HISTORY AND THEIR INVENTIONS.......

1.Thales
2.Carl friedrich Gauss
3.Pythagoras
4.Aryabhata
5.Sir Isaac newton
6.Pierre simon Laplace
7.Muhammad ibn musa- al-khwarizmi
 THALES:-

Life
Thales lived around the mid 620s – mid 540s BC and was born in the city of Miletus. Miletus
was an ancient Greek Ionian city on the western coast of Asia Minor (in what is today the
Aydin Province of Turkey) near the mouth of the Maeander River

The dates of Thales' life are not known precisely. The time of his life is roughly established
by a few dateable events mentioned in the sources and an estimate of his length of life.
According to Herodotus, Thales once predicted a solar eclipse which has been determined by
modern methods to have been on May 28, 585 BC.[3] Diogenes Laërtius quotes the chronicle
of Apollodorus as saying that Thales died at 78 in the 58th Olympiad (548–545), and
Sosicrates as reporting that he was 90 at his death.

As mentioned, according to tradition, Thales was born in Miletus, Asia Minor. Diogenes
Laertius states that ("according to Herodotus and Douris and Democritus") his parents were
Examyes and Cleobuline, Phoenician nobles. Giving another opinion, he ultimately connects
Thales' family line back to Phoenician prince Cadmus. Diogenes also reports two other
stories, one that he married and had a son, Cybisthus or Cybisthon, or adopted his nephew of
the same name. The second is that he never married, telling his mother as a young man that it
was too early to marry, and as an older man that it was too late. A much earlier source -
Plutarch - tells the following story: Solon who visited Thales asked him the reason which
kept him single. Thales answered that he did not like the idea of having to worry about
children. Nevertheless, several years later Thales anxious for family adopted his nephew
Cybisthus

INVENTIONS:-
Geometry

Thales understood similar triangles and right triangles, and what is more, used that
knowledge in practical ways. The story is told in DL (loc. cit.) that he measured the height of
the pyramids by their shadows at the moment when his own shadow was equal to his height.
A right triangle with two equal legs is a 45-degree right triangle, all of which are similar. The
length of the pyramid’s shadow measured from the center of the pyramid at that moment
must have been equal to its height.

This story reveals that he was familiar with the Egyptian seqt, or seked, defined by Problem
57 of the Rhind papyrus as the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope, which is currently the
cotangent function of trigonometry. It characterizes the angle of rise.

Our cotangents require the same units for run and rise, but the papyrus uses cubits for rise and
palms for run, resulting in different (but still characteristic) numbers. Since there were 7
palms in a cubit, the seqt was 7 times the cotangent.

Thales' Theorem :

To use an example often quoted in modern reference works, suppose the base of a pyramid is
140 cubits and the angle of rise 5.25 seqt. The Egyptians expressed their fractions as the sum
of fractions, but the decimals are sufficient for the example. What is the rise in cubits? The
run is 70 cubits, 490 palms. X, the rise, is 490 divided by 5.25 or 93 1/3 cubits. These figures
sufficed for the Egyptians and Thales. We would go on to calculate the cotangent as 70
divided by 93 1/3 to get 3/4 or .75 and looking that up in a table of cotangents find that the
angle of rise is a few minutes over 53 degrees.

Whether the ability to use the seqt, which preceded Thales by about 1000 years, means that
he was the first to define trigonometry is a matter of opinion. More practically Thales used
the same method to measure the distances of ships at sea, said Eudemus as reported by
Proclus (“in Euclidem”). According to Kirk & Raven (reference cited below), all you need
for this feat is three straight sticks pinned at one end and knowledge of your altitude. One
stick goes vertically into the ground. A second is made level. With the third you sight the ship
and calculate the seqt from the height of the stick and its distance from the point of insertion
to the line of sight.

The seqt is a measure of the angle. Knowledge of two angles (the seqt and a right angle) and
an enclosed leg (the altitude) allows you to determine by similar triangles the second leg,
which is the distance. Thales probably had his own equipment rigged and recorded his own
seqts, but that is only a guess.

Thales’ Theorem is stated in another article. (Actually there are two theorems called Theorem
of Thales, one having to do with a triangle inscribed in a circle and having the circle's
diameter as one leg, the other theorem being also called the intercept theorem.) In addition
Eudemus attributed to him the discovery that a circle is bisected by its diameter, that the base
angles of an isosceles triangle are equal and that vertical angles are equal. It would be hard to
imagine civilization without these theorems.

It is possible, of course, to question whether Thales really did discover these principles. On
the other hand, it is not possible to answer such doubts definitively. The sources are all that
we have, even though they sometimes contradict each other.

(The most we can say is that Thales knew these principles. There is no evidence for Thales
discovering these principles, and, based on the evidence, we cannot say that Thales
discovered these principles.)

Interpretations
In the long sojourn of philosophy on the earth there has existed hardly a philosopher or
historian of philosophy who did not mention Thales and try to characterize him in some way.
He is generally recognized as having brought something new to human thought.
Mathematics, astronomy and medicine already existed. Thales added something to these
different collections of knowledge to produce a universality, which, as far as writing tells us,
was not in tradition before, but resulted in a new field, science.

Ever since, interested persons have been asking what that new something is. Answers fall into
(at least) two categories, the theory and the method. Once an answer has been arrived at, the
next logical step is to ask how Thales compares to other philosophers, which leads to his
classification (rightly or wrongly).
 Carl-Friedrich-Gauss

Johann Carl Friedrich Gauswas a child prodigy. There are many anecdotes
pertaining to his precocity while a toddler, and he made his first ground-breaking
mathematical discoveries while still a teenager. He completed Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae, his magnum opus, in 1798 at the age of 21, though it would not be
published until 1801. This work was fundamental in consolidating number theory
as a discipline and has shaped the field to the present day.

Carl Friedrich Gauss was born on April 30, 1777 in Braunschweig, in the Electorate of
Brunswick-Lüneburg, now part of Lower Saxony, Germany, as the son of poor working-class
parents.[4] He was christened and confirmed in a Catholic church near the school he had
attended as a child.[5] There are several stories of his early genius. According to one, his gifts
became very apparent at the age of three when he corrected, mentally and without fault in his
calculations, an error his father had made on paper while calculating finances.

Another famous story has it that in primary school his teacher, J.G. Büttner, tried to occupy
pupils by making them add a list of integers in arithmetic progression; as the story is most
often told, these were the numbers from 1 to 100. The young Gauss reputedly produced the
correct answer within seconds, to the astonishment of his teacher and his assistant Martin
Bartels. Gauss's presumed method was to realize that pairwise addition of terms from
opposite ends of the list yielded identical intermediate sums: 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101,
3 + 98 = 101, and so on, for a total sum of 50 × 101 = 5050. However, the details of the story
are at best uncertain (see [6] for discussion of the original Wolfgang Sartorius von
Waltershausen source and the changes in other versions); some authors, such as Joseph
Rotman in his book A first course in Abstract Algebra, question whether it ever happened.

INVENTIONS:-

o algebra (in algebra (mathematics): The fundamental theorem of algebra; in

algebra (mathematics): Prime factorization; in fundamental theorem of algebra
)
o analysis (in analysis (mathematics): Arithmetization of analysis; in analysis
(mathematics): Extension of analytic concepts to complex numbers )
 o arithmetic (in arithmetic; in arithmetic: Fundamental theory )
o construction of regular n-gon (in Pierre de Fermat (French mathematician):
Work on theory of numbers; in Euclidean geometry: Regular polygons )
o foundations of mathematics (in foundations of mathematics: Number
systems)
o Gaussian curvature (in differential geometry: Curvature of surfaces)
o modular arithmetic (in modular arithmetic)
o non-Euclidean geometry (in geometry (mathematics): Non-Euclidean
geometries)
o normal distribution (in normal distribution (statistics))
o number theory (in number theory (mathematics): Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae; in mathematics: The theory of numbers )
o numerical analysis (in numerical analysis (mathematics): Historical
background)
o prime numbers (in prime number theorem (mathematics))
o probability (in Chebyshev’s inequality (mathematics))
o statistical mathematics (in probability and statistics (mathematics): The
spread of statistical mathematics)
o theory of equations (in mathematics: Theory of equations)

Non-Euclidean geometries

The Enlightenment was not so preoccupied with analysis as to completely ignore the problem
of Euclid’s fifth postulate. In 1733 Girolamo Saccheri (1667–1733), a Jesuit professor of
mathematics at the University of Pavia, Italy, substantially advanced the age-old discussion
by setting forth the alternatives in great clarity and detail before declaring that he had
“cleared Euclid of every defect” (Euclides ab Omni Naevo Vindicatus, 1733). Euclid’s fifth
postulate runs: “If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the
same side less than two right angles, the straight lines, if produced indefinitely, will meet on
that side on which are the angles less than two right angles.” Saccheri took up the
quadrilateral of Omar Khayyam (1048–1131), who started with two parallel lines AB and DC,
formed the sides by drawing lines AD and BC perpendicular to AB, and then considered three
hypotheses for the internal angles at C and D: to be right, obtuse, or acute (see figure

). The first possibility gives Euclidean geometry. Saccheri devoted himself to

proving that the obtuse and the acute alternatives both end in contradictions, which would
thereby eliminate the need for an explicit parallel postulate.

On the way to this spurious demonstration, Saccheri established several theorems of non-
Euclidean geometry—for example, that according to whether the right, obtuse, or acute
hypothesis is true, the sum of the angles of a triangle respectively equals, exceeds, or falls
short of 180°. He then destroyed the obtuse hypothesis by an argument that depended upon
allowing lines to increase in length indefinitely. If this is disallowed, the hypothesis of the
obtuse angle produces a system equivalent to standard spherical geometry, the geometry of
figures drawn on the surface of a sphere.
 Pythagor
as

Life And History:-

Pythagoras was born on Samos, the Greek island in the eastern Aegean, and we
also learn that Pythagoras was the son of Mnesarchus.[7] His father was a gem-
engraver or a merchant. His name led him to be associated with Pythian Apollo;
Aristippus explained his name by saying, "He spoke (agor-) the truth no less than
did the Pythian (Pyth-)," and Iamblichus tells the story that the Pythia prophesied
that his pregnant mother would give birth to a man supremely beautiful, wise,
and beneficial to humankind.[8] A late source gives his mother's name as Pythias.
[9]
As to the date of his birth, Aristoxenus stated that Pythagoras left Samos in
the reign of Polycrates, at the age of 40, which would give a date of birth around
570 BC.[10]

Pythagoras made influential contributions to philosophy and religious teaching in

the late 6th century BC. He is often revered as a great mathematician, mystic
and scientist, and he is best known for the Pythagorean theorem which bears his
name. However, because legend and obfuscation cloud his work even more than
with the other pre-Socratic philosophers, one can say little with confidence about
his teachings, and some have questioned whether he contributed much to
mathematics and natural philosophy. Many of the accomplishments credited to
Pythagoras may actually have been accomplishments of his colleagues and
successors. We do know that his disciples believed that everything was related
to mathematics and that numbers were the ultimate reality. It was said that he
was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom,[2] and
Pythagorean ideas exercised a marked influence on Plato, and through him, all of
western philosophy.

INVENTIONS:-

The so-called Pythagoreans, who were the first to take up mathematics, not only
advanced this subject, but saturated with it, they fancied that the principles of
mathematics were the principles of all things.

—Aristotle , Metaphysics 1-5 , cc. 350 BC

Pythagorean theorem

The Pythagorean theorem: The sum of the areas of the two squares on the
legs (a and b) equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse (c).

Since the fourth century AD, Pythagoras has commonly been given credit for discovering the
Pythagorean theorem, a theorem in geometry that states that in a right-angled triangle the
square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle), c, is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides, b and a—that is, a2 + b2 = c2.

While the theorem that now bears his name was known and previously utilized by the
Babylonians and Indians, he, or his students, are often said to have constructed the first proof.
It must, however, be stressed that the way in which the Babylonians handled Pythagorean
numbers, implies that they knew that the principle was generally applicable, and knew some
kind of proof, which has not yet been found in the (still largely unpublished) cuneiform
sources.[41] Because of the secretive nature of his school and the custom of its students to
attribute everything to their teacher, there is no evidence that Pythagoras himself worked on
or proved this theorem. For that matter, there is no evidence that he worked on any
mathematical or meta-mathematical problems. Some attribute it as a carefully constructed
myth by followers of Plato over two centuries after the death of Pythagoras, mainly to bolster
the case for Platonic meta-physics, which resonate well with the ideas they attributed to
Pythagoras. This attribution has stuck, down the centuries up to modern times.[42] The earliest
known mention of Pythagoras's name in connection with the theorem occurred five centuries
after his death, in the writings of Cicero and Plutarch.

ARYABHATA

Aryabhata mentions in the Aryabhatiya that it was composed 3,600 years into the Kali Yuga,
when he was 23 years old. This corresponds to 499 CE, and implies that he was born in 476
CE.[1]

Aryabhata provides no information about his place of birth. The only information comes from
Bhāskara I, who describes Aryabhata as āśmakīya, "one belonging to the aśmaka country."
While aśmaka was originally situated in the northwest of India, it is widely attested that,
during the Buddha's time, a branch of the Aśmaka people settled in the region between the
Narmada and Godavari rivers, in the South Gujarat–North Maharashtra region of central
India. Aryabhata is believed to have been born there.[1][3] However, early Buddhist texts
describe Ashmaka as being further south, in dakshinapath or the Deccan, while other texts
describe the Ashmakas as having fought Alexander, which would put them further north.[3]

Work

It is fairly certain that, at some point, he went to Kusumapura for advanced studies and that
he lived there for some time.[4] Both Hindu and Buddhist tradition, as well as Bhāskara I (CE
629), identify Kusumapura as Pāṭaliputra, modern Patna.[1] A verse mentions that Aryabhata
was the head of an institution (kulapa) at Kusumapura, and, because the university of
Nalanda was in Pataliputra at the time and had an astronomical observatory, it is speculated
that Aryabhata might have been the head of the Nalanda university as well.[1] Aryabhata is
also reputed to have set up an observatory at the Sun temple in Taregana, Bihar

INVENTIONS:-

Place value system and zero

The place-value system, first seen in the 3rd century Bakhshali Manuscript, was clearly in
place in his work; he certainly did not use the symbol, but French mathematician Georges
Ifrah argues that knowledge of zero was implicit in Aryabhata's place-value system as a place
holder for the powers of ten with null coefficients[10]

However, Aryabhata did not use the brahmi numerals. Continuing the Sanskritic tradition
from Vedic times, he used letters of the alphabet to denote numbers, expressing quantities,
such as the table of sines in a mnemonic form.[11]

Pi as irrational

Aryabhata worked on the approximation for Pi (π), and may have come to the conclusion that
π is irrational. In the second part of the Aryabhatiyam (gaṇitapāda 10), he writes:
chaturadhikam śatamaśṭaguṇam dvāśaśṭistathā sahasrāṇām
Ayutadvayaviśkambhasyāsanno vrîttapariṇahaḥ.
"Add four to 100, multiply by eight, and then add 62,000. By this rule the circumference of a circle
with a diameter of 20,000 can be approached."

This implies that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is ((4+100)×8+62000)/20000
= 3.1416, which is accurate to five significant figures.

It is speculated that Aryabhata used the word āsanna (approaching), to mean that not only is
this an approximation but that the value is incommensurable (or irrational). If this is correct,
it is quite a sophisticated insight, because the irrationality of pi was proved in Europe only in
1761 by Lambert).[12]
After Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic (ca. 820 CE) this approximation was mentioned
in Al-Khwarizmi's book on algebra.[3]

Mensuration and trigonometry

In Ganitapada 6, Aryabhata gives the area of a triangle as

tribhujasya phalashariram samadalakoti bhujardhasamvargah

that translates to: "for a triangle, the result of a perpendicular with the half-side is the area."[13]

Aryabhata discussed the concept of sine in his work by the name of ardha-jya. Literally, it
means "half-chord". For simplicity, people started calling it jya. When Arabic writers
translated his works from Sanskrit into Arabic, they referred it as jiba. However, in Arabic
writings, vowels are omitted, and it was abbreviated as jb. Later writers substituted it with
jiab, meaning "cove" or "bay." (In Arabic, jiba is a meaningless word.) Later in the 12th
century, when Gherardo of Cremona translated these writings from Arabic into Latin, he
replaced the Arabic jiab with its Latin counterpart, sinus, which means "cove" or "bay". And
after that, the sinus became sine in English.[14]

Indeterminate equations

A problem of great interest to Indian mathematicians since ancient times has been to find
integer solutions to equations that have the form ax + b = cy, a topic that has come to be
known as diophantine equations. This is an example from Bhaskara's commentary on
Aryabhatiya:

Find the number which gives 5 as the remainder when divided by 8, 4 as

the remainder when divided by 9, and 1 as the remainder when divided by
7

That is, find N = 8x+5 = 9y+4 = 7z+1. It turns out that the smallest value for N is 85. In
general, diophantine equations, such as this, can be notoriously difficult. They were discussed
extensively in ancient Vedic text Sulba Sutras, whose more ancient parts might date to 800
BCE. Aryabhata's method of solving such problems is called the kuṭṭaka (कुटक) method.
Kuttaka means "pulverizing" or "breaking into small pieces", and the method involves a
recursive algorithm for writing the original factors in smaller numbers. Today this algorithm,
elaborated by Bhaskara in 621 CE, is the standard method for solving first-order diophantine
equations and is often referred to as the Aryabhata algorithm.[15] The diophantine equations
are of interest in cryptology, and the RSA Conference, 2006, focused on the kuttaka method
and earlier work in the Sulvasutras.

Algebra

In Aryabhatiya Aryabhata provided elegant results for the summation of series of squares and
cubes:[16]
and

Sir Isaac Newton

Life nd History:-

Isaac Newton was born on 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1] at

Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of
Lincolnshire. At the time of Newton's birth, England had not adopted the
Gregorian calendar and therefore his date of birth was recorded as Christmas
Day, 25 December 1642. Newton was born three months after the death of his
father, a prosperous farmer also named Isaac Newton. Born prematurely, he was
a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit
inside a quart mug (≈ 1.1 litre). From this information, it can be estimated that
he was born roughly 11 to 15 weeks early[original research?]. When Newton was three,
his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend
Barnabus Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother,
Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac disliked his stepfather and held some
enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of
sins committed up to the age of 19: "Threatening my father and mother Smith to
burn them and the house over them."[10]

INVENTIONS:-

Mathematics

Newton's mathematical work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of
mathematics then studied".[16] Newton's early work on the subject usually referred to as
fluxions or calculus is seen, for example, in a manuscript of October 1666, now published
among Newton's mathematical papers.[17] A related subject of his mathematical work was
infinite series. Newton's manuscript "De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum
infinitas" ("On analysis by equations infinite in number of terms") was sent by Isaac Barrow
to John Collins in June 1669: in August 1669 Barrow identified its author to Collins as "Mr
Newton, a fellow of our College, and very young ... but of an extraordinary genius and
proficiency in these things".[18] Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over
priority in the development of infinitesimal calculus. Most modern historians believe that
Newton and Leibniz developed infinitesimal calculus independently, although with very
different notations. Occasionally it has been suggested that Newton published almost nothing
about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing
a full account of his methods in 1684. (Leibniz's notation and "differential Method",
nowadays recognized as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental
European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.) Such a
suggestion, however, omits to notice the content of calculus which critics of Newton's time
and modern times have pointed out in Book 1 of Newton's Principia itself (published 1687)
and in its forerunner manuscripts, such as De motu corporum in gyrum ("On the motion of
bodies in orbit"), of 1684. The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as
we know it or as Newton's (later) 'dot' notation would write it. But Newton's work extensively
uses an infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, based on limiting values of the ratios of
vanishing small quantities: in the Principia itself Newton gave demonstration of this under
the name of 'the method of first and last ratios'[19] and explained why he put his expositions in
this form,[20] remarking also that 'hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of
indivisibles'. Because of this content the Principia has been called "a book dense with the
theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" in modern times[21] and "lequel est
presque tout de ce calcul" ('nearly all of it is of this calculus') in Newton's time.[22] Newton's
use of methods involving "one or more orders of the infinitesimally small" is present in
Newton's De Motu Corporum in Gyrum of 1684[23] and in his papers on motion "during the
two decades preceding 1684"

Newton did not enter Cambridge specifically to study mathematics, but in

his first year he bought and studied Euclid, Descartes, Kepler and most
important John Wallis' Arithmetica Infinitorum which concerned infinite
series treated geometrically. He also later read Galileo and Fermat.

His first original work, in 1665, aged 23, concerned infinite (power) series.
In particular, he proved the binomial theorem

(1 + x)r = 1 + rx + (r(r-1)/2)x2 +...,

(his notation was quite different). This had long been known for integral
r, but Newton proved it for rational, positive or negative r, for which it is
a power series; for example, he found power series expansions of
1/root(1-x2), 1/(1+x2) , etc and their derivatives and antiderivatives by
termwise differentiation. He simply regarded power series as polynomials
of infinite degree, and did not consider convergence. His intuition guided
him in avoiding divergent series. Thus he was able to find power series for
sin, cos, tan, arcsin, arccos, arctan and ln (1+x).

The method of fluxions Over time, Newton produced three different

foundations for his calculus, but there is no doubt that the one he used for
his discoveries, and his most popular presentation, was to look on a curve
as the path of a moving particle, so the first and second derivatives
always exist and represent velocity and acceleration. Both x and y = f(x)
are fluents or flowing quantities, and dot x and dot y are their fluxions
or rates of change with respect to time. So the slope of a curve would be
dot y/ dot x , what we would call the parametric representation of the
derivative. Similarly he has dot dot y for the fluxion of dot y and y' for the
fluent whose fluxion is y , ie the antiderivative of y . The existence of
these functions is justified by the existence of instantaneous velocities.

The second method, which Newton used to actually compute the

derivatives of various functions was the " little o " notation, exactly as in
Fermat, so o is an infinitesimal or infinitely small quantity.

The third is the " method of first and last ratios " which is similar to our
current ideas of limits. Newton intended this method the replace
Exhaustion as a logical foundation for his calculus.

Newton was slow to publish. He was persuaded by Edmund Halley, his

friend, promoter and Professor at Oxford, later Astronomer Royal, to
publish his first and most important publication, Principia Mathematica ,
the Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. This contains a
complete development of calculus as well as dynamics and their
application to astronomy. In particular it contains Newton's three laws of
motion, the Law of Gravitation (particles of mass m and M at distance d
attract each other with force mM/d2)),

Isaac Newton explained the workings of the universe through mathematics. He

formulated laws of motion and gravitation. These laws are math formulas that explain
how objects move when a force acts on them. Isaac published his most famous book,
Principia, in 1687 while he was a mathematics professor at Trinity College, Cambridge.
In the Principia, Isaac explained three basic laws that govern the way objects move. He
then described his idea, or theory, about gravity. Gravity is the force that causes things
to fall down. If a pencil falls off a desk, it will land on the floor, not the ceiling. In his
book Isaac also used his laws to show that the planets revolve around the suns in orbits
that are oval, not round.

Pierre-Simon Laplace:-

LIFE and history:-

Pierre-Simon, marquis de Laplace (23 March 1749 – 5 March 1827) was a
French mathematician and astronomer whose work was pivotal to the
development of mathematical astronomy and statistics. He summarized and
extended the work of his predecessors in his five volume Mécanique Céleste
(Celestial Mechanics) (1799–1825). This work translated the geometric study of
classical mechanics to one based on calculus, opening up a broader range of
problems. In statistics, the so-called Bayesian interpretation of probability was
mainly developed by Lapl

He is remembered as one of the greatest scientists of all time, sometimes referred to as a

French Newton or Newton of France, with a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty
superior to any of his contemporaries.[2]

He became a count of the First French Empire in 1806 and was named a marquis in 1817,
after the Bourbon Restoration.

Inventions:-

Analytic theory of probabilities

In 1812, Laplace issued his Théorie analytique des probabilités in which he laid down many
fundamental results in statistics. In 1819, he published a popular account of his work on
probability. This book bears the same relation to the Théorie des probabilités that the
Système du monde does to the Méchanique céleste.[6]

Probability-generating function

The method of estimating the ratio of the number of favourable cases, compared to the whole
number of possible cases, had been previously indicated by Laplace in a paper written in
1779. It consists of treating the successive values of any function as the coefficients in the
expansion of another function, with reference to a different variable. The latter is therefore
called the probability-generating function of the former. Laplace then shows how, by means
of interpolation, these coefficients may be determined from the generating function. Next he
attacks the converse problem, and from the coefficients he finds the generating function; this
is effected by the solution of a finite difference equation.[6]

Least squares

This treatise includes an exposition of the method of least squares, a remarkable testimony to
Laplace's command over the processes of analysis. The method of least squares for the
combination of numerous observations had been given empirically by Carl Friedrich Gauss
(around 1794) and Legendre (in 1805), but the fourth chapter of this work contains a formal
proof of it, on which the whole of the theory of errors has been since based. This was affected
only by a most intricate analysis specially invented for the purpose, but the form in which it is
presented is so meagre and unsatisfactory that, in spite of the uniform accuracy of the results,
it was at one time questioned whether Laplace had actually gone through the difficult work
he so briefly and often incorrectly indicates.[6]

Inductive probability

While he conducted much research in physics, another major theme of his life's endeavours
was probability theory. In his Essai philosophique sur les probabilités (1814), Laplace set out
a mathematical system of inductive reasoning based on probability, which we would today
recognise as Bayesian. He begins the text with a series of principles of probability, the first
six being:

1) Probability is the ratio of the "favored events" to the total possible events.

2) The probability of all possible events are equal, or we must find another unit of
probabilistic measurement which will commensurate the measurement of the probability of
all possible events.

3) For independent events, the probability of the occurrence of all is the probability of each
multiplied together.

4) For events not independent, the probability of event B following event A (or event A
causing B) is the probability of A multiplied by the probability that A and B both occur.

5) The probability that A will occur, given B has occurred, is the probability of A divided by
the probability of B.

6) Three corollaries are given for the sixth principle, which amount to Bayesian probability.
Where event exhausts the list of possible causes for event B,

Pr(B) = Pr(A1,A2,...An). Then .

One well-known formula arising from his system is the rule of succession, given as principle
seven. Suppose that some trial has only two possible outcomes, labeled "success" and
"failure". Under the assumption that little or nothing is known a priori about the relative
plausibilities of the outcomes, Laplace derived a formula for the probability that the next trial
will be a success.

where s is the number of previously observed successes and n is the total number of observed
trials. It is still used as an estimator for the probability of an event if we know the event
space, but only have a small number of samples.

The rule of succession has been subject to much criticism, partly due to the example which
Laplace chose to illustrate it. He calculated that the probability that the sun will rise
tomorrow, given that it has never failed to in the past, was
where d is the number of times the sun has risen in the past. This result has been derided as
absurd, and some authors have concluded that all applications of the Rule of Succession are
absurd by extension. However, Laplace was fully aware of the absurdity of the result;
immediately following the example, he wrote, "But this number [i.e., the probability that the
sun will rise tomorrow] is far greater for him who, seeing in the totality of phenomena the
principle regulating the days and seasons, realizes that nothing at the present moment can
arrest the course of it."[22]

Muhammad ibn musa al-khwarizmi

LIFE and HISTORY:-

Abū ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī[1] (c. 780, Khwārizm[2]

[3][4]
– c. 850) was a Persian[5][2][6] mathematician, astronomer and geographer, a scholar in the
House of Wisdom in Baghdad.

His Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala presented the first systematic solution of linear and
quadratic equations. He is considered the founder of algebra,[7] a credit he shares with
Diophantus. In the twelfth century, Latin translations of his work on the Indian numerals,
introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world.[4] He revised
Ptolemy's Geography and wrote on astronomy and astrology.
His contributions had a great impact on language. "Algebra" is derived from al-jabr, one of
the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations. Algorism and algorithm stem from
Algoritmi, the Latin form of his name.[8] His name is the origin of (Spanish) guarismo[9] and
of (Portuguese) algarismo, both meaning digit.

Few details of al-Khwārizmī's life are known with certainty, even his birthplace is unsure.
His name may indicate that he came from Khwarezm (Khiva), then in Greater Khorasan,
which occupied the eastern part of the Persian Empire, now Xorazm Province in Uzbekistan.
Abu Rayhan Biruni calls the people of Khwarizm "a branch of the Persian tree".[10]

Al-Tabari gave his name as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwārizmī al-Majousi al-Katarbali
(Arabic: ‫ي‬ّ ‫ي القطرّبـل‬
ّ ‫ي المجوسـ‬
ّ ‫)محمد بن موسى الخوارزم‬. The epithet al-Qutrubbulli
could indicate he might instead have come from Qutrubbul (Qatrabbul)[11], a viticulture
district near Baghdad. However, Rashed[12] points out that:

There is no need to be an expert on the period or a philologist to see that al-

Tabari's second citation should read “Muhammad ibn Mūsa al-Khwārizmī and al-
Majūsi al-Qutrubbulli,” and that there are two people (al-Khwārizmī and al-Majūsi
al-Qutrubbulli) between whom the letter wa [Arabic ‘‫ ’و‬for the article ‘and’] has
been omitted in an early copy. This would not be worth mentioning if a series of
errors concerning the personality of al-Khwārizmī, occasionally even the origins
of his knowledge, had not been made. Recently, G. J. Toomer … with naive
confidence constructed an entire fantasy on the error which cannot be denied
the merit of amusing the reader.

Regarding al-Khwārizmī's religion, Toomer writes:

Another epithet given to him by al-Ṭabarī, "al-Majūsī," would seem to indicate

that he was an adherent of the old Zoroastrian religion. This would still have
been possible at that time for a man of Iranian origin, but the pious preface to al-
Khwārizmī's Algebra shows that he was an orthodox Muslim, so al-Ṭabarī's
epithet could mean no more than that his forebears, and perhaps he in his youth,
had been Zoroastrians

Inventions:-

Algebra

Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala (Arabic: ‫الكتاب المختصر‬

‫“ في حساب الجبر والمقابلة‬The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and
Balancing”) is a mathematical book written approximately 830 CE. The book was written
with the encouragement of the Caliph Al-Ma'mun as a popular work on calculation and is
replete with examples and applications to a wide range of problems in trade, surveying and
legal inheritance[15]. The term algebra is derived from the name of one of the basic operations
with equations (al-jabr) described in this book. The book was translated in Latin as Liber
algebrae et almucabala by Robert of Chester (Segovia, 1145) hence "algebra", and also by
Gerard of Cremona. A unique Arabic copy is kept at Oxford and was translated in 1831 by F.
Rosen. A Latin translation is kept in Cambridge.[16]
The al-jabr is considered the foundational text of modern algebra. It provided an exhaustive
account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree,[17] and introduced the
fundamental methods of "reduction" and "balancing", referring to the transposition of
subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on
opposite sides of the equation.[18]

Al-Khwārizmī's method of solving linear and quadratic equations worked by first reducing
the equation to one of six standard forms (where b and c are positive integers)

• squares equal roots (ax2 = bx)

• squares equal number (ax2 = c)
• roots equal number (bx = c)
• squares and roots equal number (ax2 + bx = c)
• squares and number equal roots (ax2 + c = bx)
• roots and number equal squares (bx + c = ax2)

by dividing out the coefficient of the square and using the two operations al-ǧabr (Arabic:
‫“ الجبر‬restoring” or “completion”) and al-muqābala ("balancing"). Al-ǧabr is the process of
removing negative units, roots and squares from the equation by adding the same quantity to
each side. For example, x2 = 40x − 4x2 is reduced to 5x2 = 40x. Al-muqābala is the process of
bringing quantities of the same type to the same side of the equation. For example, x2 + 14 =
x + 5 is reduced to x2 + 9 = x.

The above discussion uses modern mathematical notation for the types of problems which the
book discusses. However, in Al-Khwārizmī's day, most of this notation had not yet been
invented, so he had to use ordinary text to present problems and their solutions. For example,
for one problem he writes, (from an 1831 translation)

"If some one say: "You divide ten into two parts: multiply the one by itself; it will
be equal to the other taken eighty-one times." Computation: You say, ten less
thing, multiplied by itself, is a hundred plus a square less twenty things, and this
is equal to eighty-one things. Separate the twenty things from a hundred and a
square, and add them to eighty-one. It will then be a hundred plus a square,
which is equal to a hundred and one roots. Halve the roots; the moiety is fifty
and a half. Multiply this by itself, it is two thousand five hundred and fifty and a
quarter. Subtract from this one hundred; the remainder is two thousand four
hundred and fifty and a quarter. Extract the root from this; it is forty-nine and a
half. Subtract this from the moiety of the roots, which is fifty and a half. There
remains one, and this is one of the two parts."[15]

In modern notation this process, with 'x' the "thing" (shay') or "root", is given by the steps,

(10 − x)2 = 81x

x2 + 100 = 101x

Let the roots of the equation be 'p' and 'q'. Then , pq = 100 and
So a root is given by

Several authors have also published texts under the name of Kitāb al-ğabr wa-l-muqābala,
including Abū Ḥanīfa al-Dīnawarī, Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam, Abū
Muḥammad al-ʿAdlī, Abū Yūsuf al-Miṣṣīṣī, 'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Turk, Sind ibn
ʿAlī, Sahl ibn Bišr, and Šarafaddīn al-Ṭūsī.

J. J. O'Conner and E. F. Robertson wrote in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive:

"Perhaps one of the most significant advances made by Arabic mathematics

began at this time with the work of al-Khwarizmi, namely the beginnings of
algebra. It is important to understand just how significant this new idea was. It
was a revolutionary move away from the Greek concept of mathematics which
was essentially geometry. Algebra was a unifying theory which allowed rational
numbers, irrational numbers, geometrical magnitudes, etc., to all be treated as
"algebraic objects". It gave mathematics a whole new development path so
much broader in concept to that which had existed before, and provided a
vehicle for future development of the subject. Another important aspect of the
introduction of algebraic ideas was that it allowed mathematics to be applied to
itself in a way which had not happened before."[19]

R. Rashed and Angela Armstrong write:

"Al-Khwarizmi's text can be seen to be distinct not only from the Babylonian
tablets, but also from Diophantus' Arithmetica. It no longer concerns a series of
problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in
which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which
henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study. On the other hand,
the idea of an equation for its own sake appears from the beginning and, one
could say, in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the
course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class
of problems."[20]

Arithmetic

Al-Khwārizmī's second major work was on the subject of arithmetic, which survived in a
Latin translation but was lost in the original Arabic. The translation was most likely done in
the twelfth century by Adelard of Bath, who had also translated the astronomical tables in
1126.

The Latin manuscripts are untitled, but are commonly referred to by the first two words with
which they start: Dixit algorizmi ("So said al-Khwārizmī"), or Algoritmi de numero Indorum
("al-Khwārizmī on the Hindu Art of Reckoning"), a name given to the work by Baldassarre
Boncompagni in 1857. The original Arabic title was possibly Kitāb al-Jamʿ wa-l-tafrīq
bi-ḥisāb al-Hind[21] ("The Book of Addition and Subtraction According to the Hindu
Calculation")[22]

Al-Khwarizmi's work on arithmetic was responsible for introducing the Arabic numerals,
based on the Hindu-Arabic numeral system developed in Indian mathematics, to the Western
world. The term "algorithm" is derived from the algorism, the technique of performing
arithmetic with Hindu-Arabic numerals developed by al-Khwarizmi. Both "algorithm" and
"algorism" are derived from the Latinized forms of al-Khwarizmi's name, Algoritmi and
Algorismi, respectively.