arabic t e r m for s o o t h s a y e r

plural-kuhhan)

(kahin,

a p p l i e d p e r f e c t l y t o t h e Hausa c o n c e p t o f s p i r i t

medium, i n t h a t t h e i r methods and c l a i m s were e x a c t l y t h e same

b u t t h e names were d i f f e r e n t . T h e Shehu c o n f r o n t e d t h i s i s s u e
saying :
And among t h e m i s he who c l a i m s t o be a Muslim and performs
t h e d u t i e s of I s l a m , b u t a l o n g w i t h t h i s h e claims t o know
some h i d d e n knowledge i n w r i t i n g o r i n t h e s a n d o r by t h e
c o n d i t i o n s of t h e s t a r s o r by t h e t a l e s o f t h e < i n n o r by
t h e s o u n d s of birds o r t h e i r movements ... T h i s i s a n
u n b e l i e v e r upon whom t h e l a w s of I s l a m do n o t a p p l y .
And among them i s h e who c l a i m s t o be a Muslim a n d p e r f o r m s
t h e d u t i e s o f I s l a m , b u t a l o n g w i t h t h i s he comes t o t h e
s o o t h s a y e r s (kuhhan) a n d a s k s them a b o u t h i s a f f a i r s a n d
b e l i e v e s i n what t h e y s a y . T h i s i s an u n b e l i e v e r , upon whom
t h e l a w s o f I s l a m do n o t a p p l y . *"
The Shehu was condemning the s o o t h s a y e r s and t h e p e o p l e
who v i s i t e d t h e s o o t h s a y e r s i n o r d e r t o g a i n knowledge o f t h e
future.

H e a l s o , d e f i n e d some o f t h e more common methods o f

f o r t u n e t e l l i n g by m e n t i o n i n g t h e u s e o f w r i t i n g , s a n d , s t a r s ,
i i n n , a n d b i r d s . Meaning and d i r e c t i o n were g l e a n e d f r o m
n u m e r i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , f o r m a t i o n s of h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , and t h e
s o u n d s o f b i r d s a n d other c r e a t u r e s t h a t would a p p e a r a t c e r t a i n
times and become h a r b i n g e r s o f e v i l f o r t u n e o r g l a d t i d i n g s . The

Shehu condemned a l l forms o f t h e s e practices i n h i s a t t e m p t t o

b u i l d a s o c i e t y based on t h e s u b m i s s i o n t o A l l a h . T h i s w a s a
d i r e c t c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e rulings of Al-Maghili who set a

p r e c e d e n t i n t h e Western Sudan by condemning t h e s o o t h s a y e r s i n

h i s "Replies t o Askiaw.

298

By d e p r i v i n g t h e s o o t h s a y e r s and c u s t o d i a n s o f t h e l o c a l
s h r i n e s o f t h e i r a u t h o r i t y i n s p i r i t u a l a f f a i r s , t h i s Islamic
p r e c e d e n t w a s a l s o c h a n g i n g t h e power base. T h e Islamic s c h o l a r s
would become t h e i n t e r m e d i a r i e s o r r e l i g i o u s a d v i s o r s whose
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y was t o r e s p o n d t o the h o p e s a n d fears o f t h e
p e o p l e with s u i t a b l e answers f o r t h e i r q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e
knowledge o f t h e u n s e e n , d e a t h , a n d t h e h e r e a f t e r . This w o u l d
e n s u r e a l e a d i n g r o l e f o r t h e I s l a m i c s c h o l a r s and give t h e m a
type of s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y .

O t h e r Customs t h a t h a v e caused a G e n e r a l M i s f o r t u n e i n H a u s a l a n d
I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f Ntir-ul-Albab,

t h e Shehu m e n t i o n e d a

c a t e g o r y of c u s t o m s t h a t were h a v i n g a s e v e r e e f f e c t on
H a u s a l a n d . H e d e s c r i b e d t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s as a Balwa, which i n
A r a b i c , c o u l d refer t o a t r i a l , a t r i b u l a t i o n ,

an a f f l i c t i o n , a

m i s f o r t u n e , o r a c a l a m i t y . H e viewed t h e p r o b l e m t o be s o
w i d e s p r e a d t h a t it e n g u l f e d t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n . H i s w r i t i n g i n
t h i s s e c t i o n t o o k o n a t o n e of u r g e n c y and e m o t i o n , u n l i k e many
o f h i s o t h e r e a r l y w r i t i n g s which w e r e v e r y calm a n d a c a d e m i c .
T h i s emphasis l e a d s t h e r e a d e r t o b e l i e v e t h a t he r e g a r d e d t h e
e r a d i c a t i o n o f t h e s e a f f a i r s t o be o f e x t r e m e i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f I s l a m i c c h a r a c t e r , s o c i a l d e a l i n g s , and
l i f e s t y l e . T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e some o f t h e most r e l e v a n t issues i n

this c a t e g o r y .

F o l l o w i n g Christians, Jews, and Forefathers in Holidays and

Rituals

In trying to bring the lifestyle and habits of the people

of Hausaland into an ~slamicrythmn, the Shehu dealt with the

issue of establishing holidays, rituals, and traditions. He
confronted the so-called Islamic scholars as well as the people,
in general, concerning their special days and many of their
special forms of worship. He wrote:
Among the affairs which have caused a general misfortune in
this land is their (the '~1a.m~)
saying that this day is a
righteous day and that day is evil. Actually, all of this is
a fabrication and falsehood, and a prohibited innovation
which is contrary to the S u ~ of
a our Prophet Muhammad (May
Allah bless him and grant him peace), and the Sunna of the
Prophets and Messengers (peace be upon them), None of the
pious scholars in the previous generations, or Imam MBlik or
Imam ~hafi'ior Imam Abu Hanifa or Imam A$.mad ibn Hanbal or
their colleagues proceeding or following them ever said that!
This is nothing but a lie taken from the books of the Jews
and the Christians who replaced and altered the Books and put
the path of the Prophets behind their backs. And they
followed their desires and led many astray by diverting them
from the right path . . .And it is not permissible for anyone to
follow the Jews and the Christians because they are all
unbelievers. ..And
it is not permissible for anyone to make a
judgement based on the judgement of the Jews and the
Christians before they accepted Islam . . . But some people say,
" All days belong to Allah and a day, itself, can neither
benefit nor harm us. Furthermore, we found our fathers doing
it and so we will do the same." This is a grave error and a
prohibited innovation, and repentance and seeking forgiveness
from Allah is obligatory! 2 9 9
-

The Shehu seemed unusually preoccupied with affect of the

culture of the Jews and the Christians on Islamic society.

Christian or Jewish influence had not openly reached Hausaland by
this time , yet the Shehu quoted directly from Ibn al-Hajj to
-

299'

~thmanibn F t i d i , NUr-ul-AlbBb, 12-14.

apparently forewarn his people. In other writings, he was so

intensely against taking on Christian culture that he forbade his
followers to imitate them in any way. He questioned the excuse of
claiming that celebrating a special holiday or performing a
special ritual is the way of 'our forefathers'. His writings
reflect the projections of a scholar who was profoundly
influenced by the writings of his predecessors, even to the point
of mentioning holy days and festivals that were not yet practised
in Hausaland. He further wrote in this regard:
And among the affairs that have caused a general misfortune
in these lands is the preference for unimportant duties
such as prayers at night and on special days, acting on
false dreams, and forsaking clear knowledge such as
performing prayers on the first Thursday in Raiab, during the
night of the middle of Shaban, or the night of the twentyseventh of Raiab. Also, paying farewell to Ramadan, or
prayer on the day of '~shiira,or prayer at the grave, or
prayer for parents, or weekly prayers, and on every day
and night in which it is preferred. All of these actions
are false and fabrications against the Messenger of Allah,
peace and blessings be upon him. 300

The Shehu was addressing the foundation of the people's

concept of religion. Is it permissible for them to carry out acts
that are unimportant and leave those deeds that were done by the
Prophet, himself?

This was a very personal way to confront the

issue of religiosity, for the family celebrations and the special

occasions of a people are one of the most sensitive aspects of
their culture. The Shehu, then, took his attack on duplicity in
religion another step saying:
And among the affairs that have caused a general misfortune in

these lands is the pursuit of superfluities and different

lesser acts with the expectation of salvation, despite the
fact that they are engaged in prohibited acts, sins and
mistakes which they must desist from. Inevitably, many of
them neglect the obligatory duties and increase the
supererogatory acts and rush to carry them out. 301
The problem of the performance of supererogatory acts in
preference to the obligatory acts is a very academic question.
For the scholars of Islam, it was one of grave importance since
failure to carry out the obligatory acts would, in their eyes,
bring the wrath of Allah on the people and retard the progress of

Islam as a dominant way of life. By establishing the obligatory

acts, a Muslim is forced to place his own cultural preferences
behind the dictates of Islamic law, This brings about a real

change in lifestyle if consistently implemented. Shehu was

building his revival of Islam from the roots of the consciousness

of his people by questioning their most private affairs and

trying to bring them in line with che Sharia.
Grave W o r s h i p

One of the fundamental benefits that religion provides is

the feeling of protection and security. Throughout Africa and
much of the world, people have approached their religious Leaders
for ways to defend themselves against evil and gain blessings and
good fortune. In some cases, even the dead who were considered to
be pious were invoked or revered in their graves. Seeking
intercession (~hafa'a)or blessings from the dead was considered
Haram {forbidden) by Islam. The Shehu confronted the issue of

s e e k i n g b l e s s i n g s a t t h e g r a v e d i r e c t l y , and c o n s i d e r e d i t t o be

a major o b s t a c l e t o t h e s p i r i t u a l development o f H a u s a l a n d .
He declared:
And among t h e a f f a i r s t h a t h a v e caused a g e n e r a l m i s f o r t u n e
i n these l a n d s is s e e k i n g b l e s s i n g by p r a y i n g a t a grave
and b u i l d i n g a m a s j i d o v e r i t . T h a t i s b e c a u s e i t i s n o t
p e r m i s s i b l e t o p r a y a t t h e graves o r e r e c t m a s j i d s o v e r them.
One d o e s n o t wipe t h e g r a v e s ( t o s e e k b l e s s i n g s ) e i t h e r ,
since t h a t i s an a c t o f t h e C h r i s t i a n s . One s h o u l d n o t a n o i n t
o n e s e l f w i t h water from t h e grave o r take up d u s t t h a t i s i n
it, f o r b l e s s i n g i s s o u g h t o n l y b y v i s i t i n g t h e g r a v e . 3 0 3

The Shehu a l s o opposed g i v i n g s p e c i a l g i f t s a n d f o o d made

f o r t h e d e a d . H e wrote:
And among t h e a f f a i r s which h a v e caused a g e n e r a l m i s f o r t u n e
i n t h e s e l a n d s i s what t h e y do i n t h e way of
alms-giving

...

f o r t h e dead ...Shaykh Muhammad i b n w a d i b n Muhammad

al-Madyiini 304 s a i d i n h i s commentary t o F a t h a l - J a l i l ,
"Spending a n i g h t w i t h dead p e o p l e i s n o t h i n g b u t t h e
p r a c t i c e o f p e o p l e of i g n o r a n c e ; l i k e w i s e t h e f o o d which
t h e y make f o r t h e dead on t h e s e v e n t h day which they hope
w i l l b r i n g n e a r n e s s t o A l l a h f o r t h e dead and H i s mercy.
T h i s i s a n i n n o v a t i o n which was n o t i n what proceeded u s ,
n o r was among t h a t which t h e lama p r a i s e d . They s a i d
t h a t it was n o t f i t t i n g f o r a Muslim t o i m i t a t e a n

3 0 2 ~ h ican
s
a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d as an e r a d i c a t i o n o f a n c e s t o r
w o r s h i p where t h e dead a n c e s t o r s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be p a r t of
t h e s p i r i t world which s t i l l h a d an a f f e c t on t h e w o r l d of t h e
l i v i n g , I s l a m e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e d e a d had e n t e r e d a Barzakh o r
s p i r i t u a l zone of e x i s t e n c e which was t o t a l l y s e p a r a t e d from t h e
w o r l d of t h e l i v i n g . Muslims were encouraged by t h e S h a r i a t o
pray f o r t h e i r a n c e s t o r s and t o p e r f o r m a c t s o f d e v o t i o n t h a t
would b e n e f i t them i n t h e i r g r a v e s . The Shehu, i n t h i s s e c t i o n ,
s e p a r a t e d t h i s a c t from p r a y i n g t o t h e dead a t t h e i r g r a v e s . T h i s
was a f o r b i d d e n a c t . Concerninq t h e v e n e r a t i o n of a n c e s t o r s , t h e
Shehu t h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g s m e n t i o n e d a l - S a l a f a l - S a l i h ( t h e
r i g h t e o u s p r e d e c e s s o r s ) who e s t a b l i s h e d Islamic l a w and d e v e l o ~ e d
t h e v a r i o u s s c i e n c e s of I s l a m . H e f o c u s e d on r e a d i n g and
f o l l o w i n g t h e i r w r i t i n g s a s opposed t o communicating w i t h t h e m o r
s e e k i n g b e n e f i t s o r p r o t e c t i o n from them.
L

3 0 4 ~ Maliki
s c h o l a r of t h e
T r a n s l a t i o n o f NCm-ul-Albdb, 3 6 )

Berber

Zenaga

(Yusuf

Wali,

Unbeliever, and every person should stop his family from

attending such occasions. 305

I l l e g a l Business Practices
For the people of Hausaland, trade has always been a very
crucial factor in their existence. Internal trade was carried on

among the Hausa from the earliest times and was one of the key
factors in the emergence of the urban centres of commerce,
handicrafts, and later political power. Hausa people also greatly
benefitted from commercial contact with their neighbours and
itinerant merchants travelling to and from their lands.'06 The
Fulbe, themselves, developed a symbiotic relationship with the
Hausa by selling their dairy products, meat and manure, while
purchasing the Hausa agricultural products and h a n d i c r a f t s .
Business dealings, therefore, were one of the most important
interpersonal relations for the people of this region.
The Shehu, therefore, considered any deviation from
Islamic norms in business affairs to be a serious obstacle i n the
path of the establishment of Islam. He based his position on
direct quotations taken from al-Maghili in his Replies to Askia

by writing the following:

And among the affairs which have caused a general misfortune
in t h e s e lands is what they are doing by cheating in sales,
such as mixing milk with water, etc. This also includes the
one who buys an item, takes possession of it, and goes away
with it before he pays its owner its price. When he regrets
having done this or cannot gain a profit in selling it, or
when the original owner asks for the money, he says to him,
'Take your property or wait till 1 sell itr,
'05

'Uthman ibn F u d i , Nur-ul-Albab, 19,20.

'O6~ahdiAdamu, Hausa Factor, 37, 38.

140

And among the affairs that have caused a general misfortune

in these lands is cheating in measuring by adding or
reducing. This is prohibited in the Quran and the Sunna
and the ~ i m b ' , for the method of measurement in Islamic law
is for the measurer to place the scale evenly and then pour
the amount to be measured into it with caution, until it is
completely full. While this is going on, he should not add
weight to it, support it, shake it, or trick anyone. The
scale should be balanced in its position and the desired
amount should be poured into it until it fills up naturally
And among the affairs which have caused a general misfortune
in these lands is the lack of standardization in the
measures. his is prohibited. It is compulsory in Islamic
law to standardize the measures large and small until they
are all uniform. It is not necessary that the whole land agree on the measures, but the establishment of equivalency
in each village is necessary so they will be uniform.
307

The Shehu, also presented al-Maghili's precedent for the

distribution of wealth in the extended family, and encouraged
fair practices even behind the closed doors of the household by
writing:
And among the affairs which have caused a general misfortune
in these lands is the lack of distribution of inheritance
according to the Book of Allah, Most Glorious and Most High,
the Sunna and the 1jma4. On the contrary, what they do
is that when there is an elder heir, he takes possession of
all that is bequeathed saying, 'This property belongs to my
brothers and I have assumed the position of my father.'
Nobody will resist him in this, until after his death when
the strongest will take possession of what remains. This is
prohibited in the Quran, the Sunna, and the 1jrna4.
jo8

CONCLUSION
The social commentary of the Shehu revealed in this
chapter is only part of what he produced in the formative phase

307'Uthrnan ibn Fadi, Nfir-ul-Albab, 21, 22 ; J.0. Hunwick,

~hari'a in Sonshav, 89-90.
308~bid.,
21, 22; J.O. Hunwick, ~hari'
a in Sonqhay, 85-88.

of his career as an Islamic scholar and revivalist. The Shehu

never made the pilgrimage to Mecca nor travelled any long
distance away from Hausaland. His years of academic training and
the chain of knowledge from the scholars of the Western Sudan to
the scholars of the Middle East enabled him to comment on the
customs of his region from the eyes of the classical sources of
Islamic law. He quoted extensively from the classical sources and

seemed to be intent on showing his followers the precedents set

in earlier Islamic communities. His theological position was

strict yet very much in tune with his environment. Few have tried
to analyze his social critique and the solutions to practices
that he believed were unprogressive and dangerous to Islamic
development.
Hausaland had been frequented by Islamic scholars for over
five hundred years and social activists had appeared at varying
times. The Shehu was confronting religious practices that were
well established for centuries, and superstitions and traditions
that seemed to be part of the natural terrain. He, therefore, was

destined to meet opposition, even from the ranks of those who

also claimed Islamic scholarship. This would be one of his
greatest challenges, as we shall see in the next chapter. The
task of restructuring the ideas and concepts that pervaded the
very foundation of Islamic thought in Hausaland.

THE SHEHUr S IDEAS ON FUNDAMENTAL ISLAMIC BELIEFS AND STANDARDS

The Shehurs C o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h E x t r e m i s t S c h o l a r s

I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f o r m a t i v e y e a r s , t h e Shehu laid
e m p h a s i s on t r a n s l a t i n g h i s i d e a s i n t o t h e l a n g u a g e o f the common
p e o p l e and e n s u r i n g t h r o u g h his p u b l i c p r e a c h i n g t h a t t h e y had a
g e n e r a l knowledge o f t h e b a s i c t e a c h i n g s o f I s l a m . H i s c o n c e p t o f

a Muslim was one who c o n f i r m e d t h e b a s i c ' C o n f e s s i o n o f F a i t h f o r

Shahada ( T h e r e i s no god but A l l a h a n d Muhammad i s H i s
Messenger)

stated

The Consensus o f t h e S c h o l a r s h a s c o n f i r m e d t h a t whoever

a f f i r m s t h e ' C o n f e s s i o n o f F a i t h r s h o u l d be d e a l t w i t h i n
a c c o r d a n c e t o I s l a m i c Laws. H e may i n t e r m a r r y w i t h Muslims
and lead t h e p r a y e r s . The a n i m a l s t h a t he s l a u g h t e r s are
l a w f u l t o e a t , h i s i n h e r i t a n c e i s l a w f u l f o r Muslims a n d
h e may i n h e r i t from them, a n d h e s h o u l d be b u r i e d i n t h e
g r a v e y a r d o f t h e ~ u s l i m .s'Og

I n a F u l f u l d e poem, c a l l e d N i i b d u i i , t h e Shehu d e c l a r e d :
Alhamdu l i l l a h i e fin d i n go;
w u r t i n o y e n ji b d u e hanf doyego
M i s i l m i n o y i G i d a d o Kanndinado;
E'onfuh yo l a t i d o yo k a n n d i t a d o ;
Nufare'am yimango'en n j i b d u j i .
J i b u d i wobbe yo d i n g e d i l i ji.
N j i b d u go' o darido L a f i l a h a
i n k e yo k e f e r o nane s a f a h a .
Wondo yo non da juldo fuu t o s i m t r i r i ;
KO d a r o y a k i i n a warta k a f i r i .

309'Uthman i b n F a d i ,

Ihva al-Sunna,
143

41.

The English translation is as follows:

Allah be thanked for one's being awakened;
For being led out of wrong interpretation by being guided.
I salute the Beloved One, the Noble Guide;
And whoever that is properly guided.
My aim is to compose for us on wrong interpretations;
which have confused some and are infectious.
One wrong interpretation is, that he whoever stops at
La ildha 310 is to be termed an unbeliever, is utter
nonsense. If that were so, then every Muslim, if he says the
shahada; even if he does not stop short would become an
unbeliever.. .
The Shehu also maintained that all people were born in a
natural, God-fearing state and the basis of human life was
submission to the Creator. He quoted Shaykh 'AM al-Wahhab alshadrani (d. 973 A.H.)

from his al-Qawa-id al-Kashfivya (The

Illuminating Principles) to strengthen his views saying:

I heard our Shaykh, Shavkh-ul-Isldm Zakariyya, May Allah

have mercy on him, say, 'The beliefs of the common people
are sound according to the Consensus of all of the competent
scholars. They are Muslims even if they did not look at
the books of the Mutakalliman 313 because Allah, Most
310~his
is the first part of the Shahada, and it means 'there
is no godf.

Garba Saidu, "The Significance of the Shehufs

311~lhaji
sermons and-Poems in Aiami, in studies in the Historv of the
Sokoto Caliphate : The Sokoto Seminar Papers, edited by Y .B. Usman
(Department of History, A.B.U., Zaria, 1979), 2 0 6 .
312~l-~ha'
rani was known for his efforts to reconcile the
different schools of Islamic jurisprudence. He was one of Shehu's
main sources of Islamic judgements.
" 3 ~ h ephilosophers of ' 1lm a1 Kalam, a philosophical trend
that entered Islamic theology probably around the eighth century
A.D. with the introduction of the philosophy of Wasil ibn ' ~ t a
(d.748 C.E.) He began the Mu'tazilite school of thought which
'took its distancef from the Orthodox scholars and later
incorporated Hellenistic and Persian logic in its use of applied
reason and rational arguments to understand Islamic theology
(Cyril Glasse, The Concise Encvclopedia of Islam, (San Francisco:
Harper Collins, l989), 216-219).

High, h a s m a i n t a i n e d them i n t h e n a t u r a l I s l a m i c s t a t e o f
s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e C r e a t o r e i t h e r by t e a c h i n g p e o p l e t h r o u g h
t h e i r parent o r by n a t u r a l i n s p i r a t i o n . 4I'
Because o f t h e S h e h u ' s t o l e r a n t , i n c l u s i v e a p p r o a c h t o
I s l a m i c t h e o l o g y a n d e d u c a t i o n , h e w a s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h fierce
o p p o s i t i o n and b i t t e r c r i t i c i s m from e x t r e m i s t e l e m e n t s among t h e
s c h o l a r s and s t u d e n t s o f Hausaland. T h i s l e d h i m t o a u t h o r a
number o f works t o d e f e n d h i s t e a c h i n g s and n e u t r a l i z e h i s
a n t a g o n i s t s . I n d e s c r i b i n g t h i s c r i s i s , Muhammad B e l l o w r o t e :
H e ( t h e Shehu) f o u n d i n t h e s e l a n d s a g r o u p l i k e t h e g r o u p
mentioned b y al-Hasan a l - ~ u s i ' l ~ .They a r e a group who
l o o k e d i n t o t h e words o f t h e I m a m s who i n s p i r e d p e o p l e
t o s t u d y t h e s c i e n c e o f Tawhid ( U n i t y o f G o d ) , a n d
warned them n o t t o be i g n o r a n t o f it n o r t o b l i n d l y
f o l l o w o t h e r s . T h i s g r o u p began t o a s k t h e common p e o p l e
a b o u t what t h e y b e l i e v e d and b u r d e n e d t h e m w i t h h a v i n g
t o know t h e c o r r e c t answer. They may h a v e found p e o p l e
who c o u l d n f t a n s w e r p r o p e r l y , o r r e f u s e d t o respond, o r
were i g n o r a n t o f a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e F a i t h . They
even assumed p e o p l e w e r e a t t a c k i n g t h e F a i t h even when
they d i d n o t , and c a l l e d them i g n o r a n t o r u n b e l i e v e r s .
Then t h e y b e g a n t o s p r e a d t h e news t h a t c o r r u p t i o n has
a p p e a r e d i n t h e f a i t h o f the common p e o p l e . T h e i r s o l u t i o n
was t o r e q u i r e t h e common p e o p l e t o s t u d y t h e f a i t h i n
t h e i r f o r m a t , u s i n g t h e i r p h r a s e s a n d t h e method o f t h e
Mutakalliman . I t be ame known among t h e c o r n 0 n Pe o p l e
t h a t whoever d i d no s t u d y Tawhid u n d e r their s y s t e m
was a n u n b e l i. e v er.. They d i d n o t s t o p t. h e r e , b u t t h e y
a t t a c k e d t h e j u r i s t s a n d p s c h o l a r s o f t h e i r d a y ... t h e - s h e h u
n o t o n l y w r o t e o v e r f i f t y works i n r e f u t a t i o n o f t h i s
group, b u t he a l s o c o n f r o n t e d and d e b a t e d them b r i n g i n g

'I4 ' ~ t h m a n i b n F u d i , K i t a b Tanbih a l - T a l a b a

' a l a anna A l l a h
Mafruf b i l - F i t r a ( I n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e S t u d e n t s t h a t A l l a h i s
Known t o People, N a t u r a l l y ) , C e n t r e f o r I s l a m i c S t u d i e s ( C . I . S .)
U n i v e r s i t y of S o k o t o , 3 .

3 1 5 ~ h a y kahl - H a s a n al-Yusi (1631-1 691) was a famous s c h o l a r

o f Morocco (Middle A t l a s ) who r e s p o n d e d t o a g r o u p o f ' ~ l a r n af r o m
S i j i l m a s a who a n a t h e m a t i s e d t h e common p e o p l e on t h e b a s i s o f
t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o e x p l a i n t h e u n i t y o f God on t h e b a s i s o f ' i l m
a1 kalam. Al-Yusi r e g a r d e d t h i s p o s i t i o n a s extremism a n d w r o t e
A l - Muhadrat (The L e c t u r e s )

forth the reality and the trutha316

The actual, intended identity of this group of extremist
Mutakallimon has not been clearly pointed out in the available
literature of the Shehu or his contemporary scholars until the

present. M.A. A1 Hajj thought that they were those

lama who had

vested interest in preserving the established order. They were

denounced as

lama al-~a' (venal scholars) by the Shehu and were

motivated by personal, opportunistic intentions.317

Ahmad Kani

divided the group into three categories: the fanatics who

anathematized the laymen on the basis of scholastic theology, the
venal scholars who tried to justify political corruption,
immorality, and all sorts of evil, and those who placed
themselves as the sole arbiters of religious practice and social
behaviour .8'3

F .K . El-Masri did not connect the Mutakalliman to

the government, but thought that they were mostly young students
(referred to as talaba) who emerged in the context of the current
wave of renewal.3 L g
Current research suggests that the Mutakallimun, in the
Shehufs opinion, were not limited to Hausaland nor of
contemporary origin. Louis Brenner, in a recent study, felt that
the Shehu was describing the inheritors of an Islamic tradition

3 1 7 ~ . ~ .Al-Hajj, "The Writings of Shehu Uthman Dan Fodio: A

Plea for Dating and Chronologyw, Kano Studies, New Series, 1,
no.2, ( 1 9 7 4 / 7 7 ) , 8.

'"A.M. Kani, Intellectual Orisin, 62

"'~1 Masri, Bavan Wuiub a1 Hiira, 20.

dating back to the writings of the fifteenth-century Algerian

scholar Muhammad ibn Yusuf Al-Sanusi (d-1486 C.E.) who wrote a

short treatise known as Al-'Aqida al-Suqhra. This small book had

an enormous effect on Islamic theological thought in north and
west Africa by simplifying complex theological issues and
focusing on the obligations of the common Muslim and the related
question of who was in a state of Islam. It gained great prestige
when it was commented on by Shaykh m a d Baba al-Timbukti (d.

1627 C.E.) and later Muhammad ibn w a d Baghayogho al-Wangari (d.

1655 C.E,). By the nineteenth century, it had been translated

into Fulfulde, in which it was known as Kabbe, and was being

taught by Fulfulde speakers from Futa Jallon in the west to
Baghrimi in the east."'

Brenner speculated that advocates of

these doctrines known as Kabbenkoobe and persons of similar

orientation were the group in question. He objected to Al-Hajj's
allusion to venal scholars and their possible association with
the Hausa kings, stating that the primary sources did not
substantiate this claim.321
All of these well founded speculations and the writings of

the Shehu suggest that this group represented a trend in Islamic

theological thinking in nineteenth-century Hausaland that
appeared amongst the scholars and the students, whether they were

the Fulfulde speaking Kabbenkoobe or other 'Ulama from the Hausa

3 2 0 ~ o ~Brenner,
is
"Muslim Thought in Eighteenth-Century West
Africa: The Case of Shaykh Uthman b. Fudi", in Nehemiah Levtzion,
Eiqhteenth-Century Renewal, 44-46.

or the Tuareg. The Shehu did not specify the language or identity
of his opposition but divided them into categories and countered
their ideas.
In his work ~asa'ihal-Urnma al-Muhammadiwa, the Shehu
stressed the importance of the scholar's intentions for entering
into scholarly debate and discourse. He emphasized that the
correct intention is not to exploit the weaknesses of people or
to expose their mistakes but to give sincere advice. He warned
scholars and students against anathematizing people without a
solid basis, saying:
You should know that we do not anathematise anyone except
by means of a passage of the Quran, a passage from a
Hadith Mutawatir 322, or the Consensus of the scholars
(1jmd'). This proof should verify that the statement in
question can only come from a disbeliever.3 2 3
The Shehu, divided the extremist scholars and students into

four major categories. He stated:

There are four Satanic factions that have appeared
in our Sudanic lands. The first is a faction that denies,
fundamentally, the existence of disbelief in our Sudanic
lands. The second faction considers people to be disbelievers
based on their beliefs. The third faction considers people
to be disbelievers based on committing sins. The fourth
faction is made up of the followers of blameworthy customs.
324

The F i r s t Faction

The first faction of scholars and students refused to even

322~his
is a saying of the Prophet Muhammad which is
authentic and reported by a large number of reliable Sahaba
(companions of the Prophet). It is considered to be on the
highest level of authenticity by the scholars of Hadith.
"
"~thmlnibn

Ftidi, N ~ S B '
ih a l - U m r n a

al-Muhammadiwa, 3.

recognize the existence of Kufr (disbelief) in Hausaland. They

considered all of the people in the region to be Muslims even if
they clung on to polytheistic customs, like the veneration of
stones, trees, and sacred places. The Shehu declared that if the
reader had the least amount of intelligence and reason he could
see the folly of this argument, for there were groups of people
who never entered into Islam in Hausaland and could not be
considered believers.

325

He constantly referred to this faction

with contemptuous terms such as iuhhal (ignorant people), ashbiva

(stupid people), and dullal (lost ones) . The usage of such
offensive terminology for scholars shows the depth of the feeling
felt by the Shehu, whose language was usually very academic and
unemotional.
T h e Second F a c t i o n

This faction, according to the Shehu, was the group who

anathematised the common Muslims on the basis of their not

learning the religion and the methods of debating and defending
it from the books of the M ~ t a k a l l i m U n .He
~ ~ declared:
~

...there has appeared in these, our Sudannic lands, a group

of talaba who accuse the ordinary Muslims of unbelief,
and who say that anyone who does not read the books of
'11m al-kalam is an unbeliever. Nothing but delusion has
convinced them of that. The spurious argument which led them
to that (conclusion) is based upon what they found in the
books of '1lrn al-kalam to the effect that whoever believes
such and such is an unbeliever. They have a low opinion of
the beliefs of the ordinary Muslim and they accuse them of
unbelief because (they claim) that the faith which they hold
325~bid.,4. See, also, Chapter 5 (above) for a detailed
analysis of un-Islamic customs in Hausaland.

in t h e i r h e a r t s is far f r o m what i s found i n t h e books o f

' I l m al-kalam.

327

These s c h o l a r s a n d s t u d e n t s whom t h e Shehu, t h r o u g h o u t h i s

w r i t i n g s , referred t o as t a l a b a r e p r e s e n t e d t h e t r e n d o f

extremism i n f l u e n c e d by t h e w r i t i n g s of Al-Sanusi.

T h e Shehu t o o k

g r e a t care i n d e f i n i n g t h e i r m i s t a k e s and r e f u t i n g t h e i r
a r g u m e n t s . H e e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e a u t h e n t i c s c h o l a r s o f t h e past
(al-Salaf

al-Salih)

d i d n o t l e a r n t h e p h i l o s o p h y of ' 1 l m a l - k a l a m

i n o r d e r t o e n t e r i n t o d i s p u t e s o r d i s p r o v e t h e f a i t h o f any
p e r s o n . T h e y i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s knowledge t o c o u n t e r t h e p e o p l e
who were u s i n g p h i l o s o p h y t o a t t a c k I s l a m . 3 2 8 The problem w i t h
t h e p r e s e n t day s c h o l a r s and s t u d e n t s , he argued, c o u l d be summed

up w i t h t h e following:

Whoever r e f l e c t s on t h i s q u e s t i o n s h o u l d know t h a t t h e
d a n g e r of f a l l i n g i n t o a n a t h a m e t i z a t i o n s u r r o u n d s the
s t u d e n t s who s t u d y under a t e a c h e r who l e a r n e d from t h e
books of '1lm al-kalam w i t h o u t being aware of t h e t r u e
n a t u r e o f a f f a i r s . H e t e a c h e s them t h a t the r u l e o f Islamic
l a w i s based on s u p e r f i c i a l m a t t e r s .329
The Shehu, t h e n , compiled a work which proved that Shaykh

Al-Sanusi

had changed his views a f t e r w r i t i n g h i s f i r s t book a n d

a c c e p t e d t h e a p p r o v e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e Sunni scholars, o f n o t

327'~thman
i b n FOdi, ~ a w a d i ' awham a l - t a l a b a f i k u t u b ' i l m a1
a1 m i l l a , ( U n i v e r s i t y o f i b a d a n , M S 8 2 / 1 1 9 ) ,
t r a n s l a t i o n found i n L o u i s Brenner, The Case of Shavkh Uthman B .
Fudi, 4 4 .
kalam l i - ' u l a m a

3 2 8 ' ~ t h m a nibn FOdi, Tanbih a l - T a l a b a , 8,9. Also see I d e m ,

Tarwih al-Umma b i bavan t a v s i r a l - M i l l a , ( C . I . S . 1 / 3 / 3 7 ) , 7 ;
I d e m , ' ~ m d a ta l - ~ u t a - ' a b b i d i n wa a l - M u h t a r i f i n , (C. I . S . 1 / 8 / 1 3 4 )
7; Idem, K i t a b I r s h a d Ahl al-tafrit w a a l - i f r a t ila saws a l Sirat, ( C . I . S . ) , 26.
3Zg'Uthman i b n F u d i , K i t a b I r s h a d , 2 5 .

anathematising any Muslim for not learning the theories of '1lm

al-kalam.330 In a later treatise written in 1810 C.E. called
Hisn al-Ifham min Juvtish al-Awham, the Shehu summarized his
rebuttal of the Mutakallimtin by saying,

. . .This argument

is false and illusory according to the 1ima'

(consensus of scholars). The Imam, exceptional scholar and
Jurist Muhammad ibn w a d al-Qununi (d.1375 C.E.) stated in
his Sharh al-'~mdah 111-~asafi (the Explanation of the
Support of Al-Nasafi), "Their school of thought (a
~utakallimm)is proven false by the fact t h a t theprophet
Muhammad did not do such a thing in his time, nor did Abu
Bakr Al-Siddiq during al-Riddah 331. Moreover, Umar did
not demand this during his caliphate, even when he conquered
Iraq and was confronted by the Zatt and the Anbat people who
were known for their ignorance and lack of understanding. As
a matter of fact none of the companions of the Prophet or his
successors till the present day have ever made such a
demand.332
The T h i r d Faction

The third faction, took the position of anathematising

Muslims for committing major sins, s u c h as women taking off their

veils, men marrying more than four wives, or people neglecting
the orphans. This belief was considered extremely dangerous by
the Shehu who openly condemned its purveyors and linked them to
the Kharijites who anathematised Muslims and consigned them to
3 3 0 ~ .El-Masri,
~.
Bayan Wujtib al-Hijra, 20. This treatise of
Shehu known as ~ u i u ' al-shaykh al-Sanusi ' a n al-tashdid ila altaslid was in the possession of El Masri at the time of the
writing of his book, Bavan Wuinb al-Hiira in 1 9 7 8 A.D. Copies can
now be found at SHB, CAD-591, NHRS-151/2.
'"~uring the caliphate of Abu Bakr, just prior to the death
of the Prophet Muhammad, a large number of Arab tribes especially
those near Yamamah in central Arabia, apostasized and refused to
pay z a k a t (the annual poor due tax). This general rebellion or
apostation was known as Al-Ridda.
"2'~tthan ibn F O d i , Hisn al-Ifham min JuvUsh al-Awham, (Kano:
Kuwaliti Press, 1989 C.E.), 19-22.

eternal punishment in the fire of hell for committing even minor

sins .3 3 3

appears that this brand

takfir

anathametisation was imported into Hausaland by the Shehufs

teacher Shaykh Jibril ibn
obtained

from the

mar

who, according to El-Masri,

lexicographer and scholar,

. .)

Muhammad al-Murtada al-Wasici al-Zabidi (1732-91 C E

in Cairo

on his way back from his second Pilgrimage to Mecca in the late
1770,s .334 shaykh Jibril transferred his understanding to the
Shehu through direct teaching and poetic correspondence which was
carried by the Shehurs brother Abdullahi, who spent a longer time
(at that point) with Shaykh Jibril. The Shehu respectfully
corrected his teacher and Shaykh, by writing:

I say to the apparent understanding of the words of

the Shaykh (Jibril)..."that anyone who commits a major
sin is a disbeliever (kafir) even if he does not
consider his action to be lawful. Also, to leave the
Sharia, change Islamic laws, or imitate the actions
of forefathers in their former state of ignorance is
disbelief according to ~jma'." - This is Sharia that I am
not aware of ...therefore I have restricted anathametisation
to 'legalization of sinsf. Perhaps the Shaykh has a
position in this matter that we have not come across, for
he has been an enormous, well fortified sea of knowledge
in restricting anathametisation to the legalizaticn of sins.
It is also well known in the school of Sunni thought that
nobody can be accused of disbelief in the committing of sin
that is considered to be an obscenity, according to the
Quran and the Sunna, except when it is accompanied with
polytheism, or knowingly made legal. 33S

'"'uthmdn ibn F t i d i , ~ a s a 'ih al-Urnma al-Muharnmadivva, 2 3 ,

Idem., Hisn al-Ifham, 103.
El-Masri, Bavan Wuitib al-Hi ira,
335'~thman
ibn Fadi, hif fa' al-Ghalil fima ashkala min
Shavkhi ShuvOkhinZi Jibril (Curing the Ill-will that has issued
J.M.
from the Words of our Leading Teacher, Jibril), ( N . H . R . S . ,
1 / 1 3 341-347, Idem., ~asa'
ih al-Umma al-Muhammadivva, 22.

~ h r o u g h o u tt h i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e c r i t i c i s m a n d r e c t i f i c a t i o n ,
b o t h t h e Shehu a n d A b d u l l a h i , i n h i s p o e t r y

'",

w e r e very

c a r e f u l t o o p e n l y praise Shaykh J i b r i l f o r h i s v a l u a b l e
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o I s l a m i n t h e W e s t e r n Sudan a n d h i s s h i n i n g
example o f c o u r a g e a n d s i n c e r i t y , They a l s o s e p a r a t e d that which
w a s u n d e r s t o o d f r o m Shaykh J i b r i l f s words from h i s a c t u a l
p r a c t i c e . T h e Shehu s t a t e d :
The Shaykh ( J i b r i l ) was m o t i v a t e d t o do what he d i d by
g r e a t c o m p a s s i o n f o r t h e Muslim Urnma. The p r o o f o f t h e
f a c t t h a t the Shaykh did n o t a c t u a l l y c o n s i d e r Muslims
who commit s i n s a s d i s b e l i e v e r s b u t was j u s t b e i n g h a r s h
a n d s t r i c t , i s t h e f a c t t h a t he i n v o l v e d h i m s e l f i n
t h e m a r r i a g e s o f t h e s e p e o p l e , a t e t h e i r meat, a n d h a d
o t h e r d e a l i n g s w i t h them. I f he h a d c o n s i d e r e d t h e m t o
be d i s b e l i e v e r s , he would n o t have i n v o l v e d h i m s e l f w i t h
them a t a l l . 337
H e t h e n warned h i s f o l l o w e r s n o t t o m i s i n t e r p r e t h i s words,

saying:
My B r e t h r e n , beware o f d e v e l o p i n g s u s p i c i o n a b o u t t h i s
b l e s s e d Shaykh. Do n o t m i s c o n s t r u e what I have s a i d i n
o p p o s i n g h i s words. You s h o u l d n o t t h i n k t h a t I am
c e n s u r i n g him ...I o n l y o p p o s e d him i n o r d e r t o g i v e
sound advice t o t h e ~ u s l i m s338

T h e Fourth Faction
The l a s t f a c t i o n was t h e g r o u p who, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Shehu,

were f o l l o w i n g t h e blameworthy c u s t o m s that t h e y f o u n d t h e i r

p a r e n t s , leaders, a n d Shaykhs i n v o l v e d i n . They w e r e not i n t h e
h a b i t o f making r e p e n t a n c e for f o l l o w i n g t h e s e c u s t o m s n o r

?See

A b d u l l a h i ibn Ftidi, T a z v i n al-Waraoat,

"7'Uthman

90-93,

i b n FOdi, ~ a s a ' i hal-Umma al-Muhammadivva,

3 3 B ~ b i d .2 6 .

26.

recognizing their faults. Their condition was objectionable and

totally false, the Shehu concluded. Their customs were numerous
but customs alone should never s u p e r s e d e the Sharia or the

1irnaA.33g He listed as some of the evil customs: entering homes

without permission, women not covering themselves in front of
their husbandrs brothers, men and women of marriageable status
going out unaccompanied, marriage parties and other ceremonies

followed by corrupt practices, refusing to give inheritance to

wives or any female member of the family, and bowing and
humiliating oneself in greeting a superior person.340
Again, the Shehu showed that he was very sensitive to the
complicated issues of Islamic jurisprudence that were being
debated in Hausaland. He stressed that those who carried out
these acts were to be considered fasiq (a disobedient sinner)
unless they were legalizing their actions or trying to bring
ridicule to Islamic Sharia.

341

Conclusion
In concluding his analysis of the weaknesses and deviations

of the scholars of Hausaland, the Shehu declared that their

greatest spiritual sickness was hubb ul-dunva (loving the life of
this world). He felt that the essence of opposing these groups
was to follow the Sunna of the Prophet Muhammad. He summarized
very precisely how to reverse their ways and ideas by saying:

Opposing the first faction is carried out by anathematising

those who rule the Sharia with their disbelief, either by
not having entered into Islam or exposing their disbelief in
word or deed. Opposing the second faction is carried out by
not anathematising Muslims based on their beliefs unless
disbelief appears in their words or actions. Opposing the
third faction is carried out by not anathematising Muslims
based on their sins. Opposing the fourth group is carried
out by leaving all of the blameworthy customs. 3 4 2

The Shehufs Guidance to Scholars and Students

One of the Shehuts greatest contributions in bringing about
a profound change in the status of scholars and scholarship in
eighteenth and nineteenth century Hausaland was to re-define the
concept of an authentic Islamic scholar and provide the
343

lam%

with the intellectual tools to criticize their own

condition. By reforming the scholars, the Shehu intended to not

only weed out the corrupt elements among them, but also bring
about the transformation of the whole society. Most of his
writings during this formative period contained a section devoted
to the methodology of change, especially from within the
individual, Real change, for the Shehu, had to come about
initially within the

lama who, by virtue of their position as

interpreters of Islamic law, could rapidly bring about change in

the masses of the people. Of the importance of the condition of
the '~lama,he wrote directly to his scholarly brethren saying:

lama (scholars) and Tullab

343~hehufs
use of the terms
(students) are distinct in some cases and interchangeable in other
cases. In this analysis, they are both regarded as a part of the
same distinct scholarly class in Hausaland.

0 my Brother, know that the well being of the community

is

connected to the well being of its scholars. The corruption

of the community is connected to the corruption of itsscholars.3 4 4
In his treatise, Manhai al-'Abidin, the Shehu attempted to

outline some of the key factors that lead to the corruption of

the character of the

lama and the solutions needed to effect a

lasting change. In his distinct method of confronting real

worldly problems using the language and style of Islamic
scholarship, he focused on key weaknesses in the human
personality which would hinder the development of a totally
committed Islamic scholar, mystic, or leader. This kind of
critical analysis and resolution shows that the Shehufs concept
of transformation was not superficial or politically motivated at

this time. He was confronting the injustices in society from the

roots of the problem which, if transformed, would affect the
entire structure.

The Danger of Great W e a l t h and Position

As previously mentioned, many of the scholars (Ma1lamai)

had become so close to the rich and powerful that they were
actually part of the ruling class of Hausaland in the eighteenth
century. They benefitted from the exploitation and taxation of
the poor and either shielded the ruling class with religious
rationalizations, or turned their backs to injustice in the name

"" Uthman ibn Ffidi, Manhai al-' Abidin, translated by

Professor M.S. El-Garh, (C.A.D./Institute of African Studies:
University of Ibadan, 7, no. 1, 2, December, 1971), 29. This work
was based on the writings of the famous Jurist al-Harith alMuhasibi (d. 343 A.H.).

o f Islamic o t h e r - w o r l d l i n e s s .

The Shehu, whose r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g

a n d f a m i l y t r a d i t i o n p l a c e d him o u t s i d e o f t h e d i r e c t r o y a l
s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e , w a s t r y i n g t o f o s t e r independence o f
p e r s o n a l i t y i n t h e ' ~ l a r n aa n d dependence on t h e C r e a t o r . H e
wrote :
0 my B r o t h e r , I warn you a g a i n s t amassing w e a l t h t o e x c e e d
others, You s h o u l d s t i c k t o what i s sufficient of t h e
p e r m i s s i b l e t h i n g s a n d t h e n consume it w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n
o f s e r v i n g ( A l l a h ) . . .The Companions o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad
u s e d t o i n h e r i t l e g a l wealth a n d t h e n leave it i n fear that
it would c o r r u p t their h e a r t s .
0 my B r o t h e r , i f t h e c o l l e c t i o n of w e a l t h f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
p h i l a n t h r o p i c deeds had been better t h a n f o r s a k i n g t h a t
w e a l t h , nobody would h a v e s u r p a s s e d Muhammad ( t h e
P r o p h e t ) 3 4 5 in t h i s virtue. 3 4 6
0 my B r o t h e r ,

S a t a n s u f f e r s p r o l o n g e d g r i e f when o b e d i e n c e t o

A l l a h i s c a r r i e d o u t . S a t a n has h i s schemes. H e q u i e t l y

a p p e a l s t h r o u g h t h e l o v e o f p r a i s e , g l o r i f i c a t i o n , and
o s t e n t a t i o n ; t h e l o v e o f high p o s i t i o n s ; a n d t h e
f o l l o w i n g o f o n e ' s p a s s i o n s . So i f you are t r i e d t h r o u g h
p r a i s e and recommendation, d o n o t a c c e p t i t . T h i s i s
h a r m f u l t o t h e r e l i g i o n . "'
W e a l t h was c o n s i d e r e d , by t h e Shehu, t o b e a means o f
f u l f i l l i n g e a r t h l y n e e d s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , b u t n o t an o b j e c t o f
l i f e . Shehu seemed t o be a d v i s i n g the %lama

t o remain a l o o f from

t h e s t r u g g l e o r desire f o r w e a l t h in o r d e r t o be p r o t e c t e d f r o m
c o r r u p t i o n . I n o r d e r t o i n s t i t u t e I s l a m i c i n j u n c t i o n s and n o t
f a l l v i c t i m t o b r i b e r y o r fear o f p o v e r t y , a s many o f t h e
s c h o l a r s o f Hausaland appear t o h a v e done, t h e sincere scholar,

3 4 5 ~ hPer o p h e t Muhammad w a s known t o have g i v e n away a l l o f h i s

w e a l t h a n d n e v e r m a i n t a i n e d more t h a n his b a r e n e c e s s i t i e s .
346'

~ t h m a ni b n FUdi, Manhai al- bidin in, 3 0 .

i n t h e e y e s o f Shehu, would have t o shun t h e t e m p t a t i o n s o f the

r u l i n g c l a s s and seek comfort and u l t i m a t e p l e a s u r e i n t h e l i f e
a f t e r d e a t h . T h i s o u t l o o k would f o s t e r a k i n d of i n d e p e n d e n c e i n
t h e s c h o l a r s a n d e n a b l e them t o make d e c i s i o n s b a s e d p u r e l y on

t h e t e x t s o f the S h a r i a a n d n o t the n e c e s s i t i e s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r

t i m e t h a t t h e y found t h e m s e l v e s l i v i n g i n .
The Vice of Praise

I n t h e domain o f t h e r u l i n g c l a s s , p r a i s e a n d e x u l t a t i o n
p l a y e d an i n t e g r a l r o l e i n s e e k i n g f a v o u r w i t h p e o p l e i n p o w e r f u l
p o s i t i o n s o r g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o v e r t h e vain and t h e haughty. P o e t s
a n d p r a i s e s i n g e r s were p a r t o f t h e r o y a l e n t o u r a g e a n d
a l l e g i a n c e was o f t e n d i s p l a y e d by a c t s o f open s e l f h u m i l i a t i o n .
T h e Shehuts advice t o t h e

' ~ l a r n awas t o d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s from

anything t h a t falsely raised t h e i r status o r i n f l a t e d t h e i r

f e e l i n g s o f self worth. H e s t a t e d :
0 my B r o t h e r , i f p e o p l e f e e l s a t i s f i e d by t h e words o f p r a i s e
d o n o t y o u r s e l f f e e l s a t i s f i e d w i t h them. B e a f r a i d o f p r a i s e
s i n c e it h a s a s w e e t n e s s w h i c h rises t o t h e h e a r t a n d o n l y a
few a r e s a f e from i t , f o r s u r e l y there a r e amongst p e o p l e
t h o s e who p e r f o r m t h e i r deeds f o r t h e sake o f A l l a h n o t
d e s i r i n g by t h e i r d e e d s a n y but B i m . But t h e n , when t h e i r
v i r t u o u s deeds become a p p a r e n t a n d t h e y a r e p r a i s e d f o r them
a n d honoured, S a t a n c a u s e s them t o t a s t e some s w e e t n e s s ( o f
t h a t praise) .

, if
struggle t o refut
genuine fear o f i

0 my Bro t h e r

are t e s t e d b y t h e s w e e t n e s s o f p r a i
h a t from. y o u r h e a r t by h a t i n g it and

0 m y B r o t h e r , it i s unbecoming of the mind t o rejoice a t

a n y t h i n g t i e d t o t h i s w o r l d , s o how can o n e r e j o i c e a t v a i n

p r a i s e ? . .Do n o t t h i n k t h a t you a r e worthy o f pra i s e , l e s t

you c a u s e y o u r s e l f t o p e r i s h a n d t h e b l e s s i n g s w i 11 go away
f r o m you and your c o v e r s w i l l break open a n d - y o u r h i d d e n

shames will become apparent.

"'

The Shehu, in the language of Islamic scholarship, was

giving his followers a profound lesson in the dangers of
leadership. Praise and glorification have always been used as a
means of control over individuals who fall victim for their false

sense of security. The Shehu wanted his followers to concentrate

on t h e cause and t h e u l t i m a t e goal of their journey in life. He

was asking his people to focus on the Creator and not the rewards
of this world. They would then be able to focus on instituting
Islam in their lives instead of gaining a reputation or a
position in the ruling class.
Obstinacy and Unnecessary Disagreements

One of the great obstacles in t h e path of intellectual

progress and development throughout the Muslim world was the
overemphasis on the differences between the schools of Islamic
philosophical and legal thought. The Shehufs use of sources
favoured those scholars who took a liberal, inclusive approach to
Orthodox Islamic thought. He tried to mould the kind of
personality that would be emotionally and intellectually ready
for new ideas or different Islamic methods of confronting issues.
The conflict of different views would create challenges and
fertilize one another. In this regard, he stated:
0 my Brother, I warn you against obstinacy, for there is
no good in it and all types of evil are assembled in it.
Nothing is more despicable in the sight of Allah than
obstinacy.

0 my B r o t h e r , t h e t y p e s of knowledge and w o r s h i p a n d a l l t h a t
w i t h which w e t r y t o a p p r o a c h A l l a h , may he be e x a l t e d , a r e
p l e n t y . The s e n s i b l e p e r s o n o c c u p i e s h i m s e l f w i t h t h a t which
A l l a h has imposed on h i s h e a r t , a n d h i s limbs a n d i n t h e
knowledge o f p i e t y and a l l t h e a p p a r e n t and h i d d e n c o n d i t i o n s
a n d i n working i n g o o d w i l l a n d i n s i n c e r i t y of a c t i o n .

my B r o t h e r , I warn you a g a i n s t s e a r c h i n g about f o r p o i n t s

o f d i s a g r e e m e n t , Among t h e p e o p l e b e f o r e u s w e r e b r o t h e r s
who a g r e e d on matters c o n c e r n i n g A l l a h , b u t when t h e y w e r e
t e s t e d b y s e a r c h i n g and d i g g i n g deep ( i n t h e s e matters), t h e y
became d i f f e r e n t sects. So l e a v e d e l v i n g into a n d s e a r c h i n g
i n t o areas o f d i s a g r e e m e n t , T h i s i s a deep sea i n which many
p e o p l e b e f o r e u s have drowned. Hold f a s t t o that which t h e
Muslims have a g r e e d on, c o n c e r n i n g A l l a h , H i s A n g e l s , H i s
Books, H i s Messengers, H i s p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t s , t h e l a w s o f
His r e l i g i o n , a n d t h e Iirna' o f t h e r i g h t e o u s p r e d e c e s s o r s
( S a l a f ) . I n t h a t t h e r e i s t r u t h and g u i d a n c e . 349
0

Concerning t h e f o u r major s c h o o l s o f I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e ,
t h e Shehu wrote a t r e a t i s e c a l l e d H i d a v a t - u l - T u l l a b

(The Guidance

o f t h e S t u d e n t s ) w h e r e i n he expounded on t h e b a s i s o f t h e
f o u n d i n g of t h e s c h o o l s and t h e a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f n o t b e i n g
t o t a l l y restricted t o one particular way. He w r o t e :
A l l t h a t was o r i g i n a l l y b r o u g h t by t h e Lawgiver

(the
P r o p h e t Muhammad), p e a c e and b l e s s i n g s be upon him,
i s n o t d e f i n e d as a s c h o o l of t h o u g h t o f anyone. I t
i s t h e S h a r i a . A l l Muslims must f o l l o w it a s w e l l
as anyone who c a l l s t o it."'

S u r e l y A l l a h , Most High, d i d n o t compel anyone t o

s t i c k t o a p a r t i c u l a r r e c o g n i z e d s c h o o l of t h o u g h t .
W e have a l s o n o t h e a r d o f any o f t h e s c h o l a r s o f
t h e S a l a f commanding anyone t o i m i t a t e a p a r t i c u l a r
s c h o o l . . .351
A l l of t h e g r e a t J u r i s t s would n o t f o l l o w t h e i r own
words i f t h e y c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e Q u r a n , Sunna, o r

3 4 9 ~ b i d .3, 3 , 3 4 .

350'~thmani b n FUdi, Hidavat-ul-Tullab,

"l1bid.

2.

160

( Z a r i a : G a s k i y a ) , 1.

the 1jma' ."'

The Shehu followed these statements with a highly sensitive
discourse which encouraged the Muslims to follow a school of
Islamic jurisprudence, but allowed them the flexibility to leave
it if they found proof of a better position from another

scholar.3 5 3 This type of approach to Islamic law had profound

implications inside and outside of Hausaland. The Schools of
Islamic jurisprudence, although having developed from very
apolitical teachings taken from the leading jurists in the
centuries after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, had become the
basis for legal codes and Islamic lifestyle in the leading

Islamic empires and caliphates of the world. The Hanafi school of

thought had become the way of the people of Turkey, India,
Afghanistan, and Central Asia. 3 5 4 The Maliki school had become
the way of the Muslims of Andalusia, North Africa, and the
Sudanic lands. The Shafi' school had become the way of the
Muslims of Egypt, East Africa, Southern Arabia, and Southeast
Asia. The Hanbali school had become the way of the Muslims of

Syria, parts of Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula."' By breaking

3 5 3 ~ h a y k 'h~ b dal-Wahhdb al- ha'rani, one of Shehu ' s chief

sources of Islamic thought was renowned for his liberal approach to
different schools of law. He is reported to have embraced the
~ h a i'
f i school (while being ~Sliki)
, but later became neutral.
(A.M. Kani, Intellectual Orisin, 54).

or his school of thought was founded by Abu Hanifa al-~u'mln

ibn Thiibit ibn Zuta (700-767 C.E.)
3 5 5 ~ hschool
e
of thought founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d.855
C.E. )

down t h e b a r r i e r s o f t h e s c h o o l of t h o u g h t , t h e Shehu w a s a l s o
b r e a k i n g down n a t i o n a l i s m which h a d d e v e l o p e d a r o u n d t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f Islam. H e w a s a l s o p r e p a r i n g h i s f o l l o w e r s t o make
H i i r a t o other lands,

i f necessary,

f o r t h e y would be f l e x i b l e

enough t o a p p r e c i a t e o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f I s l a m and c o u l d a d j u s t
t o new e n v i r o n m e n t s .
The Shehu was v e r y c a r e f u l t o n e v e r r e f u t e h i s s c h o o l o f
t h o u g h t and h e warned h i s f o l l o w e r s t o be c a r e f u l n o t t o f o l l o w a
s c h o l a r i n t o a d e c i s i o n that c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s o u r c e s

S e l f Criticism

The S h e h u f s c o n s t a n t r e m i n d e r t h r o u g h o u t h i s w r i t i n g s i n
t h e f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d was t h a t c h a n g e b e g i n s f r o m w i t h i n t h e

individual. The

lama, b e f o r e anyone e l s e s h o u l d be on c o n s t a n t

p e r s o n a l v i g i l and ready t o c o r r e c t any f a u l t s t h a t m a n i f e s t e d

f r o m t h e i r a c t i o n s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t he w r o t e :
B r o t h e r , when p e o p l e a r e f i l l e d w i t h anger a g a i n s t
t h e one who s p e a k s ill o f t h e m , be n o t l i k e them. S t r u g g l e
t o t r a i n y o u r s e l f t o a c c e p t c r i t i c i s m with s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
i n s p i t e o f t h e d i s l i k e a n d b i t t e r n e s s which n a t u r a l l y
r i s e s t o t h e h e a r t a n d from which o n l y f e w a r e s a f e .
0 my

Harken, 0 my b r o t h e r , to t h a t which i s h i d d e n i n t h e s o u l s .
Do you find s a d n e s s a t t h e word o f p r a i s e l i k e t h a t which
you f i n d a t t h e word o f b l a m e ? Do you f i n d a n g e r a g a i n s t he
who s p e a k s w e l l o f you l i k e you find a g a i n s t he who s p e a k s
ill o f you? ...
0 my B r o t h e r , t h e t r u t h o f b e l i e f w i l l never be c o m p l e t e
u n t i l he who blames you a n d h e who p r a i s e s you are e q u a l
i n y o u r judgement a t the t i m e o f c l a i m i n g t h e i r r i g h t s . So
be s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e blame a n d be s a t i s f i e d w i t h the o n e
who c r i t i c i s e s . B e m e r c i f u l t o him a n d s a y s p e c i a l p r a y e r s

356'

~ t h m a ni b n Ftidi, H i d a v a t - u l - T u l l a b
162

4-6.

for him and respond to his needs if you are truthful.

The Shehu must have realized that to bring about meaningful

change in the %lama

and then in the society would require strong

criticism and self analysis. He, consequently, ended this

treatise by giving his readers a detailed prescription for
handling criticism and controlling pride and the need to be
praised.
Correcting Misconceptions

In his highly informative work, Hisn al-Ifham, the Shehu

summarized some of the chief areas of misunderstanding that had
to be corrected in order to bring about a revival of Islamic
consciousness. He challenged the

lama to confront their

weaknesses and stop making excuses. The following are a few of

the most relevant areas t h a t he covered

358:

And among their misconceptions is that some of them

have attributed t h e inability to accomplish to an act of
dependence on Allah.

is that some of them have

attributed the love of leadership to the love of calling to
Allah.
m d among their misconceptions

And among their misconceptions is that some of them have

attributed exaggeration to I itihad.359

And among their misconceptions is t h a t some o f them have

attributed humiliation to forgiveness.
And among their misconceptions is that some of them have
attributed wastefulness to generosity.
357'~thman
ibn Fudi, Hiddvat-ul-tullilb, 47.
'"~n e a c h case Shehu wrote that each practice was false
according to the Ijmar .
359'~thman
ibn F Q d i , Hisn al-Ifham, 122.

And among t h e i r misconceptions i s t h a t some o f them h a v e

a t t r i b u t e d arrogance t o dignity.

'"

And among t h e i r misconceptions i s t h a t some of them h a v e

attributed f e a r t o gentleness.
And among t h e i r misconceptions i s t h a t some of them have
a t t r i b u t e d bribery t o g i f t g i v i n g .
The Shehu was c l e a r l y d e l v i n g i n t o t h e hidden a r e a s o f t h e
psyche of t h e

lama i n o r d e r t o c h a l l e n g e t h e very e s s e n c e o f

a11 that t h e y had s h i e l d e d themselves with i n o r d e r t o maintain

t h e i r s t a t u s quo. H e a p p e a r e d t o b e f o c u s i n g on s c h o l a r s who w e r e
under t h e c o n t r o l of t h e r u l i n g c l a s s . I n a b i l i t y , l o v e o f
leadership, exaggeration, humiliation, wastefulness, arrogance,
f e a r , and b r i b e r y were some of t h e q u a l i t i e s of s u b j u g a t e d
s c h o l a r s who s e r v e d r u l e r s known t o imposed h i g h t a x e s on t h e i r
s u b j e c t s y e t wanted t o b e a c c e p t e d a s Muslims. Such a p p e a r e d t o
b e t h e c a s e i n Hausaland where i n d e p e n d e n t t h i n k i n g , s p e a k i n g
o u t , shunning b r i b e r y and wealth were n o t q u a l i t i e s t h a t would
endear the scholar t o t h e r u l i n g c l a s s .
T h i s k i n d of language was i n t e n s e and could be h i g h l y

o f f e n s i v e f o r w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d c o u r t s c h o l a r s . T h e Shehu,
apparently, wanted t o b r i n g about r a d i c a l change and p r o d u c e t h e

t y p e of l e a d e r s h i p t h a t would be a b l e t o c o n f r o n t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s
and t h e un-Islamic

customs t h a t had become a c c e p t a b l e t o s o c i e t y .

The S i n s of t h e Heart
T h e Shehu's

p r e s c r i p t i o n f o r r e v i v a l of t h e s c h o l a r l y

s p i r i t o f t h e al-Salaf

a l - S a l i h d i d n o t s t o p a t inward

m i s c o n c e p t i o n s b u t p e n e t r a t e d t h e i n n e r m o s t s a n c t u a r y of t h e
individual, t h e h e a r t . H e advised t h e s c h o l a r s t o purify t h e i r
h e a r t s saying,
0 m y Brother,

when p e o p l e a v o i d o v e r t s i n s o n l y , you should

examine v e r y c a r e f u l l y t h e s i n s o f t h e h e a r t , f o r t h o s e a r e
t h e ones t h a t b r i n g p e r d i t i o n . Amongst t h o s e a r e f e e l i n g s
of s e c u r i t y and d e s p a i r , b e l i t t l i n g of s i n , d e l a y i n g
of repentance, p e r s i s t e n c e i n disobedience, dissimulation,
o s t e n t a t i o n and p r i d e , l o v e f o r t h e adornment of t h i s world,
v y i n g i n w e a l t h a n d p o s i t i o n , d i s d a i n a t a p p e a r i n g humble ...,
d e s p i s i n g t h e masses, g l o r i f y i n g and b e s e e c h i n g t h e r i c h
w h i l e pushing away and d i s d a i n f u l l y t r e a t i n g t h e poor, envy,
h a t r e d , and s u s p i c i o n o f p e o p l e , and e a v e s d r o p p i n g and
t r e a c h e r y . 362
Here,

t h e Shehu p a i d p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o k e e p i n g h i s

c o n n e c t i o n t o the masses o f t h e p e o p l e . H e warned his s t u d e n t s o f

n o t o n l y t h e d a n g e r s o f o s t e n t a t i o n , p r i d e , and t h e l o v e o f t h e
adornment of the world, b u t a l s o the d a n g e r s of d i s d a i n a t
a p p e a r i n g humble, d e s p i s i n g t h e masses, a n d f l a t t e r i n g t h e r i c h
w h i l e o p p r e s s i n g t h e p o o r . Al-Maghili h a d c o n s t a n t l y r e p e a t e d i n

his Tai

"Moreover, t h e h e i g h t of a f f l i c t i o n is t h e i s o l a t i o n o f

t h e r u l e r from t h e s u b j e c t s . " The Shehu seemed i n t e n t on c r e a t i n g

t h e t y p e of l e a d e r s h i p t h a t would n o t f a l l i n t o this t r a p . H e did

n o t r e s t r i c t h i m s e l f i n h i s t e a c h i n g t o t h e s c h o l a r l y c l a s s as
d i d many o f h i s p e e r s ,

b u t he t r i e d t o d i s s e m i n a t e h i s t e a c h i n g s

among t h e masses o f t h e p e o p l e of Hausaland. H e t r a n s l a t e d many

o f h i s A r a b i c works i n t o Kausa, F u l f u l d e and o t h e r l o c a l
l a n g u a g e s and e n c o u r a g e d t h e common p e o p l e t o s e e k knowledge of
t h e i r f a i t h w h i l e s t a y i n g away from bad c u s t o m s and i g n o r a n t
362'

~ t h m a ni b n Fadi, Manhai a l - ' ~ b i d i n , 50.

165

behaviour. In his Fulfulde poem, Data1 Janna (The Path to

Paradise) which was a work of the same title and content as his
Arabic work Kitab TarXs al-Janna, the Shehu taught the common
people the purity of belief and urged them to put the basic
fundamentals of Islam into their lives. The following is a
portion of this poem:
Kulol Allahu tokkugo durn 0 Umri
He accugo durn 0 harmini renu haddi
Mo tokkayi wakkati je fu bofcatako
Ibadajiji madum fu yo guddi
The fear of Allah is to obey His command
And avoid what He forbids (and) observe the divine law
He who does not observe the prescribed times of prayers
His religious practices will always remain
incomplete. 363
The Shehufs quest for inner purity and his insistence for
inner purification amongst the

lama and the masses must have

kept him pondering in one of the most problematic arenas of

Islamic scholarship, the unification of the outward
manifestations of Sharia in the lives of the Muslims and the
inward manifestations of spiritualism and mystical experiences.

The Shehufs Concept of Islamic Mysticism

T h e I n t r o d u c t i o n o f Tasawwuf

364

i n the Western Sudan

363~aher,
Social Writinas, 44, 45.
364~cholars
have differed in their understanding of the root
of Tasawwuf (Sufism, Islamic mysticism) . The most agreed upon
etymology is that Tasawwuf is from the Arabic root of Suf,
meaning wool. This denoted the wearing of woolen garments and
devoting oneself to a life of mysticism. Other etymologies are as
follows; Ah1 al-Suffa, (devotees of a special area in the
Prophet's mosque in Medina, during his lifetime), Al-Saff alAwwal (the first row in the prayer lines), Safwana, a type of

Evidence of Islamic mysticism can be traced back to the

practices of the Prophet Muhammad, himself, who was described in
Islamic literature as being both a highly ascetic yet distinctly
mundane leader. He left his followers a vast amount of oral
tradition describing spiritual life and the knowledge of the
unseen. His companions and the next generation disseminated his
teachings throughout the known world. Some of these early Muslims
focused on the affairs of State and the expansion of Islamic
hegemony while others pursued the mystical path. Describing early
Islamic mysticism (Tasawwuf), Ibn Khaldun wrote:
This is one of the religious sciences which were born in
Islam. The way of the Sufi was regarded by the former
Muslims and illustrious men (the Companions of the Prophet),
the Successors and the generation which came after them, as
the way of truth and salvation. To be assiduous in piety, to
give up all else for Allah's sake, to turn away from worldly
vanities, to renounce pleasure, wealth, and power, which are
general objects of human ambition, to abandon society and to
lead in seclusion, a life devoted solely to the service of
Allah - these were fundamental principles of Sufism which
prevailed among the Companions and the Muslims of olden
times. When, however, in the second generation and
afterwards, worldly tastes became widely spread, and men no
longer shrank from such contamination, those who made -piety
their aim were distinguished by the title Sufi or
Mutasawwifa. 365
Although Tasawwuf, as a distinct philosophical trend in
Islam did not really consolidate itself until the last half of

vegetable, Banu Sufa, a bedouin tribe, Safwat al-Kifa (a lock of

hair on the nape of the neck), and Sufiva (passive form of 111 of
the root, ~ a f a ' ,to be purified). See Encvclopedia of Islam,
edited by M. Houtsna, Wensink, H.A.R. Gibb, etc - vol. 14 ( S - Z ) ,
Leyden, l934), 681.
"'1bn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, (London: Routledge and Kegan,
19671, 3 5 8 ,

t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y A.D.
C .E.) i n Iraq

366,

a f t e r t h e c a l i p h a t e o f ~ l - b l a b m a n (813-833

t h e e a r l i e s t s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s e n c e of Tasawwuf

i n the Western Sudan a p p e a r s t o be a t t h e end o f t h e f i f t e e n t h

c e n t u r y A.D. The Q a d i r i v v a h o r d e r

lb7

which had s p r e a d t o N o r t h

A f r i c a and became established i n Morocco by 1450 C.E.,

was s p r e a d

i n t o t h e E a s t e r n Sahara b y t h e S a n h a i a a n d t h e Kel-Es-Suq

368.

They d i s p e r s e d i n t o t h e desert and e s t a b l i s h e d Agades i n t h e Ahir

r e g i o n a s a s t r o n g h o l d f o r Tasawwuf. From Agades t h e i r i n f l u e n c e
p e n e t r a t e d the N i g e r r e g i o n and e v e n t u a l l y e n t e r e d ~ a u s a l a n d . ~ ~ ~
I n the Western Sudan, t h e Q a d i r i v v a h o r d e r was i n t r o d u c e d by t h e

3 6 6 ~ omore
r
o n Tasawwuf, see As-Sulami, Tabaaat a s - s u f i v a alKubra, e d i t e d b y Nuraddin (Egypt, 1 9 5 3 ) ; ' mar FarrQkh, A t Tasawwuf fif1-Islam ( B e i r u t , 1947) ; ' ~ l iHu jwiri, Kashf u l Mahifib, ( B e i r u t : Dar al-Nahdatul Arabiyyah, 1 9 8 0 ) ; Ibn Taymiyya,
Al-Furaan bavna A u l i v a Al-Rahman w a A u l i v a Al-Shavtan ( B e i r u t :
Al-Maktab a l - I s l a m i , 1 9 6 2 ) ; R.A. N i c h o l s o n , T h e Mvstics o f I s l a m ,
(London, 1963) ; A s - S a r r a j , Kitab al-luma' , (Baghdad: Maktab
Muthanna, 1960) ; M a r t i n Lings, What i s Sufism? (Berkeley:
U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1977) ; and A . I . Shah, I s l a m i c
Sufism ( N e w York: S . Weiser Inc., 1971) .
3 6 7 ~ hgea d i r i w a h o r d e r founded by Shaykh 'Abd a l - Q a d i r a l J i l a n i ( d . 1166 C.E.) i n Baghdad was t h e f i r s t t a r i s a ( o r d e r ) t o
emerge i n t h e Muslim world. U n t i l t h e n t h e p a t h had been
r e l a t i v e l y u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , a l t h o u g h g r o u p i n g s had formed a r o u n d
p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t u a l m a s t e r s c a l l e d t a w a ' i f . With a l - J i l a n i t h e
t r a d i t i o n began i n Sufism of l o o k i n g back t o a p a r t i c u l a r t e a c h e r
a n d c o n s i d e r i n g him a s a watershed i n method and d o c t r i n e . The
Q a d i r i v v a h i s w i d e s p r e a d from I n d i a t o t h e Western Sudan a n d has
i n c o r p o r a t e d a variety o f e x p r e s s i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s . ( T h e Concise
Encvclopedia of Islam, 3 2 1 ) .
3 6 a ~g~r oou p i n g s o f Berber s p e a k i n g Tuaregs, o f t e n c a l l e d
I n e l s m e n . Some o f t h e Kel-Es-Suq claimed Mashribi S h u r a f a
(Prophetic n o b i l i t y ) descent.

H i s k e t t , Development o f I s l a m ,

Kunta, a p o w e r f u l ,

s a i n t l y f a m i l y of Zawava c l e r i c s . 370

According t o a claim i n t h e s i l s i l a ( c h a i n o f a u t h o r i t y ) o f the

Kunta, t h e i r a n c e s t o r , S i d i +ad
1515 C . E . )

a l - ~ a k k a 'i ( d . a p p r o x i m a t e l y

was i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e Qadiriyyah o r d e r by Shaykh

Muhammad i b n ' ~ b dal-Karim Al-Maghili.

The t e a c h i n g s t h e n spread

q u i e t l y among t h e f o l l o w e r s of the Kunta a n d were l a t e r

disseminated i n t h e Middle Niger and beyond. D e s p i t e t h e

d i s p e r s i o n o f O a d i r i v v a h i d e a s i n i n d e p e n d e n t zawava t h r o u g h o u t
t h e Western Sudan, it was n o t u n t i l t h e l a s t h a l f of t h e
e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t t h i s Taricra i n i t s West A f r i c a n (Kunta)
form became f u l l y o r g a n i z e d . 3 7 1 S i d i Al-Mukhtar Al-Kabir AlK u n t i ( d . 1811 C . E
i n 1756/7 C.E.
He,

.)

s u c c e e d e d h i s m a s t e r S i d i ' ~ l ii b n al-Na j i b

as t h e khalzfa o f t h e Q a d i r i v v a h o f t h e S a h a r a .

t h e n d e v e l o p e d h i s own s p i r i t u a l f o r m u l a of p r a y e r s (Al-AwrZid

al-Oadirivvah

al-Mukhtarivyah)

and c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e b r o t h e r h o o d

by s e n d i n g h i s e m i s s a r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e Western Sahara, t h e

S a h e l , and f a r t h e r i n l a n d t o Futa J a l l o n and t h e Upper N i g e d 7 *

From t h e w r i t i n g s of the Kunta, it appears that t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
S i d i al-Mukhtar e x t e n d e d o v e r a v a s t p o r t i o n of W e s t A f r i c a . H i s
f o l l o w e r s c o u l d be found t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e region of Air
( A h i r ) , and K a t s i n a i n the e a s t , t o Tuwat i n S o u t h e r n A l g e r i a a n d
Wadi ~ a r ' ai n S o u t h e r n Morocco and t o t h e s o u t h as f a r as

3 7 0 ' ~ b d uA
l z i z B a t r a n , A n I n t r o d u c t o r y Note on t h e Impact o f
S i d i Al-Mukhtar Al-Kunti (1729-1811) on West A f r i c a n Islam i n t h e
1 8 t h and 1 9 t h C e n t u r i e s " i n J.H.S.N., 6, no.4, 1973, 3 4 7 .

" 2 ~ e v t z i o n , E i s h t e e n t h - C e n t u r v Renewal, 3 3 , 3 4 .

( p r e s e n t l y known a s ) S o u t h e r n M a u r i t a n i a and Kayor i n

Senegal. '73
S i d i al-Mukhtar g a t h e r e d t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f Shaykh ' ~ b d u l

Qadir a l - J i l a n i and added h i s own p r a y e r s ( a d ' i v a ) and

r e c i t a t i o n s . H e d e v e l o p e d h i s own approach t o Tasawwuf and
stressed t h e c r i t i c a l need f o r i t s s t u d y and d i s s e m i n a t i o n . H e

emphasized t h e i n n e r s t r u g g l e f o r c l o s e n e s s t o A l l a h which c o u l d
be g a i n e d o n l y t h r o u g h a Shavkh, b u t did n o t b i n d h i s d i s c i p l e s

t o one p a r t i c u l a r Shavkh o r w i r d ( p r a y e r f o r m u l a ) . Among t h e most

s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s of S i d i al-Mukhtar's

Tasawwuf was t h a t h e d i d

n o t c o n s i d e r zuhd ( a s c e t i c i s m ) t o b e detachment from t h e world,

but detachment of t h e h e a r t from t h e need for t h e w o r l d . H e

encouraged h i s followers t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r r i c h e s , as wealth w a s

t h e c o r n e r s t o n e of d i g n i t y ,

a u t h o r i t y , and r e s p e c t . H e a l s o

r e c o n c i l e d Tasawwuf w i t h F i q h , b e i n g a s c h o l a r o f h i g h r e p u t e
h i m s e l f , and was v e r y c a r e f u l t o r e j e c t taalid ( b l i n d a d h e r e n c e
t o one s c h o o l o f I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e ) and n a r r o w t h i n k i n g .

'74

The Impact of T a s a w w u f on H a u s a l a n d and t h e S h e h u

D e s p i t e t h e mention o f Al-Maghili

i n t h e s i l s i l a of t h e

Kunta c l e r i c s , t h e r e i s no documented e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t h i s
r o l e i n t h e f i r s t e n t r a n c e of Tasawwuf i n Hausaland. Furthermore,
t h e e x t a n t w r i t i n g s o f Al-Maghili t o t h e l e a d e r s and s c h o l a r s o f
the Western Sudan a r e p r i m a r i l y works of p o l i t i c s ,

A.Batran, An I n t r o d u c t o r v Note, 349.

l T 4 1 b i d . , 348; L e v t z i o n , E i q h t e e n t h - C e n t u r v Renewal,
Kani, L i f e and Works of 'Abd Al-Oadir, 9 4 , 9 5 .

administration, and jurisprudence.375

Al- Maghili, at that

point in time, may have been more involved in laying a foundation

for the existence of Islam as a state than in insuring the
spiritual purity of the individual.
Solid evidence for the entrance of Tasawwuf into Hausaland
has not been found. It can be assumed that contact had been made
before the eighteenth century, for the pilgrimage route across
the savannah of the Western Sudan and the constant economic and
academic interchange between the Muslim people (such as the Kunta
and the Ineslmen clerics) would have given Borno and Hausaland
exposure to this widely disseminated Islamic science. According
to Hausa tradition, the Oadirivvah was established in Hausaland
by Abdullahi Sikka, a scholar who lived around 1660-70 C.E. He
had obtained the wird in the Fezzan and is said to have been a
student of Shaykh Shams al-Din al-Najib ibn Muhammad of AnuSarnrnan, near Takedda. This meant that he was under the influence

of the Inelsmen Oadiri tradition.376

Shaykh Jibril ibn '

mar

was initiated into the Qadirivvah

order by Shaykh Muhammad al-Murtada al-Zabidi. He had also been

initiated into the Khalwativvah
"'A.M.

377

by accepting the wird in

Kani, Life and Works of 'Abd A1 Oadir, 97.

376~ervyn
Hiskett, Development of Islam, 246.
377~he
name derives from khalwa (a spiritual retreat). A
widespread Sufi order that was founded by Shaykh
al-Khalwati
(d. 1397 C.E.) The foundations of this order-are considered to be
voluntary hunger, silence, vigil, seclusion, dhikr (invocation),
meditation, maintaining a state of ritual purity,, and binding
onefs heart to the spiritual master. In the 16th century it spread
to Egypt and other parts of Muslim Africa.
(The Concise

mar

from Ahmad al-Dardir (d. 1787 C .E.) in ~airo.~"It was Shaykh

Jibril who initiated the Shehu and his brother \Abdullahi into
the Oadirivvah order and later the Khalwativvah. This meant that
not only did the Shehu come under the general influence of the
Kunta teachings that were disseminating throughout the Western
Sudan at that time, but he had a direct connection to the well
established Middle Eastern orders through his Shaykh, Jibril who
came out of the Agades tradition and made direct personal contact
with the leading scholars of the heartland of the Muslim world.
The Shehu mentions Sidi al-Mukhtar in his al-Salasil alOadirivvah (The Mystical Chains of Authority of the Qadirivvah)
with great respect, saying:
We have received this wird from many who have received
it from Sidi al-Mukhtar. It is one of the most venerable
awrad, in that it surpasses all others and its possessor
will die in the best state no matter what he ha; done . 3 7 g
Despite the Shehurs admiration for Sidi al-Mukhtar and
Sidifs open support for the cause of Shehu

"O,

the Shehu was

Encvclopedia of Islam, 221).

3 7 8 ~ ezion,
vt
Eiqhteenth-Century Renewal, 32.

~ t h r n a nibn Ftidi, al-Salasil al-Oadirivyah (C.I.S .

1/6/92), 7. See also, Idem, al-Salasil al-Dhahabivvah li al-Sadat
al-Suf ivvah, C.I. S. 1/6/91, and Idem, Kitab Tabshir al-Umrna afAhmadivvah fi BavZin al-Manasib al-Oadirivvah, C.I.S. 1/3/35.
37g'

380~uhammad
Bello in his Infas al-Maisur, reported one of
Sidi al-Mukhtarfs students , Wahib al-Amawiy, said: "One day the
Shaykh (al-Mukhtar) appeared and said, " The complete saints
today are three. One is an Arab who lives beyond Syria. His light
is the light of La ilaha illa Allah (the shahada). The other is a
Fallati (Fulbe) in the lands of the Sudan, '~thmanibn Ftidi. His
light is the light of the seal of the Messenger of Allah which is
on his left shoulder. The other one has the light of the heart of

n o t formally i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h e Oadiriyvah-Mukhtarivvah o r d e r
till 1 8 1 2 C . E . ,

when Shaykh A l f a Nuh i b n T a h i r , a disciple o f

S i d i al-Mukhtar and a mystic s c h o l a r o f great r e p u t e f o r m a l l y

brought t h e w i r d t o ~ a u s a l a n d . ~ T
" h e Shehurs main e a r l y
c o n n e c t i o n t o the knowledge of Tasawwuf came t h r o u g h Shaykh
J i b r i l whose m i l i t a n t a p p r o a c h t o c h a n g i n g s o c i e t y ,

radiated

t h r o u g h o u t all o f h i s t e a c h i n g s .
Tasawwuf i n t h i s e a r l y f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d had n o t taken t h e

f o r m of p o w e r f u l Tariqas w i t h t h e i r own i d e o l o g y and s o c i a l o r

p o l i t i c a l g o a l s . I t a p p e a r s t o have b e e n a s p i r i t u a l m e t h o d o l o g y
f o r p r e p a r i n g s c h o l a r s a n d i n i t i a t e s t o face the difficulties o f
l i f e and the s u f f e r i n g of e s t a b l i s h i n g I s l a m i c v a l u e s i n s o c i e t y .

Shehu and h i s f o l l o w e r s were n o t r e s t r i c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o o n e

s e t o f p r a y e r s o r one s p e c i f i c f o r m o f Tasawwuf. D e s p i t e this

f l e x i b i l i t y , t h e Shehu w a s r e g a r d e d as a Dadiri S u f i s i n c e h i s
s p i r i t u a l bonds were e x p r e s s e d more closely w i t h Shaykh a l - J i l a n i
t h a n any o f t h e o t h e r Awliva (saints). H i s m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e
w i t h Shaykh a l - J i l a n i

i n 1794 C.E.

w a s a t u r n i n g p o i n t for h i s

career. The s y m b o l i c b l e s s i n g o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad, himself,

t h r o u g h t h e a u s p i c e s o f Shaykh a l - J i l a n i who ( a s p r e v i o u s l y
m e n t i o n e d ) c o n f e r r e d on t h e Shehu, i n a dream, o b j e c t s i n d i c a t i v e

t h e Messenger o f A l l a h . " H e (al-Mukhtar) d i d n o t r e v e a l who h e

w a s , b u t w e knew it w a s h i m s e l f . ' I ( I n f a q al-Maisur, 2 2 4 ) .
'"A.A.

B a t r a n , An I n t r o d u c t o r v Note, 3 5 0 .
173

o f s p i r i t u a l a n d moral a u t h o r i t y

382,

meant t h a t i t was t h r o u g h

t h a t Shehu a n d l a t e r h i s f o l l o w e r s w e r e s p i r i t u a l l y
s t r e n g t h e n e d and h i s d e c i s i o n t o b e g i n t h e j i h a d was o f f i c i a l l y
endorsed.
The Shehuts Approach to Tasawwuf
Throughout t h e w r i t i n g s o f Shehu o n Tasawwuf, t h e r e a d e r
s e n s e s t h e s o b e r c a u t i o u s n e s s o f a s c h o l a r o f S h a r i a . The S h e h u ' s
s t r o n g academic g r o u n d i n g i n t h e Quran, t h e Sunna, a n d t h e
m a i n s t r e a m I s l a m i c s c i e n c e s seemed t o a c t a s an a n c h o r k e e p i n g
h i m w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f t h e I s l a m i c Orthodoxy. H e c o n t i n u e d t o

d i s p l a y h i s m e t h o d i c a l , w e l l documented s t y l e o f c l e a r l y d e f i n i n g

the s u b j e c t m a t t e r , a l w a y s l e a v i n g room f o r t h e s c h o l a r t o a p p l y
t h e teachings t o h i s p a r t i c u l a r circumstance, b u t being very

particular t o a v o i d t h e most c o n t r o v e r s i a l , vague a r e a s ( i n t h i s

case-Sufi

m y s t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y ) . I n d e f i n i n g t h e b a s i s o f Tasawwuf

a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o t h e r forms o f I s l a m i c knowledge, t h e
Shehu w r o t e :
0 my B r o t h e r , know t h a t t h e t y p e s o f knowledge t h a t a r e

compulsory upon you are t h r e e . T h e knowledge of Tawhid,

t h e knowledge of S h a r i a , and t h e secret knowledge o r t h e
knowledge of t h e h e a r t , . ,The c o m p u l s o r y p a r t of t h e
knowledge of Tawhid i s t h e amount n e e d e d t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e b a s i s of t h e r e l i g i o n ...C o n c e r n i n g S h a r i a , you s h o u l d
have knowledge o f e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s m a n d a t o r y f o r you t o
p e r f o r m s u c h a s p u r i f i c a t i o n , f a s t i n g , prayer, e t c . ..
C o n c e r n i n g secret knowledge, you s h o u l d know a l l t h a t h a s
been made compulsory o r p r o h i b i t e d i n g a i n i n g a w a r e n e s s
of t h e g r e a t n e s s of A l l a h , s i n c e r i t y , the r i g h t i n t e n t i o n s ,

he g r e e n m a n t l e ,
truth.

the s p e c i a l t u r b a n ,

and t h e sword o f

integrity, and action.3s3

The Shehu defined the basis of wilava (Sufi sainthood) as a
state which was not out of the reach of the ordinary,
knowledgeable, practising Muslim by saying:
Know, my Brother, that the principles and conditions of
wilava are based on adhering to the Quran and the Sunna,
leaving desires and bid'a, enhancing the respect for the
Shaykhs, considering the rest of creation to be non-existent,
persistence in reading the prescribed prayers (awrad), and
leaving allowable concessions in religion. '"
He, then quoted Sahl ibn '~bdullah:
Our principles for (wilava) are based on six things, the
Book of Allah and the Sunna of His Messenger, eating halal
(permissible foods) , refraining from harming anyone, avoiding
sins, repentance, and fulfilling obligations.

In his treatise, al-Tafrisa, the Shehu stated that the

crucial factors in the discussion around Tasawwuf can be
summarized in four parts:
Reminding the inner self of praiseworthy character and
purifying it of blameworthy characteristics.
Purging the deeds and the general condition by purifying
the inner self through good character and staying away
from blameworthy characteristics.
Realizing this purity in the general state of the
individual and his dealings.
Realizing the higher levels of spirituality and spiritual
knowledge.
383'~thman
ibn Ftidi, Kitab Taris al-Janna min Asrar Kalam Abi
HZlmid al-Ghazdli, copies of this work can be found at

and other institutions in Nigeria.

m,

NAK,

384'~thmanibn Ftidi, Kitab UsDl al-Wilava (printed with Hausa

translation by the Ministry of Education of Northern Nigeria), 2.
A copy can also be found in NAK and Kano (BU), 1 9 7 .

~thmanibn Fodi, al-Tafrisa bayna ' Ilm al-Tasawwuf li' 1Takhallus wa ' 11m al-Tasawwuf li'l-~ahaqquq wa Madakhil Iblls (The
Difference between Sufi Knowledge for Character building and Sufi

H e q u a l i f i e d t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s u f i i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e

scholar of jurisprudence

(faaih) saying:

The view o f t h e fasih i s b r o a d e r t h a n t h e view of the siifi

t h e r e f o r e t h e r e j e c t i o n o r d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h e s O f i by t h e
fasih i s c o r r e c t b u t t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e fasih b y t h e stifi
i s i n c o r r e c t . 387
Tasawwuf, t h e r e f o r e ,

i n t h e v i e w o f t h e Shehu was n o t a

separate s p i r i t u a l d i s c i p l i n e t h a t could be properly experienced

o r u n d e r s t o o d b y i t s e l f . I t w a s a n o t h e r l e v e l o f knowledge w i t h i n
t h e broad framework of I s l a m . H e d i v i d e d Tasawwuf i n t o two
l e v e l s . The b a s i c l e v e l w a s t h e c h a r a c t e r b u i l d i n g and p u r i f y i n g
s t a g e which e v e r y Muslim s h o u l d i n v o l v e h i m s e l f i n (Tasawwuf
l i ' l - ~ a k h a l l u q ) . The next l e v e l was t h e s t a g e o f s p i r i t u a l
r e a l i z a t i o n (Tasawwuf l i ' l - ~ a h a c m u q ) . T h i s w a s reserved,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Shehu, f o r t h e s t u d e n t s and s c h o l a r s who had
developed t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e p o i n t where t h e y c o u l d b e n e f i t from a
profound s p i r i t u a l e n c o u n t e r .

I t must be emphasized h e r e

a g a i n t h a t t h e Shehu was v e r y c a r e f u l i n h i s w r i t i n g s on

Tasawwuf, a t any l e v e l , t o a v o i d any area t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d t o

be o u t s i d e o f t h e l i m i t s o f S h a r i a .

Knowledge f o r S p i r i t u a l R e a l i z a t i o n and t h e I n r o a d s of t h e D e v i l ) ,
( H i s t o r y Bureau L i b r a r y , Sokoto, access no. 3 1 0 ) , 3. T h i s work,
a l t h o u g h recommended t o t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r b y D r . A h a d Muhammad
Kani of Usman Dan Fodio U n i v e r s i t y , Sokoto, N i g e r i a , was c l a s s i f i e d
b y P r o f e s s o r John Hunwick i n h i s The ~ e n t r a iSudan Before 1800:
B i o s r a p h i e s a n d B i b l i o s r a p h i e s as a "Work o f u n c e r t a i n o r d o u b t f u l
a t t r i . b u t i o n t t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e stat.ements t a k e n from t h e t e x t have
b e e n checked w i t h t h e more c l e a r l y a u t h e n t i c works b e f o r e b e i n g
used i n t h i s t h e s i s .

380'UthmZm ibn Ftidi, Hisn al-Afham,

112, 113.

~ i d ' a and Extremism in T a s a w w u f

I n h i s major work on Sunna and ~ i d ' a , Ihva al-Sunna,

the

Shehu s t r e s s e d that t h e p r a c t i c e o f Tasawwuf s h o u l d always be

a p p r o a c h e d chrough t h e methods o f t h e Sunna o f t h e P r o p h e t
Muhammad, and t h a t a l l a c t i o n s and p r a y e r f o r m u l a s s h o u l d b e
v e r i f i e d t h r o u g h h i s example. T h e Shehu p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t r u e
s p i r i t u a l i t y i s r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h some o f t h e following:
Everyone s h o u l d f o l l o w t h e example o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad
i n a 1 1 t h a t t h e y do i n t h i s a r e a .
Awareness o f A l l a h by p r a c t i s i n g all of t h e deeds of
Islamic l i f e s t y l e , w h e t h e r t h e y be c o m p u l s o r y a c t s
o r optional.
Awareness o f A l l a h by a v o i d i n g a l l of t h e p r o h i b i t e d a c t i o n s
w h e t h e r t h e y b e minor o r major. A l s o , a v o i d a n c e of t h e
undesirable actions

...

Avoidance b y t h e w o r s h i p p e r of t h i n k i n g t h a t h e i s b e t t e r
t h a n anyone else, f o r he d o e s n o t know how h e w i l l end h i s
life.
And t a k i n g on a l l of t h e a s p e c t s of Iman ( f a i t h ) which i s . . .
d i v i d e d i n t o more t h a n s i x t y p a r t s .
~ i d ' a , on t h e o t h e r hand, o c c u r s when t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r o f
Tasawwuf does n o t u s e t h e Sunna as h i s g u i d e , b u t i n v o l v e s
himself i n practices t h a t a r e inconsistent w i t h Islamic values.
H e l i s t e d some o f them as f o l l o w s :

Some o f t h e p e o p l e t i e t h e m s e l v e s up w i t h i r o n o r rope,
o r burn t h e i r bodies with f i r e i n o r d e r t o s t r e n q t h e n
themselves through hardship. This i s a p r o h i b i t e &
i n n o v a t i o n by 1irna' f o r it i s h a r m f u l t o t h e p e r s o n .
A l s o , s e c l u d i n g o n e s e l f w i t h o u t having m e d i c a l r e a s o n s i s
p r o h i b i t e d by t h e agreement of t h e s c h o l a r s .

3 8 9 \ ~ t h m ainb n F u d i , I h v a al-Sunna,
177

270,

271.

A l s o , l i s t e n i n g to music f o r s p i r i t u a l u p l i f t m e n t w i t h
m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t h a v e been p r o h i b i t e d by the
m a j o r i t y o f t h e s c h o l a r s i s w e l l known t o be a p r o h i b i t e d
i n n o v a t i o n . 390
The Shehu was making a p e n e t r a t i n g c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e
d e g e n e r a t i o n o f Tasawwuf i n o t h e r parts o f t h e Muslim w o r l d a n d
t r y i n g t o p r o t e c t h i s f o l l o w e r s from f a l l i n g i n t o i t . A c c o r d i n g
t o The C o n c i s e E n c ~ c l o p e d i ao f Islam, " T h e O a d i r i y v a h o r d e r i n
t h e Arab w e s t w a s c a l l e d t h e J i l % l a h a n d i t s p r a c t i c e was marked
b y a n i n t r u s i o n o f " f o l k " S u f i s m which r e s u l t e d i n t h e c o r r u p t i o n

of t h e hadra (sacred s a f i p r o c e s s i o n ) i n t o t r a n c e d a n c i n g , a n d a n
e m p h a s i s on u n u s u a l s t a t e s o f mind. These s p e c i a l s t a t e s o f mind
were s u p p o s e d t o b r i n g a b o u t p r o d i g i o u s

feats b u t u s u a l l y proved

d e t r i m e n t a l t o any c o h e r e n t s p i r i t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i r e c s t a t i c
d a n c i n g w a s accompanied b y f l u t e and drum m u s i c a n d o f t e n
performed i n p u b l i c . "

391

The Shehu e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e s e

p r a c t i c e s were n o t found i n t h e Sunna a n d t h e r e f o r e s h o u l d be

avoided a t a l l c o s t s .
Following t h i s "sober" approach t o s a f i p r a c t i c e s , t h e
Shehu q u a l i f i e d his p o s i t i o n b y c o n f i r m i n g h i s c a u t i o u s
a c c e p t a n c e o f the u n u s u a l s p i r i t u a l c l a i m s o f the Awliya

392.

He

stated:

And among t h e ~ i d ' ai s t h e d e n i a l of t h e m i r a c l e s o f

t h e Awlivd. T h i s i s a p r o h i b i t e d i n n o v a t i o n a c c o r d i n g

"" uthman

i b n Ftidi,

The C o n c i s e E n c v c l o p e d i a o f Islam, 3 2 1 .
3 g ' ~ y r i Glasse,
l
jq2wali, p l u r a l Awliva, c a n a l s o b e d e f i n e d a s t h e f r i e n d of
A l l a h , meaning t h e Muslim who has come c l o s e to A l l a h t h r o u g h h i s
sincerity, prayers, o r actions.

to the limaA. The learned people have even said that

the denier of miracles may have a terrible end.
Also, if an unqualified person claims these miracles, it
is a prohibited innovation according to the 1imaA. The
learned people have even said that the one who makes these
claims may have a terrible end.
Also, the one who looks into the books of kashf
(illumination) and cannot even distinguish between a small
ant and an elephant has committed a prohibited innovation.
Looking into the books of the people of kashf is not
permissible except for t h e scholar who knows the Book of
Allah and the Sunna of His Messenger. He will consequently,
take from them what his reason leads him to and avoid that
which is not clear. He will be saved from it and not practice
it.
Another ~id'a is to act on spiritual inspiration or voices
heard during spiritual illumination without subjecting them
to the Book of Allah and the Sunna of His ~essengero r the
rules set up by the S a l a f (orthodox scholars). This is a
prohibited innovation according to the 1ima'.
Also, the claim that the wali has reached the level where he
is no longer responsible to carry out the open practices of
Islam, This is a prohibited innovation according to the
I jm$ . 39'
The Shehurs guidelines were very much in line with his main
sources Shaykh al-Ghazali, Shaykh %mad

al-Zarrouq, Shaykh al-

shadrani, Sidi al-Mukhtar, Shaykh J i b r i l ibn

mar,

etc. They

were all known to have avoided the extreme, un-scholarly approach

to Tasawwuf which relies more on dreams and personal inspiration
than well founded Islamic reason and guidance. What is
significant in the Shehu's approach, however, is his all
inclusive way of including the discussion of Tasawwuf with the
discussion of other very mundane Islamic practices. He represents

a clear, flowing balance between Sharia and Hasisa (the sufi term
393

'Uthrnan ibn Fudi,

f o r t h e i n n e r r e a l i t y ) . He a l s o challenged the extreme elements

i n t h e Muslim w o r l d by condemning Islamic m y s t i c i s m w i t h o u t

S h a r i a and S h a r i a w i t h o u t s p i r i t u a l i t y . T h e f o l l o w i n g i s a n
example of o n e o f t h e many a r g u m e n t s t h a t Shehu u s e d t o c o n f i r m
his position:

...T h e r e i s no Tasawwuf w i t h o u t F i q h b e c a u s e you c a n n o t

know Allah's e x t e r n a l r u l e s w i t h o u t i t . T h e r e i s no
F i s h w i t h o u t Tasawwuf f o r there i s no c o n s e q u e n c e i n F i s h
w i t h o u t t r u e i n c l i n a t i o n ( t o A l l a h ) . And there c a n be n e i t h e r
o f them w i t h o u t Iman ( f a i t h ) , f o r none o f them a r e v a l i d
w i t h o u t i t . T h e r e f o r e , it was s a i d , "Whoever p r a c t i c e s
Tasawwuf w i t h o u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g F i s h has c o m m i t t e d h e r e s y ,
and whoever u n d e r s t a n d s F i s h b u t d o e s n o t p r a c t i c e Tasawwuf
has become a d i s o b e d i e n t s i n n e r , b u t whoever combines t h e
b o t h o f them has r e a c h e d t h e t r u e r e a l i t y ( s t a t e m e n t o f I m a m
Malik ibn Anas). 3 9 4
The Shehufs P r a c t i c a l Application o f Tasa w w u f
The Shehu endeavoured t o p r e s e n t Tasawwuf i n a p r a c t i c a l ,

r e a l i s t i c manner by s e p a r a t i n g l e v e l s o f s p i r i t u a l i n v o l v e m e n t .
The s p e c i a l i z e d l e v e l , Tasawwuf l i ' l - ~ a h a o a u q , d i d n o t a p p e a r ,
f r o m h i s w r i t i n g s , t o have been h i s m a j o r f o c u s i n the f o r m a t i v e
p e r i o d . R e f e r e n c e t o t h e s y s t e m o f Shavkh-Murid ( m a s t e r d i s c i p l e ) , i n t h e SOfi s e n s e , can be f o u n d i n h i s w r i t i n g s s u c h
as a l - S a l a s i l

al-Dhahabivva,

al-Salasil

al-Uadirivvah,

Tabshir

al-Umma a l - ~ h m a d i v v a , and o t h e r s . C o n t r a r y t o h i s h i g h l y o r t h o d o x

p o s i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g ~ i d ' aa n d Sunna that i s f o u n d i n a number o f

h i s e a r l y w r i t i n g s , the Shehu e n t e r e d i n t o a r e a s t h a t would h a v e

been considered problematic t o orthodox s c h o l a r s of t h e S a l a f i

a p p r o a c h t o I s l a m i c f a i t h and j u r i s p r u d e n c e such a s Ibn

"" Uthman

i b n FBdi , al-Taf r i a a , 2 .
180

~ a y m i y y a h . ' ~ 'The Shehu e n d o r s e d t h e O a d i r i c o n c e p t s o f t o t a l

s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e Shaykh, transferral o f s p i r i t u a l power t h r o u g h
s a c r e d o b j e c t s , and Tawassul

396.

He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e awrad o f

Shaykh a l - J i l a n i were s a c r e d f o r m u l a s t h a t would u n l e a s h

s p i r i t u a l powers g i v e n t o Shaykh a l - J i l a n i

and t h e A ~ l i v a . ~ "

D e s p i t e t h e s e a p p a r e n t l y , un-orthodox b e l i e f s , t h e Shehu
n e v e r c l a i m e d t o r e a c h any stage t h a t i m p l i e d t h e stifi union w i t h

God, n o r d i d he a c c e p t any o f t h e f a n t a s t i c c l a i m s t h a t were

b e i n g made a r o u n d Hausaland c o n c e r n i n g h i s s p i r i t u a l a c h i e v e m e n t s
H i s most o f t r e p e a t e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f Tasawwuf was a system

o f p u r i f y i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g t h e lower self i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e

t r u e s i n c e r i t y and d e v o t i o n t o A l l a h . H e o n c e s a i d :
The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Tasawwuf t o I s l a m i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
of t h e s o u l t o t h e body. I t i s a c t u a l l y t h e s a c r e d p l a c e o f
I h s a n ( r i g h t e o u s n e s s ) . 399
I h s a n , f o r the Shehu, was t h e e s s e n c e o f ~asawwuf.Every
Muslim, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e who were l e a r n e d , s h o u l d c o n s t a n t l y wage
a n i n t e r n a l j i h a d ( s t r u g g l e ) t o d e f e a t h i s l o w e r self and
e s t a b l i s h a n I s l a m i c c h a r a c t e r . H e wrote, a s u s u a l , i n t h e

or a d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f t h e S a l a f i c r i t i q u e of Tasawwuf, s e e
Ibn Taymiyyahfs Furqan, p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d .
396 S p i r i t u a l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h A l l a h t h r o u g h t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e
Shaykh. T h i s was c o n s i d e r e d S h i r k ( p o l y t h e i s m ) by I b n Taymiyyah,
Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab
( d . 1787 A . D . ) , a n d o t h e r S a l a f i
(sometimes known as Wahhabi) s c h o l a r s .

~ t h m ~ibn
n Ftidi, al-Salasil-al-Dhahabivva,

""

26-30.

"'F.H.
El-Masri, Bavan WuiUb a l - H i i r a , 5 . I t was a l s o c l a i m e d
t h a t Shehu c o u l d f l y , walk on w a t e r , and had become a s u t b ( p i v o t )
upon which the u n i v e r s e rested.

language of a scholar, but appeared to have been trying to

develop a spiritually pure Muslim, prepared to take on the
greater challenges of establishing Islamic lifestyle. He
discussed concepts that were crucial factors in the interpersonal relations of people, and if viewed outside of a purely
"religious" framework, represented the guidance of a scholar who
was fully aware of the socio-psychological conditions of his

times. In his works, 'ultim al-MU' amala, ' umdat al-%lama,

and

Shifa al-Nufas '0, the Shehu categorized and defined t h e

destructive evils of the self and the practical solutions for
avoiding or curing them. Among the main types he mentioned were
conceit, pride, anger, envy, and showing off.

P u r i f i c a t i o n of the Heart f r o m Conceit f ' ~ i b )

The Shehu viewed conceit to be one of the main evils that
destroy the personality of the individual and ruin his relations
with others. He stated:
Conceit is one of the blameworthy characteristics which is
prohibited to have. .It brings g r e a t harm, for it leads to
pride, forgetting of sin, presumption about acts of
worship, forgetting the blessings of Allah, self
deception, feeling oblivious to the punishment of Allah,
feeling falsely pure and special in the e y e s of Allah, and
feeling self justified by intellect, opinion, and

'On' ~thrnan ibn Fadi,

Kitab ' ~ l al-MU'
~ m amala (Zaria: Shina
Commercial Press, a translation was done by isha ha ' ~ b dar-Raman
at-Tar jumana, Handbook on Islam (England: 3 & P Weldon L t d , , 1 9 7 8 ) ;
Idem, Kitab '~mdatal- lama, (N.A.K.) ; and Idem, Shifa al-Nufns,
translation found in Yakubu Yahaya IbrahIm, The Contribution of
Shavkh ' ~ t h m a nIbn Fodi to the Field of Tasawwuf with reference to
his Shifa al-Nuftis, M.A. dissertation, Bayero university, Kano,
1 9 8 7 . There are numerous other places in the writings of Shehu were
reference is made to this area. These are the main works referred
to in this thesis.

knowledge. '''
H e d i v i d e d c o n c e i t i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s . T h e c o n c e i t a b o u t

t h a t which p e o p l e a c h i e v e i n l i f e and t h e c o n c e i t a b o u t t h a t

which p e o p l e have no power o v e r ( i.e. l i n e a g e , p h y s i c a l b e a u t y ,

etc.)

R e g a r d i n g t h e c u r e , t h e Shehu w r o t e :

A s far a s i t s c u r e i s c o n c e r n e d ,

know t h a t t h e c u r e f o r
e a c h f a u l t i s i t s o p p o s i t e . The c a u s e o f c o n c e i t l i e s i n
p u r e i g n o r a n c e . T h e cure i s r e c o g n i t i o n a n d knowledge w h i c h
i s e x a c t l y o p p o s i t e t o i g n o r a n c e ...You s u p p o s e t h a t y o u r
a c t i o n s came a b o u t t h r o u g h y o u r own power, b u t where d o e s
y o u r power come from? A c t i o n i s o n l y p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h
e x i s t e n c e , and t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f y o u r knowledge, w i l l ,
power, e t c . A l l t h a t i s from A l l a h , n o t from you b e c a u s e H e
i s t h e One who created power a n d t h e n g a v e power t o t h e w i l l ,
set c a u s e s i n motion, d i s t r i b u t e d o b s t a c l e s , and f a c i l i t a t e d
a c t i o n . One of t h e m a r v e l s i s t h a t you c a n be c o n c e i t e d
a b o u t y o u r s e l f , and y e t you do n o t r e f l e c t on the g e n e r o s i t y
o f A l l a h . 402
Purification of the Heart from P r i d e ( K i b r )

The Shehu p l a c e d g r e a t e m p h a s i s on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
r e a l i t y o f p r i d e and i t s d a n g e r . Some o f t h e h i g h l i g h t s o f h i s
l o n g d i s c o u r s e on t h e s u b j e c t a r e a s f o l l o w s :
C o n c e r n i n g the r e a l i t y o f p r i d e , know t h a t t h e r e i s i n w a r d
a n d outward p r i d e . Inward p r i d e i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i t h i n
o n e ' s self and o u t w a r d p r i d e i s t h a t which a p p e a r s t h r o u g h
I t s r o o t i s a f e e l i n g w i t h i n which
t h e limbs (Takabbur)
produces s a t i s f a c t i o n and confidence a t s e e i n g yourself
a b o v e t h e others who a r e b e i n g s c o r n e d ...When t h e p r o u d
p e r s o n e x a l t s h i s own v a l u e i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r s , he
s c o r n s t h e one below him ... If it i s v e r y e x t r e m e , h e may
r e f u s e t h e o t h e r ' s service and n o t c o n s i d e r him worthy- t o
s t a n d i n h i s p r e s e n c e ...When t h e p r o u d p e r s o n t e a c h e s , he
i s r u d e t o h i s s t u d e n t s , l o o k s down on t h e m a n d r e b u k e s them.
...H e l o o k s a t t h e common p e o p l e a s i f h e was l o o k i n g a t
d o n k e y s ... I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o be humble, a n d h u m i l i t y i s
t h e f i r s t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e who t r u l y f e a r

...

'01'

Uthman ibn F a d i , ' U l i i m al-MU'amala, 4 7 .

'021bid., 4 9 ,

50.

., a b a n d o n envy,
c o n t a i n h a t r e d ..., o f f e r f r i e n d l y c o u n s e l ... o r a c c e p t good
c o u n s e l w h i l e there i s a n y s e l f - i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e
p e r s o n . 403

A l l a h . . . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o remain t r u t h f u l . .

T h e Shehu d i v i d e d t h e cure i n t o two p a r t s ,

t h e knowledge

cure a n d t h e a c t i o n c u r e . H e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e knowledge c u r e w a s
t o know a n d r e c o g n i s e y o u r s e l f a n d y o u r Lord. P e o p l e s h o u l d
r e f l e c t on the s i m p l i c i t y o f t h e i r c r e a t i o n f r o m n o t h i n g , t o a
tiny drop oT speLm, a n d t h e n t o a full grown adult. They should
a l s o c o n s t a n t l y remember t h a t human e x i s t e n c e i s subject t o great
c h a n g e . A t a n y moment, a p e r s o n c o u l d become h u n g r y , t h i r s t y ,

sick, o r wounded. One s h o u l d a l s o r e f l e c t on how p e o p l e d e s i r e

o b j e c t s a n d f o o d which lead t o t h e i r d e s t r u c t i o n ,

and o f t e n shun

remedies which l e a d t o t h e i r r e c o v e r y from i l l n e s s . D e a t h i s

i n e v i t a b l e f o r a l l p e o p l e a n d it l e a d s t o a r e v e r s i o n t o a n
i n a n i m a t e s t a t e from whence w e o r i g i n a t e d . A f t e r a l l t h i s , he

"

wrote,

How c a n anyone whose s t a t e this i s be a r r o g a n t ? A moment

o f f r e e d o m from g r i e f i s b e t t e r t h a n a r r o g a n c e . " H i s a c t i o n cure

was t o

"

humble y o u r s e l f t o o t h e r s i n a c o n t r o l l e d u n n a t u r a l

manner u n t i l it becomes n a t u r a l f o r you."

404

Purification of t h e Heart from Anger (Ghadab)

R e g a r d i n g a n g e r , t h e Shehu w r o t e :
The e s s e n c e of a n g e r i s b o i l i n g o f t h e b l o o d of t h e h e a r t i n
s e e k i n g r e v e n g e . If a p e r s o n i s a n g r y a t someone l o w e r t h a n
h i m , h i s b l o o d e x p a n d s a n d rises t o t h e f a c e , making it red.
I f h e i s a n g r y a t someone h i g h e r than him, h i s b l o o d
c o n t r a c t s from h i s o u t e r s k i n t o h i s h e a r t a n d t u r n s t o
s o r r o w . H e , then, becomes p a l e . If he i s u n c e r t a i n o f t h e
'031bid.,

51-53.

Idem, S h i f a al-Nuftis,

bid., 6 0 , 6 1 .
184

64-66.

s t a t i o n of t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , h i s b l o o d s t a y s b e t w e e n
c o n t r a c t i o n and e x p a n s i o n . 405
T h e Shebu p u t a n g e r i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s . The f i r s t w a s

i n s u f f i c i e n t a n g e r , which leads t o t h e l a c k o f f e e l i n g and t h e

i n a b i l i t y t o even p r o t e s t H a r a m ( p r o h i b i t e d t h i n g s ) . T h e s e c o n d
a n d most s e r i o u s w a s e x c e s s i v e a n g e r , which c o u l d a f f e c t a p e r s o n
s o s e v e r e l y t h a t he becomes b l i n d and d e a f t o t h o s e a r o u n d him.

I n t h i s case, a n g e r c o u l d lead t o a change o f c o l o u r , i n t e n s e

s h a k i n g o f t h e e x t r e m i t i e s , g a r b l e d s p e e c h , f o a m i n g a t t h e mouth,
a n d an u g l y c o u n t e n a n c e . I t causes t h e a n g r y p e r s o n t o speak w i t h
i n s u l t i n g l a n g u a g e , and o b s c e n i t y s u c h t h a t r a t i o n a l p e o p l e are
ashamed t o u s e . I t c a u s e s t h e a n g r y p e r s o n t o s t r i k e , t e a r , m a i m ,
o r k i l l i f h e i s a b l e t o . I f t h e o b j e c t o f t h e excessive a n g e r
d e p a r t s , i t may c a u s e t h e a n g r y p e r s o n t o t u r n on h i m s e l f ,
s l a p p i n g h i s f a c e , t e a r i n g h i s c l o t h e s , o r h a r m i n g h i s body. Its
e f f e c t on t h e h e a r t i s t o f i l l t h e a n g r y p e r s o n w i t h r e s e n t m e n t ,
a n d envy, a n d c a u s e h i m t o d i v u l g e s e c r e t s a n d harm o t h e r s i n
d e s p i c a b l e f a s h i o n . T h e t h i r d k i n d o f a n g e r was t h a t which was
b a l a n c e d . F o r t h e Shehu, t h i s w a s p r a i s e w o r t h y ,

f o r t h e person

was g u i d e d b y h i s i n t e l l e c t a n d h i s r e l i g i o n and o n l y became

m o d e r a t e l y a n g r y when t h e Sharia r e q u i r e d .

406

The Shehuf s knowledge c u r e f o r a n g e r was t o r e f l e c t on t h e

v i r t u e s o f c o n t r o l l i n g a n g e r , t o r e f l e c t on t h e r e s u l t s of a n g e r
i n t h i s l i f e , t o r e f l e c t on t h e u g l i n e s s o f y o u r f o r m when a n g r y ,
--- --

4 0 5 ~ b i d . 63;
,
Idem, S h i f a al-Nufus,
'061bid.,

64-66;

85,86.

Idem, S h i f a al-NufOs,

185

86-89.

t o r e f l e c t on t h e c a u s e o f s e e k i n g revenge, a n d t o f e a r t h e
punishment o f A l l a h i n t h e n e x t l i f e . H i s a c t i o n c u r e was t o s e e k
r e f u g e i n A l l a h from t h e d e v i l a t t h e t i m e o f anger, s i t down i f
you are s t a n d i n g , l i e down i f you a r e s i t t i n g , a n d p e r f o r m

a b l u t i o n (wudu) o r t a k e a c o m p l e t e b a t h ( s h u s l ) , i f n e c e s s a r y .
407

Purification of the Heart from Envy (Hasad)

The Shehu c o n s i d e r e d Hasad t o be o n e of the most s e r i o u s
d i s e a s e s o f t h e h e a r t which had t o be e r a d i c a t e d i n o r d e r t o
d e v e l o p p r o p e r r e l a t i o n s among p e o p l e . H e s t a t e d :
C o n c e r n i n g i t s r e a l i t y , know t h a t envy d e r i v e s o n l y from
b l e s s i n g s . When A l l a h b e s t o w s a b l e s s i n g on y o u r b r o t h e r , i t
can p r o d u c e i n you o n e o f two c o n d i t i o n s . One i s t h a t you
d e s p i s e t h e b l e s s i n g a n d want it t o be t a k e n away. T h i s
c o n d i t i o n i s c a l l e d e n v y ...The o t h e r c o n d i t i o n i s that you
do n o t want t h e b l e s s i n g t o be t a k e n away f r o m h i m , b u t you
desire t h e same b l e s s i n g f o r y o u r s e l f . T h i s i s deeming
someone t o b e e n v i a b l e . Envy i s a n g e r a t A l l a h ' s p r e f e r e n c e
f o r one p e r s o n o v e r a n o t h e r . " '
The knowledge c u r e , f o r t h e Shehu, was t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t
e n v y i s o n l y h a r m f u l t o t h e e n v i e r . The e n v i e d p e r s o n i s raised
i n r a n k i n t h e sight o f A l l a h a n d c a n n o t b e harmed by mere envy
a l o n e . The e n v i e r w i l l a l w a y s be f i l l e d w i t h g r i e f a n d s o r r o w and
w i l l be p u n i s h e d i n t h e n e x t l i f e . The a c t i o n c u r e was t o make

y o u r s e l f do t h e o p p o s i t e o f what t h e envy demanded. I f t h e envy

makes you a r r o g a n t , t h a n be humble. I f t h e envy makes you
w i t h h o l d g i v i n g t o o t h e r s , t h a n you s h o u l d i n c r e a s e i n g i v i n g .

'071bid.,

67, 68; Idem, S h i f a al-Nufus,

89,

69; Idem, Shifa al-Nufns,

90.

'081bid., 68,

186

90.

Purification of the H e a r t from Showing Off ( R i v d ' )

T h e Shehu e x p l a i n e d i n h i s w r i t i n g s t h a t riva comes from

t h e A r a b i c (ru'va), t o see. I t s e s s e n c e w a s t h e s e e k i n g of a h i g h
s t a t i o n i n t h e h e a r t s o f p e o p l e b y "showing o f f 1 ' . R i v h f o r t h e
Shehu, was one of t h e most e l u s i v e and d a n g e r o u s q u a l i t i e s of a
d i s e a s e d h e a r t f o r , it could be e x t r e m e l y subtle. I t appears
t h r o u g h showing o f f w i t h t h e body, w i t h c l o t h i n g o r a p p e a r a n c e ,
w i t h words o r o r a t o r y , w i t h a c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y r e l i g i o u s
p r a c t i c e s l i k e s a l a h and h a i i , o r j u s t b y a s s o c i a t i n g o n e s e l f
w i t h p e o p l e o f h i g h rank i n o r d e r t o win f a v o u r from them.
T h e c u r e , t h e Shehu e x p l a i n e d , was t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t

~iva'

w a s p a r t of a p e r s o n ' s n a t u r e from c h i l d h o o d . I t h a s t o be
a t t a c k e d from t h e r o o t s . Love o f p r a i s e ,

f e a r o f c r i t i c i s m , and

greed f o r t h e p r o p e r t y of o t h e r s , a l l have t o be d r i v e n o u t o f
t h e h e a r t . T h e a c t i o n c u r e i s t o r e p e l i t i m m e d i a t e l y , whenever
i t comes t o mind, and t o force o n e s e l f t o c o n c e a l acts of w o r s h i p

u n t i l t h e heart i s c o n t e n t w i t h o n l y A l l a h knowing t h a t t h e y have

b e e n d o n e . 410
S p i r i t u a l Remedies
T h e Shehu, u s i n g t h e framework o f I s l a m i c t h e o l o g y , was

t r y i n g t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e r e f o r m a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r and t h e
s o c i a l d e a l i n g s of h i s f o l l o w e r s and t h e n , s o c i e t y . H i s a n a l y s i s

o f t h e above-mentioned diseases of t h e h e a r t a n d o t h e r s t h a t h e
4 C g ~ b i d7.2, , 7 3 ; Idem, S h i f a al-Nufas,

" O ~ b i d . , 74-77;

Idem, S h i f a al-Nufns,
187

94-98.

104-106

listed, such as m i s e r l i n e s s ,

love of p o s i t i o n ,

f a l s e hope,

s u s p i c i o n , a n d d e s p a i r , were s o p e n e t r a t i n g t h a t t h e y c o u l d
probably apply t o people of o t h e r f a i t h s and n a t i o n s a s w e l l .

is

s p i r i t u a l r e m e d i e s c e n t r e d a r o u n d t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f God
( t a q w a ) , r e p e n t a n c e ( t a u b a ) , dependence on A l l a h ( t a w a k k u l ) ,
c o n t e n t m e n t ( r i d a ), p a t i e n c e (sabr), f e a r o f t h e wrath of A l l a h

(khauf), hope i n t h e mercy o f A l l a h ( r a j a ) , a n d a b s t i n e n c e

(zuhd) . I n h i s treatise, a l - T a f r i s a ,

the Shehu summarized t h e

main a r e a s o f weakness i n p e o p l e t h r o u g h which I b l i s ( L u c i f e r )

c o u l d e n t e r t h e h e a r t o f a Muslim and c o r r u p t h i s c h a r a c t e r . T h e y
w e r e a s follows:
1. C o v e t o u s n e s s and j e a l o u s y .
2 . Anger a n d u n c o n t r o l l e d d e s i r e s .
3 . Greed a n d a m b i t i o n
4 . Excessive l o v e of food and d r i n k .
5 . Haste, e x c e p t i n n e c e s s a r y a c t s o f w o r s h i p .
6 . Wealth, i f it e x c e e d s t h e amount n e e d e d t o f u l f i l basic
needs.
7 . F a n a t i c i s m for S c h o o l o f I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e o r t h e
f o l l o w i n g o f o n e ' s own whims.
8 . H a t r e d a n d contempt f o r t h o s e who d i s a g r e e w i t h o u r
opinion.
9 . B u r d e n i n g t h e common p e o p l e w i t h p o n d e r i n g about t h e
e s s e n c e and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f Almighty A l l a h more t h a n i s
absolutely necessary.
1 0 . H o l d i n g s u s p i c i o n a g a i n s t Muslims. 41'

The knowledge of t h e s e a r e a s o f m o r a l c o r r u p t i o n and t h e

u s e o f t h e above-mentioned s p i r i t u a l r e m e d i e s were p a r t of t h e
S h e h u t s p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o c u r i n g t h e diseases o f t h e h e a r t .
H i s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e problematic a r e a s and t h e i r a c t i o n

r e m e d i e s were d i s p e n s e d i n a s i m p l e , p r a c t i c a l manner, reflecting

h i s c o n c e p t o f r e v i v a l which s t a r t e d w i t h the i n n e r c o r e o f
411'

Uthman i b n Ftidi, al-Taf r i a a , 4-5.

188

society, t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,
T h e r e f o r e , Shehu's brand o f Tasawwuf s h o u l d n o t be l o o k e d
a t as a s p i r i t u a l d i s c i p l i n e t h a t s e p a r a t e d t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r from

r e a l i t y and worked o n l y on t h e i n n e r e x i s t e n c e , b u t a p r a c t i c a l
p a r t of h i s s y s t e m of I s l a m i c e d u c a t i o n . H e i n t e n d e d f o r a l l of
h i s f o l l o w e r s t o e n t e r t h e realm o f c h a r a c t e r b u i l d i n g Tasawwuf
a n d r e s e r v e d t h e h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l s t a t e s o n l y f o r t h o s e who were
w e l l grounded i n I s l a m i c knowledge. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s k i n d

o f t r a i n i n g would e v e n t u a l l y m a n i f e s t i t s e l f , when t h e S h e h u f s
community was f o r c e d t o make H i i r a and e n g a g e i n J i h a d . S t r o n g
f a i t h i n A l l a h a n d commitment t o Islam combined w i t h a d e s i r e f o r

t h e h e r e a f t e r o v e r t h i s w o r l d would g i v e h i s f o l l o w e r s t h e w i l l

t o s a c r i f i c e t h e i r m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e c a u s e o f Islam. F o s t e r i n g
u n i t y , s i n c e r i t y , h u m i l i t y a n d h i g h e r I s l a m i c q u a l i t i e s would
h e l p h i s f o l l o w e r s overcome d i f f e r e n c e s and f o c u s on t h e i r
s t r u g g l e . Many H i s t o r i a n s have a t t r i b u t e d t h e s u c c e s s of t h e
S h e h u r s Jihad t o t h e m i l i t a r y v i a b i l i t y o f h i s f o r c e s , but t h i s
l o o k a t a s p e c t s o f h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l and m o r a l t r a i n i n g show t h a t
h i s e a r l y work i n c h a r a c t e r b u i l d i n g must h a v e p l a y e d a g r e a t

r o l e i n t h e t r i u m p h and l o n g e v i t y o f h i s struggle.

CHAPTER 6

ASPECTS OF THE SHEHUfS CONCEPT OF ISLAMIC SOCIETY

The w r i t i n g s of t h e Shehu i n t h e f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d , w h i l e
g r e a t l y i n v o l v e d i n t h e realm of i d e a s , were w r i t t e n , p r i m a r i l y ,

i n response t o l i v i n g circumstances t h a t h e and h i s followers

w e r e facing. I n f a c t , some o f h i s t r e a t i s e s were s o h i g h l y
f o c u s e d t h a t it i s p o s s i b l e , a l o n g w i t h t h e w r i t i n g s of h i s
c o l l e a g u e s , t o form a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e of t h e opposing f o r c e s o r
t h e a c t u a l incident t h a t brought about t h e Shehuts r e p l y .
The Issue of Women i n S o c i e t v

I n t h e l a n d of Zamfara, t h e Shehu found h i m s e l f u n d e r a

b i t t e r a t t a c k . Abdullah i b n Ftidi, i n h i s Tazyin Al-Warasat,

described t h e e v e n t s , s a y i n g :

They used t o come t o t h e S h a y k h r s g a t h e r i n g m i n g l i n g w i t h

t h e i r women. H e s e g r e g a t e d them, t e a c h i n g them t h a t m i x i n g
t o g e t h e r w a s f o r b i d d e n , a f t e r t h a t h e t a u g h t them t h e l a w s
o f I s l a m . C e r t a i n d e v i l s of men w e r e i n t h e h a b i t o f
s p r e a d i n g it about that t h e ShayXhfs g a t h e r i n g was a p l a c e
for t h e coming t o g e t h e r o f men and women."2
A c e r t a i n s c h o l a r named al-Musfapha

Gwoni t o o k t h e open o f f e n s i v e

a n d i n p o e t i c form demanded t h a t t h e Shehu p r o h i b i t women from

a t t e n d i n g h i s s e s s i o n s . F r e e m i x i n g , he felt, was I s l a m i c a l l y
i n c o r r e c t . T h e Shehu a s k e d h i s b r o t h e r , A b d u l l a h , t o r e s p o n d t o

4 L 2 ~ b d u l l a ihbi n F t i d i , TazvIn Al-Waraqat,

190

86 .

this veiled assault in verse. Abdullahi wrote:

0 you who have come to guide us aright
We have heard what you said. Listen to what we s a y . ..
Indeed devils, if they come to our gathering,
Spread evil speech, exceeding all bounds!
We have not had promiscuous intercourse with women, how
should that be!
We have warned (others against this); on the contrary, I
said we agreed.
That it was thus. But I do not agree that
their being left alone to go free in ignorance is good,
For the committing of the lesser evil has been made
obligatory.
Ignorance pardons, even though it were disobedience.
We found the people of this country drowning in ignorance;
Shall we prevent them from understanding religion? "'

This exchange of words typifies the kind of circumstances

the Shehu found himself in during this period. People of his own
scholarly class were opposing the appearance of women at public,
education-oriented gatherings, while according to T a z v i n AlWaraqat, men and women freely mixed for a variety of other

reasons. This type of response and the apparent general lack of

education in Hausaland in the eighteenth century must have
infuriated the Shehu, for he wrote a number of strong comments
and works on the status and condition of women, in
particular .'I4

4 i 4 ~addition
n
to, Ntir ul-Albab, Ihva al-Sunna, and Kitab
Irshad, I have also consulted the following works for the Shehu's
specific comment on this issue: '~thmanibn FQdi, Wathisat alJawab 'ala ~u'al Dalil an' KhurGi al-Nisa wa al-Muwaldt wa
zivadat-ul-Bavan (A Treatise in reply to the question of
restricting women from going out, and al-Muwaldt (allegiance,
clientage), and other issues) (Ibadan, 8 2 / 5 3 5 ) ; Idem, Irshad alIkhwan 'ala iawaz ittikhadh al-Mailis li ail ~a'lim al-Niswan
' Ilm Furud al-a' van min D m Allah ta' ala al-Rahman (Guidance for
the Brethren on the Permissibility of Holding classes for

Indecent Exposure and Loose M i x i n g

In a Fulfulde poem entitled Boneji Hausa (The Troubles of
Hausaland), the Shehu stated:
Goddi boneji mairi teube njangata
balli di mabbe bo kurum be cuddata.
Wodbe bente je fede sabal sabal
hayya e be yimbe ngala e dou datal.
Wodbe mabbe tunndoyi less gulli;
Njofi gabaje he nano ko halli.
Burtube mabbe keutani kaddajee
gabaje wai kebai moje cuddaje.
Goddi boneji mari bo ko doggoye;
Besdo tawa e suhrite e yiggoyo.
Goddi boneji mairi jillotirki;
worbe e reube tokka tarotirki;
Worbe e reube mobodo e nyalla;
be cankito kowa yo geddo Allah.
Jemma kadin be kaura be kira;
E non fa be mabbide basira.
Be mobodo fagere dou mugore;
neddo f u h giido be y i r i na jore .
Worbe e reube fuh kadin e chingini;
Kowa kuru kuru ngitoi e ryrullini.
Worbe e reube fuh kadin e kellida;
Hafukani e dippita e lenngida.

The English Version:

Another trouble of it (Hausaland), is that women do not
learn;
Their body they never cover (properly).
Some of them hand bante aprons loosely blowing;
Oh! these people are not on the right path.
Some of them wear these below their waists;
Leaving their chests exposed, lo, hear you, this evil
practice.
The best ones (actually) wear wrappers;
But allow their chests unclothed.
Another trouble of it from which one has to flee;
Teaching Women their individual Obligations from the Religion of
Almighty Allah, the most Merciful) (N.H.R.S . , 4/2-5) ; and Idem,
Irshad al-Ikhwan ila Ahkam KhurtSi al-Niswan (Guidance to the
Brethren as to the Laws concerning the Going Out of Women) (
Ibadan, 8 2 / 3 8 8 ) .

The s t r i p p i n g o f f o f a n u r s i n g mother a n d w a s h i n g h e r i n
t h e open.
A n o t h e r t r o u b l e of it i s t h a t o f mingling;
Men and Women, e x c i t e d embrace e a c h o t h e r .
Men and Women t h e n e n j o y t h e company o f o n e a n o t h e r f o r
t h e whole d a y ;
They d i s p e r s e ( a t t h e e n d ) when each o f t h e m h a s become
s i n n e r t o God.
They a s s e m b l e a t a p l a c e with e v i l i n t e n t i o n ;
H e who sees them ( a t t h a t s t a g e ) h a s seen s e n s e l e s s n e s s
(by i t s e l f ) .
Men and Women t h e n l y i n g down ( h a l f n a k e d ) i n t h e open;
Each o f t h e m w i t h s h a m e l e s s d a z z l i n g e y e s b u l g i n g out.
Men a n d Women t h e n k e e p on c l a p p i n g t h e i r h a n d s ;
jumping up a n d down, t u r n i n g round and s i d e w a y s
staggering.

One o f t h e i s s u e s t h a t g r e a t l y c o n c e r n e d t h e Shehu about

H a u s a l a n d was t h e g e n e r a l i n d e c e n c y i n c l o t h i n g a n d t h e l o o s e
m i x i n g of t h e s e x e s . T h i s a r e a w a s u s u a l l y one o f immediate need
t o t h e r e v i v a l i s t s o f Islam, s i n c e I s l a m i c law r e q u i r e d t h a t men
a n d women dress w i t h e x t r e m e m o d e s t y and a v o i d s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s
o f a n y k i n d e x c e p t i n m a r r i a g e o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a man t o
h i s ' r i g h t hand p o s s e s s i o n f

.416

T h e Shehu f u r t h e r described t h e

s i t u a t i o n as f o l l o w s :
And among t h e a f f a i r s that h a v e caused a g e n e r a l c a l a m i t y
i n t h e s e l a n d s i s t h e l o o s e m i n g l i n g o f men a n d women i n
t h e m a r k e t s a n d on t h e r o a d s as w e l l a s n o t s e c l u d i n g a
woman from t h e b r o t h e r o f h e r husband, o r t h e s o n o f
his m a t e r n a l u n c l e , o r h i s f r i e n d s . Also, c a l a m i t y h a s
been c a u s e d by e x p o s i n g t h e g e n i t a l s 4'7 o f n o t o n l y f r e e

4'5~1~
i aGarba
j
S a i d u , "The S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Shehuf s Sermons
and Poems i n A - j a m i t ' , Sokoto S e m i n a r Papers, 203-205.
4 1 6 ~ h et e r m r i g h t h a n d p o s s e s s i o n is t h e l i t e r a l A r a b i c
t r a n s l a t i o n f o r name o f the w a r c a p t i v e who comes i n t o t h e
p o s s e s s i o n o f a Muslim. C o n c u b i n e and s l a v e are a l s o u s e d .
awra h e r e means n o t o n l y t h e g e n i t a l s b u t t h e area
4 1 7 ~ hword
e
that s h o u l d b e c o v e r e d a c c o r d i n g t o Islamic l a w .

p e o p l e b u t a l s o woman i n bondage
Many o f t h e s o c i e t i e s of t h e W e s t e r n Sudan faced a s i m i l a r
c h a l l e n g e w i t h t h e demands o f Islamic l a w . Ibn B a t t u t a (1304-1377

C.E.) had l i s t e d a s o n e o f t h e w e a k n e s s e s o f t h e Muslims o f M a l i

and t h e Western Sudan, a t e n d e n c y t o a l l o w n a k e d n e s s t h r o u g h o u t

t h e i r s o c i e t y . D u r i n g h i s v i s i t t o M a l i i n the r e i g n o f Mansa
S u l a i m a n , who r u l e d from 1337 t o 1 3 5 9 C . E . ,

he r e c o r d e d the

following :
And among t h e i r b a d p r a c t i c e s i s t h e fact t h a t t h e i r
s e r v a n t s , female s l a v e s , a n d young g i r l s e x p o s e t h e m s e l v e s
t o t h e p u b l i c n a k e d . I w i t n e s s e d many o f them l i k e t h i s i n
Ramadan. 419

The Shehu c o n f r o n t e d t h e i s s u e b y n o t o n l y condemning t h e

i n d e c e n t e x p o s u r e o f free p e o p l e b u t a l s o women i n b o n d a g e . H e
e m p h a s i z e d t h e I s l a m i c l i m i t s o f t h e male and t h e f e m a l e , even i n
t h e same f a m i l y , b y t o u c h i n g on one o f t h e most n e g l e c t e d r u l e s

of I s l a m , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e wife t o h e r h u s b a n d ' s

brothers

a n d o t h e r men who would more t h a n l i k e l y have free access t o h e r

i n n e r a p a r t m e n t s . Exposing t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p would a l s o i m p l y , t o
t h e scholarly person, t h a t a l l o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s o u t s i d e of t h e
p e r m i t t e d i n n e r f a m i l y s h o u l d n o t lead t o i n t i m a t e c o n t a c t o r
more t h a n n o r m a l b o d i l y e x p o s u r e . T h e Shehu was a p p a r e n t l y
s t r e s s i n g n o t o n l y t o s c h o l a r s a n d s t u d e n t s , b u t t o t h e whole
s o c i e t y t h a t e v e n t h e most d e t a i l e d a s p e c t of s e x u a l b e h a v i o u r
must be g u a r d e d i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h I s l a m i c l i f e i n H a u s a l a n d .

4 1 9 ~ bBn a t t u t a , R i h l a t I b n B a t t u t a ,
1968), 691.

B e i r u t : Dar S a d i r Press,

T h i s s t y l e of m e n t i o n i n g t h e g e n e r a l problem and f o c u s i n g on a
d e t a i l e d a s p e c t of it, was an I s l a m i c method o f c l o s i n g the d o o r
t o any breach of t h e law b y h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e less s i g n i f i c a n t

aspects. The Shehu was t o t a l l y convinced t h a t i n d e c e n t exposure

and unlawful c o n t a c t between men and women was one of t h e r o o t

c a u s e s of s e x u a l i m m o r a l i t y .
Women in Education

I n h i s K i t a b N a r ul-Albab,

t h e Shehu l a s h e d out a t t h e bad

t r e a t m e n t of women and t h e l a c k of e d u c a t i o n and g u i d a n c e . H e

wrote :
T h i s i s a c h a p t e r r e g a r d i n g t h e a f f a i r s t h a t have c a u s e d a
g e n e r a l c a l a m i t y i n t h e s e l a n d s , I mean Hausaland, which a r e
increasing, and a r e a general c r i s i s i n other lands a l s o .
Among them i s what many of t h e %lama o f t h i s l a n d a r e d o i n g
by l e a v i n g t h e i r wives, d a u g h t e r s , and s l a v e s n e g l e c t e d l i k e
animals, w i t h o u t t e a c h i n g them what A l l a h has r e q u i r e d o f
them i n t h e i r a b l u t i o n , p r a y e r s , f a s t i n g , and o t h e r areas.
And t h e y have n o t t a u g h t them what h a s been made p e r m i s s i b l e
f o r them i n q u e s t i o n s such a s b u s i n e s s t r a n s a c t i o n s and what
i s s i m i l a r . T h i s i s a major e r r o r and a p r o h i b i t e d
i n n o v a t i o n . They have d e a l t w i t h them l i k e a d i s h which t h e y
u s e u n t i l it i s broken and t h e n throw i t i n t o the g a r b a g e o r
some unclean p l a c e , How s t r a n g e it i s t h a t t h e y l e a v e t h e i r
wives, d a u g h t e r s , and s l a v e s i n t h e d a r k n e s s of i g n o r a n c e and
t e a c h t h e i r s t u d e n t s morning and e v e n i n g ! This i s n o t h i n g b u t
t h e i r own e r r o r f o r they t e a c h t h e i r s t u d e n t s riva (showing
off) and v a n i t y . T h i s i s a g r a v e m i s t a k e f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n of
wives, d a u g h t e r s , and slaves i s compulsory while t h e t e a c h i n g
of s t u d e n t s i s o p t i o n a l . 420
Subsequent t o t h i s p e n e t r a t i n g c r i t i c i s m , t h e Shehu t u r n e d
t o t h e Muslim women and i n c i t e d them i n one o f h i s most
revolutionary statements saying:
0 Muslim women do n o t l i s t e n t o t h e words of t h e l o s t ,
m i s g u i d e r s who d e c e i v e you by o r d e r i n g you t o obey your
husbands w i t h o u t o r d e r i n g you t o obey A l l a h and H i s
-

420'Utthan i b n FOdi, Nar ul-Albab,

195

9,

10.

Messenger (May t h e Peace a n d B l e s s i n g s o f A l l a h be upon

h i m ) . They s a y t h a t t h e h a p p i n e s s o f a woman l i e s i n t h e
o b e d i e n c e t o h e r husband. T h i s is n o t h i n g b u t t h e f u l f i l m e n t
o f t h e i r desires a n d o b j e c t i v e s b y requiring what n e i t h e r
A l l a h n o r H i s Messenger h a v e made compulsory on you i n t h e
f i r s t p l a c e l i k e cooking, washing c l o t h e s , and o t h e r t h i n g s
t h a t a r e n o t h i n g b u t what t h e y w a n t . A t t h e same t i m e t h e y
a r e n o t r e q u i r i n g o f you t h a t w h i c h A l l a h and H i s M e s s e n g e r
o b l i g e f o r you i n obedience t o A l l a h and H i s Me~senger.~"
T h i s s t a t e m e n t must have c a r r i e d f a r r e a c h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s ,
f o r t h e Shehu w a s q u e s t i o n i n g n o t o n l y t h e g e n e r a l a u t h o r i t y o f
t h e husband o v e r h i s wife, b u t a l s o t h e s p e c i f i c d u t i e s o f t h e

Muslim woman. H e w a s c h a l l e n g i n g a n d p o t e n t i a l l y u p s e t t i n g t h e
v e r y c o r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n men a n d women. H i s words,
i n a l a n d t h a t based i t s m o r a l i t y and e v e r y d a y l i f e o n
i n j u n c t i o n s coming from I s l a m i c s o u r c e s a n d i n t e r p r e t e d by
l e a r n e d p e o p l e , w e r e a t y p e o f empowerment f o r t h e women.
I n h i s t r e a t i s e , Tanbih al-Ikhwan

'ala Jawaz, the Shehu w e n t

t o g r e a t l e n g t h s t o show t h e p e r m i s s i b i l i t y i n I s l a m i c l a w for
women t o come o u t f o r s e e k i n g knowledge, p r o v i d i n g t h e i r h u s b a n d
c o u l d n o t g i v e them t h e p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n , h i m s e l f , and t h e place
o f l e a r n i n g was f r e e from i n t i m a t e m i x i n g of men a n d women. H e

a l s o advocated the i d e a of s e t t i n g a s i d e a s p e c i a l t i m e f o r the

women and the c h i l d r e n t o be a b l e t o s p e a k d i r e c t l y t o t h e l o c a l
s c h o l a r w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f men. T h i s was a p r a c t i c e of t h e
P r o p h e t Muhammad, who i n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f I s l a m d i d n o t p r e v e n t
women from coming t o t h e masiid a n d d e d i c a t e d s p e c i a l t i m e t o

t h e i r e d u c a t i o n . Al-Maghili

h a d similarly e n c o u r a g e d t h e Amir t o

set aside a t i m e t o h e a r t h e c o m p l a i n t s of women a n d c h i l d r e n i n

a p u b l i c audience.

422

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , t h e Shehu even e n c o u r a g e d women t o

l e a r n how t o do b u s i n e s s a c c o r d i n g t o I s l a m i c p r i n c i p l e s a n d how
t o c a r r y t h e m s e l v e s i n the m a r k e t p l a c e . H e w r o t e :
I f it were s a i d , "Women d o n o t have knowledge a b o u t t h e s e
a f f a i r s ( b u s i n e s s ) , and t h e y c a n n o t f i n d l e a r n e d p e o p l e t o
t a k e t h e i r p l a c e most o f t h e t i m e . " The answer i s t h a t it i s
incumbent on a woman t o strive t o g a i n knowledge a b o u t t h e s e
a f f a i r s , i n t h e same way t h a t i t i s incumbent upon h e r t o
know a b o u t h e r r e l i g i o u s d u t i e s s u c h a s a b l u t i o n , t h e
c e r e m o n i a l b a t h ( a h u s l ) , p r a y e r , and f a s t i n g . she s h o u l d a l s o
know how t o p u r c h a s e h e r n e c e s s a r y goods. 4 2 3

T h i s t y p e o f encouragement, a l t h o u g h o b v i o u s l y aimed a t
c h a n g i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between men and women,
s h o u l d n o t be i n t e r p r e t e d as a t y p e o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y women's
l i b e r a t i o n i n t h e Western s e n s e of t h e word. The Shehu was very
c a r e f u l t o temper most o f h i s t r e a t i s e s on t h i s t o p i c w i t h a
r e m i n d e r t h a t t h e woman s h o u l d b e b a s i c a l l y o b e d i e n t t o h e r
husband. T h i s o b e d i e n c e , however, had c o n d i t i o n s . The Shehu
stated:
Y e s , it i s compulsory f o r t h e wife t o obey h e r husband, b o t h
i n s e c r e t and i n t h e open, even i f he i s a l o w l y p e r s o n ,
whether free o r i n bondage. I t i s p r o h i b i t e d f o r h e r t o go
a g a i n s t h e r husband, u n l e s s h e o r d e r s h e r t o d i s o b e y A l l a h ,
t h e most High. Then it becomes incumbent upon h e r t o r e f u s e
him f o r t h e r e i s no o b e d i e n c e t o t h e c r e a t e d b e i n g who
d i s o b e y s ~ l l a .h4 2 4
422'

Uthman i b n F a d i , Tanbih al-Ikhwan

' a l a Jawaz,

2-5;

Bedri,

Tai, 23.
423'

Uthrnan i b n FUdi , I h v a al-Sunna,

208.

4 2 4 ' Uthman i b n FUdi, Nor ul-Albab,

11. The Shehu w a s
p a r a p h r a s i n g a famous H a d i t h o f t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad, where he
s a i d , "There i s no o b e d i e n c e t o t h e c r e a t e d b e i n g ( p e r s o n ) , when
t h a t c r e a t e d b e i n g ( p e r s o n ) d i s o b e y s A l l a h . " I n o t h e r words, a

197

S e c l u s i o n of Women (Kulle)
Concerning the movement of women in the society, the Shehu
wrote in his treatise, Irshad al-Ikhwan ila Ahkam Khurtii alNiswan, that he found the people in Hausaland tending toward one
of two extremes. The first was the position of not putting any
restrictions on the movement of women, whether they were
fulfilling a legal need or not. This, he explained, represented
the majority of people. The second extreme was the position of
totally restricting all movement of women outside of their homes
regardless of whether their leaving was based on a valid Islamic
reason or not. This group represented only a tiny minority of the
population.

42s

The Shehu tried to adopt a balanced, moderate position by

first clarifying that whenever a woman had a religious or worldly
necessity, she was allowed to leave the house. Aside from
necessity, she should not, he emphasized, leave her home except
for one of the following twelve reasons:

426

1. She can leave her home for the purpose of seeking the

knowledge of the compulsory parts of her religion.

2. She can leave her home to answer the call of nature if there

were no facilities for the toilet within the family compound, and

Muslim can disobey his leader if the leader goes against Islamic
law, or a woman could disobey her husband if the husband orders
her to do something which is against Islam.
425'~thmZinibn Flidi, Irshad al-Ikhwan, 1, 2.

i f s h e was dressed p r o p e r l y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e

har ria.^'^

3 . She can l e a v e her home f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p e r f o r m i n g her

compulsory p r a y e r s i n t h e l o c a l masiid, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e r e i s no
d a n g e r t o h e r p e r s o n o r h e r moral w e l l b e i n g . T h e Shehu s p e c i f i e d
t h a t a b e a u t i f u l woman should s t a y a t home t o a v o i d any i l l e g a l
c o n t a c t , an a v e r a g e l o o k i n g woman i s p r e f e r r e d t o stay home, and
a n o l d e r woman c o u l d move f r e e l y except i n t i m e s o f danger."'
4.

She can l e a v e her home for t h e attendance o f ~ u m u a

' Prayer

(friday p r a y e r ) . T h i s p e r m i s s i o n was g i v e n w i t h t h e same

conditions o f t h e compulsory p r a y e r s . 4 2 9
5.

She can l e a v e h e r home f o r t h e a t t e n d a n c e of t h e two 'Td

prayers,

' rd u l - F i t r

and ' Td ul-~dha.~~'

6 . She can l e a v e h e r home f o r ~ a l a t - u l - ~ s t i s a a ' ( p r a y e r for

rain)

43L

7 . She can l e a v e h e r home t o a t t e n d the f u n e r a l s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d

s h e d r e s s e d a c c o r d i n g t o the S h a r i a and d i d n o t l o o s e c o n t r o l
h e r s e l f by d o i n g l o u d w a i l i n g o r any other p r o h i b i t e d act. T h e
Shehu took e x c e p t i o n t o women v i s i t i n g g r a v e s and o n l y a l l o w e d

bid., 2 0 . T h i s p e r m i s s i o n i n c l u d e d t h e same c o n d i t i o n s for

t h e age and b e a u t y of t h e woman a s t h e compulsory p r a y e r s .
bi bid., 2 1 . T h i s p e r m i s s i o n i n c l u d e d t h e same c o n d i t i o n s f o r
the age and b e a u t y o f t h e woman a s t h e compulsory p r a y e r s .

f o r t h o s e who were i n t h e most dire need.

432

8, S h e can l e a v e her home t o p e r f o r m t h e Pilgrimage t o Makkah

( H a i i ) , p r o v i d i n g s h e f u l f i l s t h e c o n d i t i o n s of g o i n g t o H a i i ,
433

and s h e h a s the a b i l i t y t o a t t e m p t s u c h a hazardous

journey

434

9 . She can leave h e r home t o a t t e n d a marriage ceremony o r

r e c e p t i o n , p r o v i d e d the people b e i n g m a r r i e d a r e f a m i l y , f r i e n d s ,
o r i n v i t e d h e r . There should n o t be any p r o h i b i t e d p r a c t i c e s such

a s l e w d dancing, i f l e g a l mixing of men and women, e t c . a t t h e

wedding. 4 3 5
1 0 . She can l e a v e h e r home t o c a r r y o u t b u s i n e s s o r t o buy her

household o r p e r s o n a l n e c e s s i t i e s , p r o v i d e d t h e r e i s nobody e l s e
t o do it f o r her and t h a t s h e d o e s n o t e n t e r t h e a r e a s of t h e
m a r k e t p l a c e where t h e r e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of moral c o r r u p t i o n o r
i l l e g a l mixing o f t h e sexes . 4 3 6
11. She can l e a v e h e r home t o a t t e n d t h e law c o u r t . Young g i r l s

and o l d e r women a r e allowed t o f r e e l y move i n and o u t of t h e

c o u r t , but t h e judge should s e t aside a s p e c i a l d&y t o h a n d l e t h e
4 3 2 ~ b i d . ,21.
This p e r m i s s i o n a l s o c o n t a i n e d t h e same
c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e age and beauty of t h e woman a s the compulsory
prayers.
4 3 3 ~Muslim must be mature,
and means of t r a v e l i n o r d e r t o
a l s o be accompanied by a mature
h e r husband (mahram) o r be p a r t

sane, free, and have t h e w e a l t h

p e r f o r m t h e H a i i . A woman s h o u l d
member of her immediate f a m i l y o r
of a p r o t e c t e d group o f women.

4 3 6 ~ b i d .2,7 , 2 8 . The same c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e age and b e a u t y of

t h e woman i n t h e compulsory p r a y e r w e r e a p p l i e d t o t h i s p e r m i s s i o n .

cases of t h e women who d i d n o t f a l l i n the two,

above m e n t i o n e d

c a t e g o r i e s . T h i s w i l l p r e v e n t c o r r u p t acts and i l l e g a l m i x i n g o f
t h e sexes .437
1 2 . She c a n leave t o s o c i a l i z e , p r o v i d i n g t h a t s h e i n t e r a c t s w i t h

h e r f a m i l y , a n d female f r i e n d d J 8 She s h o u l d n o t b e s o c i a l i z i n g
w i t h men o u t s i d e of h e r i n n e r f a m i l y . T h i s i s s t r i c t l y p r o h i b i t e d
b y t h e S h a r i a . S h e s h o u l d a l s o t r a v e l w i t h her mahram f a m i l y

members o r a p r o t e c t e d p a r t y o f
These t w e l v e c a t e g o r i e s s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e l i g h t

o f t h e i n i t i a l a l l o w a n c e f o r \ n e c e s s i t y f a s b e i n g some o f t h e
many o p t i o n s a woman c o u l d have f o r g o i n g o u t . N e c e s s i t y i s a
b r o a d term which covers any a c t which t h e p e r s o n feels t h e y h a v e
t o c a r r y o u t i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r f a i t h o r any a s p e c t o f
t h e i r m a t e r i a l life.

Concl u s i on
The v i e w s o f t h e Shehu on t h e r o l e a n d s t a t u s o f women must
be a n a l y z e d w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s s o c i e t y ,

and h i s e d u c a t i o n

a s a n I s l a m i c s c h o l a r . H i s stress on e d u c a t i o n e v e n a t t h e
e x p e n s e o f the a u t h o r i t y o f t h e h u s b a n d i n t h e home was a r a d i c a l
d e p a r t u r e from the p r a c t i c e s o f t h e ' ~ l a r n ao f h i s t i m e s . A l t h o u g h

he Shehu h a d g i v e n some d e t a i l o n how a woman s h o u l d c a r r y

h e r s e l f i n d o o r s a n d o u t d o o r s by s a y i n g i n h i s I h v a al-Sunna, 297,
"A woman s h o u l d n o t s i t a t home i n h e r w o r s t c l o t h i n g a n d t h e n i f
s h e wants t o l e a v e t h e house, s h e l o o k s f o r t h e b e s t c l o t h i n g a n d
j e w e l l e r y t h a t she owns and p u t s it on. T h i s a p r o h i b i t e d
innovation."

Islam had entered Hausaland centuries before, the real

consciousness of Islamic modesty and separation had not been
widespread among the masses of the people. The Shehu's call for
the education of women and improvements in the relationship
between men and women was revolutionary, in the sense that it
would bring about a change in what the people had been accustomed
to. His call for veiling, travelling in groups, or protected
parties of women at Hail was not new, but in complete conformity
to the early practices of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula.
In retrospect, it could be said that the efforts of the

Shehu in changing the condition of women in Hausaland did bring

about a radical change and enlightenment among the women.
Although their freedom of movement must have been seriously
curtailed by his call for controlled activity, the quality of
life and the level of education among the women must have
improved. A number of highly educated women were developed
through the Shehu's educational system. Jean Boyd lists f o r t y eight known women scholars in the Shehufs time. Six of these
scholars have poetry that still survives. They include Nana
Asma'u, the daughter of the Shehu, her sisters Hadiza, Fatima,
Hafsatu, Safiya, and Maryam, and their cousin ma is ha.'^'

It

could actually be argued that an upsurge of women's scholarship

took place during this period, for Nana Asma'u

established

womenfs educational organisations on the level of the village and

helped to train women to disseminate Islamic teachings throughout
440~ean
Boyd, The Caliph's Sister, 99, 116.
202

Hausaland.

441

She p r o d u c e d t r e a t i s e s and p o e t r y i n three

l a n g u a g e s : A r a b i c , F u l f u l d e , and Hausa .4 4 2 Her i n t e r e s t s

i n c l u d e d h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n , S h a r i a , women and B o r i , t h e f a m i l y ,
h i s t o r y , E s c h a t o l o g y , p o l i t i c s , and t h e o l o g y . I n 1860 C .E., s h e
w r o t e a twenty-four v e r s e poem i n Hausa, on women a n d B o r i ,

c a l l e d Rokon Ruwa. T h e f o l l o w i n g are some o f i t s verses:

v.12 Repent

( t h e s i n s ) of w i t c h c r a f t , B o r i and g a m b l i n g . H e l l
w i l be t h e reward o f t h o s e who i n d u l g e ( i n t h e s e s i n s ) .
v . 2 1 Do n o t go where t h e r e i s immoral ( B o r i ? ) drumming
f o r men and women mix t o g e t h e r on t h e s e o c c a s i o n s .
v . 1 8 Do n o t a l l o w drumming a t weddings ( t o accompany d e p r a v e d
dancing) .
I t i s s i n f u l w o r l d l i n e s s and ( w i l f u l ) f o r g e t f ~ l n e s s . ~ ~ '

On women and e d u c a t i o n s h e wrote i n a F u l f u l d e poem c a l l e d ,

Sonnore Hawa'u

(1860 C.E.) :

v . 8 A s f o r m y s e l f , I t a u g h t them a b o u t r e l i g i o n , t u r n e d them
from e r r o r a n d t o l d them about t h e i r e s s e n t i a l r e l i g i o u s
obligations,
v.9 L i k e r i t u a l a b l u t i o n , p r a y e r , alms, H a i l , t h e f a s t , a l l
of which a r e compulsory f o r a d u l t s .
v . 1 0 I t a u g h t them what i s p e r m i s s i b l e i n t h e F a i t h , and what
i s f o r b i d d e n , s o t h e y would know how t o a c t .
v . 1 1 I i n s t r u c t e d them t o d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s from p r o h i b i t e d
s i n s s u c h a s l y i n g , meanness, h a t r e d , and envy.
v.12 A d u l t e r y , t h e f t and s e l f esteem, I said, t h e y s h o u l d
repent because t h e s e things l e a d t o p e r d i t i o n .
v.13 The Yan-Taru (Asma'u's d i s c i p l e s ) and t h e i r c h i l d r e n a r e
w e l l known f o r t h e i r good works and p e a c e f u l b e h a v i o u r
i n t h e community.444
A f t e r the d e a t h of Muhammad B e l l o , Nana Asma' u became one

4 4 1 ~ l i Darma,
y ~

The C o n t r i b u t i o n o f Learned Women, 55.

" ' ~ e a n Boyd i n h e r r e p o r t t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e , I s l a m i n A f r i c a :

The c h a n s i n s Role o f t h e 'Ulama, h e l d a t N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y
1 9 8 4 , l i s t e d f i f t y - t w o works o f Nana Asam'u
in
(March 29-31,
A r a b i c , F u l f u l d e and Hausa.

o f t h e s e n i o r s c h o l a r s o f t h e Sokoto C a l i p h a t e . Amirs came f o r

her a d v i c e a n d s h e i s spoken a b o u t i n a d m i r a t i o n up u n t i l t o d a y
by t h e women o f H a u s a l a n d . J e a n Boyd's

d e s c r i p t i o n o f Nana Asma'u

g i v e s u s an i n s i g h t i n t o h e r complex r o l e a s an i n f l u e n t i a l woman
i n t h e Sokoto I s l a m i c l e g a c y . She wrote:
Asma'u was by f a r t h e most prolific w r i t e r a n d i n f l u e n t i a l
woman t o have emerged i n t h e w e s t e r n Sudan d u r i n g t h e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y : what i s more, h e r i n f l u e n c e c a r r i e d o v e r
i n t o t h e w o r l d o f men. H e r v o i c e was t h e t r a d i t i o n a l one o f
women, ' s h e w a s s o k i n d . . . h e r c h a r i t y was a t h o u s a n d f o l d '
But s h e c a r r i e d it t o t h e p l a c e s where d e c i s i o n s were made.
She was n o t a s u r r o g a t e man; s h e led no t r o o p s on the
b a t t l e f i e l d l i k e Queen Amina, was i n c h a r g e o f no t a x
c o l l e c t o r s l i k e the Inna, i n her r o l e a s t h e Sarkif s aide,
and headed no r e l i g i o u s c u l t l i k e t h e I n n a i n h e r r o l e a s
head o f t h e B o r i . She made s t r i n g e n t a n d a p t o b s e r v a t i o n s i n
h e r p o l i t i c a l v e r s e a s a wearer o f t h e Shehu's m a n t l e , b u t
remained d e c o r o u s l y w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f h e r home.445

T h e Shehu, w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s p r e s c r i b e d by t h e S h a r i a , was

s t r i v i n g t o improve t h e c o n d i t i o n of women and r a i s e t h e i r s t a t u s

i n t h e I s l a m i c s o c i e t y t h a t h e was t r y i n g t o c r e a t e . H i s i n s i g h t
i n t o t h e i n t i m a t e a f f a i r s of men and women and h i s p e n e t r a t i n g
critique

446

o f t h e i r u n b a l a n c e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s i s c l e a r proof of

h i s c o n c e r n and a c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t . Writers, s u c h as, I . A .

Ogunbiyi

447

h a v e t r i e d t o c l a s s i f y t h e Shehuf s e f f o r t s i n

women's a f f a i r s a s r e a c t i o n a r y and o p p r e s s i v e . T h i s t y p e o f
comment d i s p l a y s a l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o n t e x t of t h e
Shehu's t i m e and h i s p e r s p e c t i v e as an I s l a m i c s c h o l a r . The Shehu

4 4 6 ~ et he e s e c t i o n on M a r i t a l Relations i n C h a p t e r f i v e of t h i s

thesis.
4 4 7 ~ . ~ Ogunbiyi,
.
"The P o s i t i o n of Muslim Women as s t a t e d by
' ~ t h m a nb. F u d i " i n ODU, new s e r i e s , 1, ( O c t o b e r 1969), 5 6 .

should not be compared to nineteenth or twentieth century

liberals of the Islamic world, but judged within his own social
milieu.

The Dynamics of Strussle in the Development of Islamic Society

T h e Role of J i h a d

The period of the late 1790's was a turning point in the

development of the Shehurs community. Prior to this time, the
Shehu had confronted the wrong ideas and practices of the
scholars and people of Hausaland by providing an extensive
insight into the corruptions that had developed in the Islamic
community and the solutions offered by the Quran and the Sunna.
This early phase of the Shehufs development could be looked upon

as a type of quietest period, wherein Shehu had no intentions of

being involved in confrontation but employed a non-violent
educational approach until the circumstances of the confrontation
with the authorities of Gobir forced him into a new phase. Louis
Brenner in his article, "The case of Shaykh Uthman B. Fudi",
building off the conclusions of M.A. al-Hajj, F . H .

El-Masri, and

Murray Last, supported this stand. Brenner felt that although

there is a tone of militancy in the Shehuts writings before 1794-

5, he evolved at that time from an insistent teacher and preacher

into a more militant jihadist. He suggested that the Shehufs
major work, Ihva al-Sunna, was completely apolitical and
contained nothing which gave the slightest hint of jihadist
intention or any direct antagonism against the state. He

concluded t h a t t h e Shehu was a q u i e t e s t i n h i s e a r l y s t a g e s and

l a t e r became a more m i l i t a n t p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e when h i s o p p o s i t i o n
changed from t h e ' ~ l a m dt o t h e r u l e r s o f ~ o b i r . ~ ~ '
T h i s c o n c l u s i o n c a n be r e f i n e d ,

however, i n t h e l i g h t o f

t h e S h e h u f s a n a l y t i c a l approach t o Islamic s o u r c e s and t h e

b r o a d e r d e f i n i t i o n o f j i h a d , which i n c l u d e s t h e i n n e r j i h a d as
w e l l as t h e o u t e r forms of j i h a d .

T h e Shehuf s l i f e ,

academic

background and w r i t i n g s r e v e a l , t h a t h e n o t o n l y mentioned t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y of j i h a d b e f o r e 1 7 9 4 C.E, b u t was a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e d
i n what he f e l t was a type of j i h a d from the b e g i n n i n g of h i s

p r e a c h i n g . S i n c e t h e e a r l y d a y s o f t h e S h e h u f s t r a i n i n g , he w a s
exposed t o t e a c h e r s who were n o t o n l y I s l a m i c t h e o r i s t s b u t
s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s t s . H i s u n c l e , Shaykh B i d d u r i and Shaykh
J i b r i l w e r e known f o r t h e i r s t r u g g l e t o f o r b i d e v i l around them,
engage in jihad,

and i n s t i t u t e I s l a m i c law. H i s e x p o s u r e t o

Tafsir a l - J a l a l a i n ,

S a h i h al-Bukhari,

and t h e P r o p h e t i c S e e r a

(Biography) would have g i v e n him c l e a r knowledge o f t h e l i f e o f

t h e Prophet Muhammad and h i s e v o l u t i o n f r o m a p r e a c h e r of the
oneness of God i n t o a p o l i t i c a l head of state. El-Masri p l a c e d
t h e f i r s t mention o f j i h a d in a work e n t i t l e d Hidayat a l - T a l i b i n
where t h e Shehu refers t o t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e Muslim community
t h r o u g h f i v e p o i n t s s t a t e d by t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad, h i m s e l f . 4 4 9
They were h e a r i n g , o b e y i n g ( a b s o l u t e l o y a l t y ) ,

Hiira

4 4 8 B~
r e n~
n e r ,~ "The
i ~ c a s e o f Shaykh ' ~ t h m a n B .
L e v t z i o n , E i s h t e e n t h Century Renewal, 40-41.

FOdi"

in

4 4 g ~ c c o r d i nt go El-Masri, t h e style and c o n t e n t s o f t h i s work

make it an e a r l y c o m p i l a t i o n . See Bavan Wuitib a l - H i i r a , 2 1 .

( m i g r a t i o n ), j i h a d ,
I n Sawa al-Umma,

a n d iama' a ( t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n )

a n o t h e r work p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n b e f o r e 1 7 9 4 C . E . ,

t h e Shehu i n c l u d e d a c h a p t e r c a l l e d " T h e Book o f J i h a d " where he

e n c o u r a g e d h i s f o l l o w e r s t o prepare for war by b e i n g f a m i l i a r
w i t h weapons a n d b e i n g aware o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e P r o p h e t

Muhammad and his Companions i n t h e i r numerous campaigns.451

Among t h e many H a d i t h t r a d i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s chapter w e r e
t h e following :
Abu H u r a i r a r e p o r t e d : " A man came t o t h e P r o p h e t Muhammad
and s a i d , '0 P r o p h e t , t e l l m e t h e deed which i s e q u a l t o
j i h a d ( i n reward) .I The P r o p h e t s a i d , \ I cannot f i n d a n y ' ."

Abu ~ a ' i dwas a l s o r e p o r t e d t o h a v e s a i d t h a t t h e P r o p h e t was

asked, "Who i s the b e s t p e r s o n ? " T h e P r o p h e t s a i d , 'A
b e l i e v e r who f i g h t s i n t h e c a u s e o f A l l a h w i t h h i s s o u l a n d
h i s p r o p e r t y . ' 'Then who?', he was a s k e d . The P r o p h e t s a i d ,
A God f e a r i n g p e r s o n who d o e s n o t harm h i s p e o p l e . "

Abu H u r a i r a a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e A p o s t l e o f A l l a h s a i d ,
"There a r e o n e h u n d r e d l e v e l s i n P a r a d i s e which A l l a h h a s
p r e p a r e d f o r t h o s e who f i g h t i n t h e way o f A l l a h . The
distance b e t w e e n two l e v e l s i s l i k e what i s between t h e
s k y and t h e e a r t h . 4 5 2
Therefore,

jihad,

f o r t h e Shehu, c o u l d a l s o be l o o k e d upon

as a p r o c e s s . From t h e o u t s e t , the Shehu was i n v o l v e d i n a i i h a d

b a i l Oawl

(a s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e w o r d ) . H e v e r y a g g r e s s i v e l y

s t r u g g l e d against t h e e v i l s w i t h i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y and c u l t u r e of
h i s p e o p l e , t h e n moved on t o t h e o u t w a r d s o c i a l e v i l s w i t h i n t h e
f a m i l y , t h e m a r k e t p l a c e , t h e rnasiid, a n d t h e I s l a m i c i n s t i t u t i o n s
2 1 . The m a n u s c r i p t o f
' S u ~ l - ~ a s r i ,Bavan WuiGb a l - H i i r a ,
H i d a v a t a l - T a l i b i n c a n be found i n I b a d a n U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , (Ib.
82/158).

4 S 1 ' ~ t h m a ni b n F u d i ,

Saws al-Umma,

4 5 2 ' ~ t h m a inb n F u d i , Saws al-Umrna,

207

150.

147-148.

of learning. He was fully aware that the tqultimatejihadu

involving the lives and the properties of the Muslims could
eventually result, but he did not enter that arena of struggle.

The conditions were not existing. However, when his followers had
developed into a iama' a and the pressure came from the
authorities of Gobir, he followed the well-defined Sunna in
setting the stage for confrontation, jihad, and the formation of
a dynamic Islamic state. The Sunna required the believers to call

to righteousness and prohibit evil, pledge their total allegiance

to a righteous leader, make Hiira to an abode of Islam, and
defend themselves physically if they were attacked by the
unbelievers.

Commanding Righteousness and F o r b i d d i n g E v i l

The first significant discussion which the Shehu wrote in
apparent expectation of a possible confrontation with the Gobir
authorities was his Kitab al-Arnr bi'l-~a'rfif wa al-Nahi an alMunkar. This treatise, although undated, must have been written
in the early 1790rs, for its discussion of jihad and community
reveal a turning point in the internal dynamics of the Shehu and
his

The main focus of this work was to emphasize

the necessity of commanding righteousness and forbidding evil

wa al-Nahi ' an al-Munkar)

(al-Amr b i b 1 - ~ a r' ~ f

This concept,

which had been established earlier in the Western Sudan by

militant Islamic scholars like Al-Maghili, was a type of three
staged struggle against evil, whose highest level was to stop

e v i l w i t h f o r c e , then, i f t h a t was n o t p o s s i b l e , t o speak o u t

a g a i n s t i t . I f t h a t was n o t p o s s i b l e , t h e Muslim s h o u l d h a t e i t
i n h i s h e a r t . Al-Amr

bi'i-1

~ a ' r ~ wf a al-Nahi

' a n al-Munkar

can

express i t s e l f on an i n d i v i d u a l , h o u s e h o l d , community, n a t i o n a l ,

o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . T h e Shehu e x p l a i n e d t h a t it was fard

k i f a v a ( c o l l e c t i v e o b l i g a t i o n ) , b u t t h a t every Muslim was
r e s p o n s i b l e t o f o r b i d e v i l i n h i s own way and was a sinner i f i t

was n o t c a r r i e d o u t c o l l e c t i v e l y . 4 5 4
The Shehu i n a h i g h l y pragmatic s t y l e warned t h e Muslims
t h a t although j i h a d d o e s n o t need t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n Imam, f o r it
r e a l l y b e g i n s with t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t c o r r u p t i o n and
e v i l , if the a c t i v i t y o f p r o h i b i t i n g e v i l a n d c a l l i n g t o Islam
l e a d s t o f i g h t i n g , t h e y s h o u l d r a l l y a r o u n d a l e a d e r .'" H e
reminded them of h a s t y j i h a d s ,

such a s t h a t o f I b n Tumart o f

Morocco (1077-1130 C.E), which led t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e

common p e o p l e . 4 5 6 L e a d e r s h i p s h o u l d b e q u a l i f i e d a n d b a l a n c e d .
H e described t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r I s l a m i c Imamate w i t h t h e

following:

The Imam s h o u l d be Muslim, male, o f s o u n d mind and judgement,

j u s t , h o n e s t , and c o u r a g e o u s . H e s h o u l d be w e l l grounded
i n the p r i n c i p l e s t u d i e s of t h e r e l i g i o n , and n o t l i a b l e t o

454'~thmani b n Fadi, Al-Amr b i ' 1 ~ a r'd f

Munkar, N.H.R.S./ 1 6 P.-P.119/11, 1-3.

wa al-Nahi

a n al-

his was a new strategy i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f t h e Shehu and

showed t h e p o i n t o f transition, where an imam-or Amir u l - ~ u ' m i n i n
t h r o u g- h t h e i n e v i t a b l e
would be n e e d e d t o g u i d e t h e community
conflict.

shake by m i s f o r t u n e o r t h e blows o f f a t e . 4 s 7
This t y p e o f d i s c o u r s e i s not t h e d i s c u s s i o n of a q u i e t e s t
s c h o l a r who i s o b l i v i o u s t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l
atmosphere around him. The Shehu was p r e p a r i n g h i s community f o r
t h e r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n f l i c t and a l l o u t war. H e must have

been a l s o t r y i n g t o calm down i m p a t i e n t e l e m e n t s w i t h i n h i s

f o l l o w i n g and f o s t e r a sober, m e t h o d i c a l a p p r o a c h t o i i h a d b i ' l

savf

s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e s w o r d ) . The p r e s e n c e o f a stable,

l e a r n e d Imam a s t h e commander of t h e f a i t h f u l would u n i t e t h e

s c a t t e r e d f o r c e s of change i n Hausaland a n d p r o v i d e t h e d i r e c t i o n
needed t o i n s t i t u t e r e a l I s l a m i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
I n 1794,5 C.E.,
'Abdul

t h e S h e h u f s m y s t i c a l e n c o u n t e r w i t h Shaykh

Qadir a l - J i l a n i f o r t i f i e d him s p i r i t u a l l y a n d e n a b l e d him

t o openly encourage h i s f o l l o w e r s t o p r e p a r e f o r w a r .

In a

F u l f u l d e poem, he w r o t e :
Njoge bahe modon worbe mete bo m e t a l i ,
Zama m e t a l i he bahe yo Sunna Muhammadu.
N joge l a b b e modon fu yo Sunna Muhammadu,
He k a f a j e den bo k a z a yo Sunna Muhammadu.
The E n g l i s h T r a n s l a t i o n :
Keep y o u r q u i v e r s , 0 men and wear t u r b a n s ,
For, i n d e e d , t u r b a n s a n d q u i v e r s a r e ( p a r t ) of t h e Sunna of
Muhammad.
Keep you s p e a r s a s w e l l , f o r i t i s t h e Sunna o f Muhammad;
So a l s o a r e swords ( p a r t ) of t h e Sunna of ~ u h a m m a d . ~ ~ ~
Hi

i r a and

Al-Muwdldt

( a l l e g i a n c e , clientage)

"'T'aher,
The S o c i a l W r i t i n s s , 8 6 . From t h e poem "Sunna
Muhammadu" , Gime Ful f u l d e : 1, compiled by Al-Amin Abu-Manga and
Ibrahim Mukoshy (Kano : Bayero U n i v e r s i t y , n . d . ) , 121-125.

In t h e y e a r 1803 C.E.,

t h e Shehu wrote ~ a s a ' i lMuhimma

v a h t a j u ila ~ a r'i f a t i h a b a dd al-Talaba

(Important Questions t h a t

some of t h e S t u d e n t s need t o be aware o f ) . 4 5 9 T h i s work

c o n s t i t u t e d t h e f i r s t major d i s c u s s i o n o f H i i r a and t h e p o l i t i c a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Muslims and non-Muslims.

I t appeared a t a t i m e

when t e n s i o n between t h e S h e h u f s community and t h e G o b i r

a u t h o r i t i e s w a s v e r y h i g h . T h e S a r k i Yunfa was h a r a s s i n g Muslims
a n d t h e r e a l p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c l a s h was a t hand. A c c o r d i n g t o
A b d u l l a h i i b n Ftidi, i n 1802-3 C . E . ,

Yunfa i n v i t e d t h e Shehu t o

t h e p a l a c e and h e went t o g e t h e r w i t h A b d u l l a h i a n d a n o t h e r
f r i e n d , Umaru al-Kammu.

During t h e a u d i e n c e Yunfa s u d d e n l y s e i z e d

a musket, aimed i t a t t h e Shehu, and f i r e d . M i r a c u l o u s l y , a s it

seemed t o t h o s e p r e s e n t , t h e weapon f l a s h e d i n t h e pan and

s c o r c h e d t h e c h i e f , c a u s i n g him t o l e a p back i n a l a r m . A f t e r t h e
i n c i d e n t t h e Shehu and h i s companions r e t u r n e d t o Dege1.460
The Shehu, t h e n , made a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t t o r e - a s s e s s

the

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f h i s p r e d i ~ a m e n t . ~H~i 's t o n e was

changing from that o f a c o n c e r n e d I s l a m i c s c h o l a r who f e l t t h e
n e c e s s i t y t o c r i t i q - u e h i s s o c i e t y t o t h a t of a d e t e r m i n e d l e a d e r
r e a d y t o t a k e c o n t r o l o f t h e f o r c e s of r a d i c a l c h a n g e . T h i s new
p h a s e s h o u l d n o t be l o o k e d upon a s a t y p e of u n e x p e c t e d p o l i t i c a l

459'~thmani b n F t i d i ,
ba'd al-Talaba,

~ a s a ' i lMuhimma y a h t a i u

( C . I . S . and N .A.K. )

ila ~a'rifatuha

4 6 0 ~ h iisn c i d e n t i s r e p o r t e d i n d e t a i l i n Raud a l - J i n a n by
Gidado dan Laima, and found i n Mervyn H i s k e t t , The Sword of Truth,
70-71.
4 6 1 ~ l - ~ a s r Bavan
i,
Wujub al H i j r a ,
Century Renewal, 4 9 .

24;

Levtzion,

Eishteenth

metamorphosis, but as a predicatable development in the life of

an outspoken activist whose habit was to confront the issues

around him. The ~asa'il Muhimma, also brought out the Shehuts

deep respect and commitment to the writings and analysis of

Shaykh al-Maghili whose influence had been so powerful in the
early days of Islam in Hausaland.
Fourteen problems are addressed in ~asa'il Muhimma, each
having its own importance and relevance to the actual events that
were taking place. The following is a summary of the highlights
of these issues:
1. The Shehu began his treatise by stating that Islam is based on
understanding and clear-sightedness, but anyone who follows his
own views is contradicting the Sharia. He urged the Muslims to
unite their opinions around the Sharia and the clear proofs of
Islamic sources.4 6 '

2. In the second question, the Shehu explained that the Muslims

should not be left neglected but they should take a pledge of
allegiance (bay'a) to an Imam if that person can be located. He
quoted Shaykh al-Maghili, who, in his answers to Amir Askia
emphasized the compulsory nature of this act. The Shehu was
clearly changing the level of commitment of his following from
dedication to knowledge and practising the Sunna, to submitting

4624Uthmanibn Ftidi, ~ a s a 'il Muhimma, 2.

212

t o specific I s l a m i c l e a d e r ~ h i p . ' ~ )
3 . The t h i r d q u e s t i o n d e a l t w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l n a t u r e o f h i i r a .

The Shehu e x p l a i n e d t h a t i t i s compulsory upon Muslims by i i m a f ,

a n d t h e r e a r e c l e a r v e r s e s i n t h e Q u r f a n commanding the believers

t o make h i j r a from t h e l a n d o f d i s b e l i e f t o t h e l a n d o f I s l a m ,
from t h e l a n d of b i d ' a t o the l a n d o f Sunna, o r from t h e l a n d o f
s i n t o t h e l a n d o f o b e d i e n c e ( t o A l l a h ) . T h i s m i g r a t i o n becomes
n e c e s s a r y n o t o n l y i n cases o f o p p r e s s i o n a n d p h y s i c a l a t t a c k ,

but e v e n i f a Muslim is n o t a b l e t o p r a c t i c e h i s r e l i g i o n
p r o p e r l y . 4 6 4 The Shehu w a s u r g i n g t h e p e o p l e t o r e j e c t t h e
p r o h i b i t i o n s and commandments of t h e G o b i r a u t h o r i t i e s a n d u n i t e
w i t h o t h e r members o f h i s iama'a i n a n o t h e r l o c a t i o n .
4 . T h e f o u r t h q u e s t i o n r a i s e d was t h e i s s u e o f al-muwalat.

The

Shehu d i v i d e d t h e a l l e g i a n c e and c l i e n t a g e o f Muslims t o nonMuslims i n t o t h r e e p a r t s . H e wrote:

A l l e g i a n c e t o u n b e l i e v e r s i s t h r e e t y p e s . The f i r s t i s a
k i n d o f r e l a t i o n s h i p which c o n s t i t u t e s kufr a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
iima'. I t is t h e establishment of r e l a t i o n s , c l o s e
i n v o l v e m e n t a n d a f f e c t i o n w i t h u n b e l i e v e r s because t h e y a r e
u n b e l i e v e r s and i n a n i m o s i t y t o I s l a m . . .The o t h e r t y p e i s
s i n f u l but it d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e d i s b e l i e f . T h a t i s the
establishment of a r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e unbelievers i n o r d e r
t o g a i n b e n e f i t from t h e i r w e a i t h . . . T h e t h i r d type o f a l muwalat i s t h a t which o c c u r s a s a r e s u l t o f f e a r i n g t h e m . I t
appears on the t o n g u e o f t h e p e r s o n b u t i s n o t r e a l l y i n t h e
h e a r t . I t i s p e r m i s s i b l e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e iima' . 4 6 5
The Shehu stressed a t t h i s s e n s i t i v e p o i n t i n h i s c a r e e r

t h a t t h e Muslims s h o u l d n o t humble t h e m s e l v e s t o u n b e l i e v e r s .
They s h o u l d be p o l i t e t o a l l p e o p l e b u t show s t r e n g t h a n d

f e a r l e s s n e s s t o t h o s e who opposed them. One o f t h e most o b v i o u s

f o r m s o f outward h u m i l i a t i o n was t h e s h a m e f u l bowing a n d a c t s of
s u b m i s s i o n t h a t t h e common p e o p l e had t o p e r f o r m i n f r o n t o f the
n o b i l i t y . According t o I s l a m i c law, Muslims w e r e o n l y a l l o w e d t o
bow down t o t h e C r e a t o r i n p r a y e r . Respect w a s s u p p o s e d t o b e

given t o s u p e r i o r s i n o t h e r less demeaning ways. I b n B a t t u t a h a d

n o t i c e d un-Islamic
Mali.

p r a c t i c e s such a s t h e s e d u r i n g h i s v i s i t t o

H e r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e common p e o p l e on e n t e r i n g the p r e s e n c e

o f t h e k i n g o r t h e n o b i l i t y , would t h r o w t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e
g r o u n d , p u t d u s t on t h e i r heads, and n o t r i s e u n t i l g i v e n
p e r m i s s i o n t o do s o .

T h e Shehu approached t h i s s u b j e c t ,

c o n c l u s i v e l y ( i n Kitab N o r ul-Albab),

saying:

And among t h e a f f a i r s t h a t have c a u s e d a g e n e r a l c a l a m i t y

i n t h e s e l a n d s i s what t h e y have made a s p r o p e r b e h a v i o u r
i n g r e e t i n g t h e i r leaders l i k e bowing. T h i s o v e r l y
e x a g g e r a t e d bowing o f t h e head i n g r e e t i n g s i s p r o h i b i t e d
b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f s c h o l a r s . . . 4 67

He l a t e r w r o t e a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t t r e a t i s e on al-muwdlat
c a l l e d al-Amr b i Muwaldt a l - ~ u ' m i n i n wa al-Nahy
KafirZn i n 1812 C.E.

' a n MuwZilat al-

which c o n f i r m e d t h i s p r i n c i p l e o f t h e

i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d s e l f - r u l e o f t h e Muslim umma. T h i s d e c l a r a t i o n
c o u l d a l s o be i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e r i g h t t o rebel a g a i n s t a
government t h a t r u l e s c o n t r a r y t o I s l a m i c S h a r i a .
5 . The f i f t h q u e s t i o n l o o k e d a t t h e s t a t u s o f t h e w e a l t h o f

4 6 6 ~ bBn a t t u t a , R i h l a t , 6 8 9 , 6 9 1 . .

'''' uthman

i b n Ftidi, Nor-ul-Albab,
214

23.

Muslims who are living by choice in the land of the unbelievers.

The Shehu chose the Islamic judgement that since they were under
the authority of the unbelieving ruler their wealth would be part

of the general booty of war and be put in the bavt ul-ma1

(treasury house) .

6. In the sixth question, the Shehu distinguished the wealth of

the unbelievers who had an association with the Muslims by
stating that it is haram (prohibited) to confiscate it.
7. The seventh question dealt with the ruling on waging jihad

against the unbelievers and the legal difference between waging

jihad against unbelievers and apostates. The Shehu felt that
waging jihad against the unbelievers was fard kifava and a duty
of the head of state and the collective body of the Muslims. To
define what constituted unbelievers, he quoted Shaykh al-Maghili
in his answers to Amir Askia Muhammad:

The unbelievers are three types. The first are those who
are clearly in disbelief by their origin like the Jews,
the Christians, the M a i O s (Magians), or people like them
who have inherited disbelief from their parents. The second
type are those who were originally Muslim, then apostated
from Islam and entered a religion of disbelief. The third
type are those who claim to be Muslims but we have ruled that
are unbelievers because they have displayed openly that which
is displayed by unbelievers. 4 6 8
The Shehu, then, separated the ruling for an unbeliever and

an apostate by stating that there was no difference of opinion

between the scholars of Islam concerning the fact that the wealth

and families of the unbelievers are all confiscated by the

Muslims in a state of war. The apostate, however, was originally

a Muslim, so his family is left alone but his wealth becomes

property of the Muslims. This is the position of the majority of
the scholars of Islam.469
8. The eighth question looked into the issue of fighting those

who made war on the Muslims, as well as the Muslims who were
under their authority, and those criminal elements who were
terrorizing the Muslims lands. The Shehu took the strict position

of putting all of these types into the same category, the

category of war. He ruled that the danger of the destruction of
Muslim lands and the corruption and fear that accompanies an
attack by any of these elements justified not distinguishing

between those who are Muslim or not. They are all under the
leadership of unbelievers.4 7 0

9. In the ninth question, the Shehu ruled that if the enemy

attacks a town, it is compulsory on all people who have the
slightest ability to defend themselves. Even women, slaves, and
those who live in the vicinity should use all means to repulse
the attack . 4 7 1
10. The tenth question concerned the status of the Fulbe (Falata)

in the Sudannic lands. Is it permissible to take them as slaves?

The Shehu ruled that it is not allowed to take the Fula as slaves
unless it was proven that they were unbelievers in their origin.

T h e i r overwhelming r e l i g i o n a t t h i s t i m e was Islam.472

11. The e l e v e n t h q u e s t i o n l o o k e d i n t o t h e s t a t u s o f c a p t i v e s f r o m

c o u n t r i e s t h a t w e r e known t o be I s l a m i c . The Shehu r u l e d t h a t

t h e y s h o u l d n o t be t a k e n s l a v e s u n l e s s it was proven t h a t t h e y
w e r e o r i g i n a l l y u n b e l i e v e r s who were l i v i n g i n t h e s e lands.4 7 3

1 2 . I n t h e t w e l f t h q u e s t i o n , t h e Shehu discussed t h e b a s i c

p r i n c i p l e i n p o s s e s s i o n of g o o d s . If t h e owner of t h e p o s s e s s i o n
i s n o t known, t h a n it i s p e r m i s s i b l e t o own i t , but i f t h e owner

i s known, it i s p r o h i b i t e d t o t a k e c o n t r o l o f i t . 2 7 4
13, T h e t h i r t e e n t h q u e s t i o n l o o k e d a t b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s w i t h

o p p r e s s o r s . T h e Shehu r u l e d t h a t i f t h e i r w e a l t h was g o t t e n
t h r o u g h p r o h i b i t e d means l i k e s t e a l i n g o r e x t o r t i o n , it i s not
p e r m i s s i b l e t o h a v e a n y i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h them whether it be i n
b u s i n e s s , a c c e p t i n g g i f t s , e a t i n g f o o d , o r wearing t h e i r
c l o t h i n g . If some of t h e i r w e a l t h w a s g o t t e n t h r o u g h p e r m i s s i b l e
methods, t h a n it i s a l l o w a b l e t o e x c h a n g e w i t h them o n l y i n v e r y
r e s t r i c t i v e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . 475
14.

I n t h e l a s t q u e s t i o n , t h e Shehu e m p h a s i z e d t h a t i t i s n o t

p e r m i s s i b l e t o f r e q u e n t t h e places o f t h e r i c h and m a t e r i a l
minded o r t h e o p p r e s s o r s . This would b r i n g h u m i l i a t i o n t o Islam

and put a scholar in the very dangerous position of giving in to

his material desires. The rich and powerful should come to the
scholars and not the ~pposite."~

The ~asa'il Muhimma was a not a theoretical discussion of

Islamic jurisprudence, but a detailed plan of action and
reaction. It addressed the real issues of war: loyalty, the
necessity for fighting, the status of prisoners of war, the
division of the spoils of war, and the proper conduct and
material relations during the times of crisis. No doubt must have
remained in any of the Shehufs followers that the period of
teaching and peaceful preaching was at an end. The Shehu was
prepared to confront the authorities of Gobir or any ruler who
stood in his way.
A year after the writing of ~asa'il Muhimma, the Shehu and
his community made the famous hiira. This was the major turning
point in the relationship between the Shehu's followers and the
Gobir authorities. It was also a major turning point in the ideas
and writings of the Shehu. He geared his subsequent works to the
needs of hijra, war, and later caliphate. Numerous letters were
written to the Muslim leaders urging them to support the jihad,

and declarations were sent to the Hausa kings exhorting them to

recognise the rule of Islam in H a ~ s a l a n d .One
~ ~ ~of the most
significant extant documents written by the Shehu in this tense

17.
476~bid.,

El-Masri, Bavan WuiUb al-Hiira, 2 4 .

4 7 7 ~ . ~ .

218

period was Wathicrat Ah1 al-Siidan

the manifesto of jihad,

which was circulated throughout Hausaland. The Shehu, signing the

document as Amir al-~u'minin, summarized his previous works on
hiira, jihad, al-muwalat, and enforcement of Sharia and added the

need for the appointment of judges. What is interesting to note

here is that in such trying circumstances, he remained true to

his methodical style of confirming his declarations with the

p r o o f of the ~ima', and showing concern for the ideological

repercussions of what he was attempting. From the many concise

yet powerful statements in Wathicrat Ah1 al-Stidan,

he wrote:

...the anathematizing of Muslims on a pretext o f

heretical observances is unlawful by iima' .
And the anathematizing of Muslims for disobedience is
unlawful by iima' .'''

The Shehu, even in the face of war and the power of the
Hausa kings, warned his followers against extremism in the realm

of concepts and ideology. This is the mark of a scholar who was

true to his scholarship and concerned about the intellectual
condition of his people, despite his entrance into the struggle
f o r political hegemony.

"" ~ t h n a nibn Ftidi, Wathicrah min Ibn Ftidi, Amir al-~u'minin,

ila iarni' Ah1 al-Sadan wa ila man sha' Allah min al-Ikhwan (A
Manifesto from Ibn Fudi, the Commander of the Faithful, to the
People of the Sudan and whomever Allah pleases f r o m the (Muslim)
Brethren), translated by A.D.H. Bivar in "The Wathiaat Ah1 AlSudan: A Manifesto of the Fulani Jihadw, J.A.H., 11, 2, (1961),

235-243.
4 7 9 ~D
.

.H. Bivar, Wathiqat Ahl al-Sudan, 2 4 0 .

GENERAL CONCLUSION

T h i s work has been a n a t t e m p t t o l o o k at t h e Shehut ' ~ t h m a n

i b n F u d i as a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s o c i a l a c t i v i s t a s w e l l a s a n
I s l a m i c s c h o l a r and a j i h a d i s t l e a d e r . T h e Snehu was P a r t of a
l o n g t r a d i t i o n of s c h o l a r s h i p which p r i d e d i t s e l f i n b e i n g
d i r e c t l y connected t o the o r i g i n a l t e a c h i n g s of t h e Prophet
Muhammad of Arabia. H i s e a r l y s t u d y of A r a b i c language, Q u r a n i c
e x e g e s i s , Hadith l i t e r a t u r e , and Islamic s c i e n c e s gave him a
c l a s s i c a l I s l a m i c o u t l o o k on h i s t o r y and the n e c e s s i t i e s o f d a i l y
l i f e . H e embodied h i s i d e a s and s e t out a t an e a r l y age t o t e a c h

t h e p e o p l e of Hausaland what h e had l e a r n e d . H i s w r i t i n g s

f o l l o w e d t h e c l a s s i c a l methodology of an ~ s l a m i cj u r i s t
( f a s f h ) , b u t h e remained a t e a c h e r t i l l h i s d e a t h - D e s p i t e h i s
r i g i d method o f c o n s t a n t l y q u o t i n g I s l a m i c s o u r c e s t o prove h i s
p o i n t , t h e Shehu was c o n c e r n e d w i t h common s o c i a l problems of
l o c a l people. H e f o r t i f i e d h i s Arabic w r i t i n g s w i t h p o e t r y and
d i s c o u r s e i n Hausa, F u l f u l d e and o t h e r l o c a l l a n g u a g e s . H e s p e n t
l o n g h o u r s s i t t i n g w i t h p e o p l e from a l l w a l k s of l i f e , even women
a n d c h i l d r e n , i n o r d e r t o convey h i s message t o t h e masses.
An

in-depth l o o k a t the w r i t i n g s of t h e Shehu i n h i s

f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d of 1774-1804

C.E.,

r e v e a l s t h a t he b r o u g h t t o

t h e s c h o l a r s of Hausaland p r e c e d e n t s set by w e l l known c l a s s i c a l

s c h o l a r s from North A f r i c a and t h e h e a r t l a n d s of t h e Muslim

w o r l d . These works e n t e r e d t h e most i n t i m a t e a r e a s o f

i n t e l l e c t u a l t h o u g h t a n d s o c i a l behaviour. The S h e h u r s s t r i c t
academic t r a i n i n g d i d n o t i n h i b i t him from l o o k i n g i n t o t h e
l o c a l customs and u n - h y g i e n i c p r a c t i c e s t h a t h a d developed i n t h e
Muslim world and s t u d y i n g t h e p r a c t i c a l I s l a m i c s o l u t i o n s .

Hausaland i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y was a h i g h l y complex s o c i e t y

w i t h h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , and p o l i t i c a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s . D e s p i t e t h e p r e s e n c e of Islam f o r o v e r f o u r h u n d r e d
years, t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s were maintained e i t h e r openly o r i n a

pseudo-Islamic

form. The Shehu s p e n t h i s e a r l y y e a r s of p r e a c h i n g

i n c o n f r o n t i n g t h e l o c a l customs and p r o v i d i n g I s l a m i c
alternatives.
Therefore, t h e Shehur s e v e n t u a l s u c c e s s i n t h e j i h a d which

t o p p l e d t h e main r u l e r s o f Hausaland and i n s t i t u t e d t h e I s l a m i c

s y s t e m of Amirate c a n n o t b e p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d u n l e s s s u f f i c i e n t
s t u d y i s given t o t h e f o r m a t i v e phase of h i s c a r e e r . I t was i n
t h a t p e r i o d t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e S h e h u r s f o l l o w e r s was
moulded and f o r t i f i e d . I t i s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d t h a t t h e
groundwork was l a i d f o r t h e e v e n t u a l a c c e p t a n c e of I s l a m i c r u l e .
The Shehu succeeded i n t a k i n g r e l i g i o n o u t of t h e s t u d y c i r c l e o r
mosque and p u t t i n g it i n t o t h e everyday l i f e of t h e p e o p l e . H e
s u c c e e d e d i n making t h e s t u d y of t h e Quran and t h e Sunna, a
r e l e v a n t a c t i v i t y t h a t could provide v i a b l e s o l u t i o n s t o d a i l y
needs.
The Shehu a l s o s u c c e e d e d i n remaining c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the
most orthodox a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Sunna i n b r i n g i n g about s o c i a l

a n d e v e n t u a l l y p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o h i s s o c i e t y . The
P r o p h e t Muhammad h a d t a u g h t m o n o t h e i s t i c t h e o l o g y a n d c h a r a c t e r
b u i l d i n g i n Makkah f o r t h i r t e e n y e a r s , t h e n h e m i g r a t e d t o A l Madinah and formed a n Islamic s t a t e which e v e n t u a l l y overcame a l l
o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f Arabia. The Shehu t a u g h t and p r e a c h e d for
a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h i r t y y e a r s , made h i i r a , a n d f o r m e d a community
t h a t e v e n t u a l l y overcame t h e b u l k of t h e o p p o s i t i o n i n Hausaland.
T h e Shehu a g g r e s s i v e l y s t r u g g l e d f o r change from t h e b e g i n n i n g o f

h i s m i s s i o n : f i r s t a c h a n g e from w i t h i n ( t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e
f a m i l y and t h e community), t h e n a change i n i d e o l o g y and o u t l o o k ,
and f i n a l l y a change i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e s o c i e t y .
H e w a s c o n s i s t e n t t o h i s t e a c h e r s : Shaykh J i b r i l ,

Shaykh B i d d u r i ,

Shaykh a l - M a g h i l i a n d o t h e r s . They had f o u g h t f o r s o c i a l and

p o l i t i c a l change and t h e Shehu from an e a r l y s t a g e must have
known t h a t he may h a v e t o v i o l e n t l y c o n f r o n t t h e r u l e r s o f
Hausaland.
Another o u t s t a n d i n g achievement of t h e Shehu was h i s
a p p r o a c h t o Tasawwuf. H e d i d not adopt t h e e x t r e m e o f t o t a l l y
r e j e c t i n g Tasawwuf a s a n i r r e l e v a n t e s o t e r i c Islamic s c i e n c e . N o r
d i d he b l i n d l y a c c e p t t h e b i d ' a and non-Islamic

p h i l o s o p h y and

p r a c t i c e s t h a t had c r e p t i n t o many of t h e c l a s s i c a l t a r i s a s . H i s
s u c c e s s was t o b l e n d the o u t w a r d and inward a s p e c t s o f I s l a m i c
t e a c h i n g s and c o n f i n e SGfi t h o u g h t and p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n t h e
b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e S h a r i a . T h i s e n a b l e d him t o f o c u s on t h e k i n d
o f Tasawwuf that d e v e l o p e d t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e p e o p l e and
p u r i f i e d t h e leadership of blameworthy t r a i t s t h a t would lead t o

t h e i r c o r r u p t i o n and t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e community. H i s
Tasawwuf f o r t i f i e d him i n the t i m e of c r i s i s w i t h "the sword o f
truth",

i n s t e a d o f e n c o u r a g i n g him t o l e a v e the m a t e r i a l world

and f o c u s o n l y on t h e h i g h e r r e a l i t y of God. H i s w r i t i n g s and

speeches lead t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r t o believe t h a t h i s community
was n o t a S U f i movement, but a h i g h l y o r t h o d o x ( S u n n i ) iama'a
which u s e d t h e t e a c h i n g s o f Tasawwuf t o t r a i n i t s f o l l o w i n g and
f a c i l i t a t e s p e c i a l i z e d members t o s t r i v e f o r h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l
s t a t e s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e Sunna.
The Shehu was n o t a r e f o r m e r who wanted t o a l t e r t h e s o c i a l
a n d p o l i t i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f h i s p e o p l e t o f i t t h e n e e d s of h i s
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . H i s movement was one o f t a i d i d ( r e v i v a l ) where t h e
o r i g i n a l p r i n c i p l e s were r e v i v e d i n a modern s e n s e . H i s emphasis
on women's i s s u e s was n o t d e s i g n e d t o " l i b e r a t e " women i n a
w e s t e r n s e n s e b u t t o g i v e them t h e r i g h t s p r o m i s e d t o them u n d e r
t h e c l a s s i c a l I s l a m i c s h a r i a . So, h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o c o n f r o n t
l o c a l , g r a s s r o o t s i s s u e s a n d r e f e r t o t h e 1ima' f o r h i s s o l u t i o n s
p r o v e t h a t he i n t e n d e d t o d e v e l o p a c l a s s i c a l form o f I s l a m i c
o r d e r t h a t would be a c c e p t a b l e and r e l e v a n t t o t h e people of
Hausaland.
These f i n d i n g s p l a c e t h e Shehu, n o t o n l y i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f
s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l movers o f h i s t o r y , b u t a l s o i n t h e c a t e g o r y
o f t h o s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s who had a profound impact on t h e customs,
i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , and i n t e l l e c t u a l h e r i t a g e of t h e i r
p e o p l e . The S h e h u f s i n v o l v e m e n t i n the s o c i a l aspects of h i s
p e o p l e f s l i v e s and h i s c o n c e r n w i t h t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l w e l l b e i n g

o f t h e s c h o l a r s and s t u d e n t s i s p a r t of the l e g a c y o f t h e Sokoto

j i h a d and i t s r e s u l t a n t c a l i p h a t e . The Shehu trained a large

g r o u p o f male and female scholars who s a w t h e i r r o l e as t e a c h e r s ,

social activists, and leaders. Further s t u d i e s s h o u l d reveal even

more evidence o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s made by t h e men a n d women o f
t h i s movement and t h e p r o f o u n d affect t h e y had on t h e h i s t o r y and

c u l t u r e o f Hausaland.

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