Contents

Syllabus ................................................................................................................................................... 1
Module: 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Lecture: 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 1
HEAVY AND FINE CHEMICALS ......................................................................................................... 1
OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 1
Classification ........................................................................................................................... 1
UNIT OPERATION AND UNIT PROCESS.................................................................................... 3
Module: 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Lecture: 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 7
CARBON DIOXIDE ............................................................................................................................ 7
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 7
SOURCES OF CO2 ......................................................................................................................... 8
MANUFACTURE ........................................................................................................................... 8
METHODS OF RECOVERY ............................................................................................................ 9
1.

Girbotol amine process ................................................................................................. 10

2.

Sodium carbonate process............................................................................................ 10

3.

Potassium carbonate process ....................................................................................... 11

PURIFICATION ........................................................................................................................... 12
1.

Purification of low % CO2 containing gas ...................................................................... 12

2.

Purification of high % CO2 containing gas ..................................................................... 12

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 13
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 13
Module: 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Lecture: 3 .......................................................................................................................................... 14
OXYGEN AND NITROGEN .............................................................................................................. 14
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 14
Oxygen .................................................................................................................................. 14
Nitrogen ................................................................................................................................ 15
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 18
Linde's process (O2 and N2) ................................................................................................... 18
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 24

Oxygen .................................................................................................................................. 24
Nitrogen ................................................................................................................................ 24
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 24
Oxygen .................................................................................................................................. 24
Nitrogen ................................................................................................................................ 24
Module: 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 25
Lecture: 4 .......................................................................................................................................... 25
HYDROGEN .................................................................................................................................... 25
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 25
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 26
1.

Electrolytic Process ....................................................................................................... 26

2.

Lane process or steam hydrogen process ..................................................................... 28

Module: 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 30
Lecture: 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 30
HYDROGEN (Continued)................................................................................................................ 30
3.

Steam Hydrocarbon Process ......................................................................................... 30

4.

Liquefaction of coke oven gas or coal gas..................................................................... 33

5.

Bosch Process ................................................................................................................ 34

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 34
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 34
Module: 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 36
Lecture: 6 .......................................................................................................................................... 36
AMMONIA ..................................................................................................................................... 36
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 36
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 36
(a)

Haber and Bosch Process .......................................................................................... 36

(c)

Modified Haber Bosch process ................................................................................. 41

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 45
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 45
Module: 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 46
Lecture: 7 .......................................................................................................................................... 46

ACETYLENE .................................................................................................................................... 46
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 46
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 46
1.

From calcium carbide .................................................................................................... 47

2.

From paraffin hydrocarbons by pyrolysis (Wulff process) ............................................ 49

3.

From natural gas by partial oxidation (Sachasse process) ............................................ 51

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 53
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 53
Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 54
Lecture: 8 .......................................................................................................................................... 54
SODIUM CHLORIDE ....................................................................................................................... 54
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 54
SOURCES OF SODIUM CHLORIDE .............................................................................................. 54
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 55
1.

Solar Evaporation .......................................................................................................... 55

2.

Artificial Evaporation..................................................................................................... 57

3.

Freezing Method ........................................................................................................... 58

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 58
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 58
Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 60
Lecture: 9 .......................................................................................................................................... 60
SODIUM CARBONATE.................................................................................................................... 60
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 60
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 60
1.

Leblanc process ............................................................................................................. 60

2.

Solvay's ammonia soda process .................................................................................... 62

Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 70
Lecture: 10 ........................................................................................................................................ 70
SODIUM CARBONATE (continued) ................................................................................................ 70
3.
4.

Dual process .................................................................................................................. 70

Electrolytic process ........................................................................................................... 72

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 74

USES .......................................................................................................................................... 74
Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 75
Lecture: 11 ........................................................................................................................................ 75
SODIUM BICARBONATE ................................................................................................................ 75
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 75
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 75
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 77
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 78
Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 79
Lecture: 12 ........................................................................................................................................ 79
SODIUM HYDROXIDE..................................................................................................................... 79
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 79
TYPE OF CELLS ........................................................................................................................... 79
Hooker cells........................................................................................................................... 80
Nelson cell ............................................................................................................................. 81
The Castner Kellner cell......................................................................................................... 82
Membrane cell ...................................................................................................................... 83
Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 85
Lecture: 13 ........................................................................................................................................ 85
SODIUM HYDROXIDE (Continued) ................................................................................................ 85
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 85
1.

Using Diaphragm cell .................................................................................................... 85

Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 89
Lecture: 14 ........................................................................................................................................ 89
SODIUM HYDROXIDE (Continued) ................................................................................................ 89
2.

Lime soda process ......................................................................................................... 89

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 92
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 92
Module: 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 93
Lecture: 15 ........................................................................................................................................ 93
CHLORINE ...................................................................................................................................... 93

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 93
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 93
1.

Using diaphragm cells ................................................................................................... 93

2.

Deacons method .......................................................................................................... 93

3.

Other methods .............................................................................................................. 94

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................... 94
USES .......................................................................................................................................... 95
Module: 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 96
Lecture: 16 ........................................................................................................................................ 96
NITRIC ACID ................................................................................................................................... 96
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 96
MANUFACTURE ......................................................................................................................... 96
1.

From Chile saltpeter or nitrate ..................................................................................... 96

2.

Arc process or Birkeland and eyde process .................................................................. 98

3.

Ostwald's process or Ammonia oxidation process ....................................................... 99

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 105

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 106
Module: 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 107
Lecture: 17 ...................................................................................................................................... 107
SULFURIC ACID ............................................................................................................................ 107
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 107
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 108
1.

The lead chamber process .......................................................................................... 108

Module: 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 113

Lecture: 18 ...................................................................................................................................... 113
SULFURIC ACID (continued) ........................................................................................................ 113
2.

The contact process for sulfuric acid .......................................................................... 113

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 119

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 120
Module: 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 121
Lecture: 19 ...................................................................................................................................... 121

HYDROCHLORIC ACID .................................................................................................................. 121

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 121
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 122
1.

Synthesis from Hydrogen and Chlorine ...................................................................... 122

2.

The SaltSulfuric acid process ..................................................................................... 125

3.

As by-product from chemical processes ..................................................................... 126

4.

From incineration of waste organics........................................................................... 126

5.

From hydrochloric acid solutions ................................................................................ 127

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 127

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 127
Module: 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 129
Lecture: 20 ...................................................................................................................................... 129
PHOSPHOROUS ........................................................................................................................... 129
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 129
PHOSPHATE ROCK ................................................................................................................... 130
YELLOW PHOSPHORUS ........................................................................................................... 132
RED PHOSPHORUS .................................................................................................................. 134
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 135
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 136
Module: 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 137
Lecture: 21 ...................................................................................................................................... 137
PHOSPHORIC ACID ...................................................................................................................... 137
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 137
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 137
1.

Using phosphate rock and blast furnace .................................................................... 137

2.

Using phosphate rock and electric furnace ................................................................ 140

3.

Oxidation and Hydration of phosphorous .................................................................. 142

4.

Wet process or from sulfuric acid and phosphate rock .............................................. 143

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 149

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 149
Module: 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 151
Lecture: 22 ...................................................................................................................................... 151

CEMENT INDUSTRIES .................................................................................................................. 151

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 151
CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... 153
Module: 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 157
Lecture: 23 ...................................................................................................................................... 157
CEMENT CLASSIFICATION (Continued) ....................................................................................... 157
MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT ................................................................................ 158
Significance of constituents ................................................................................................ 159
Module: 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 161
Lecture: 24 ...................................................................................................................................... 161
CEMENT MANUFACTURE ............................................................................................................ 161
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 161
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 170
Module: 5 ........................................................................................................................................... 171
Lecture: 25 ...................................................................................................................................... 171
CEMENT (Continued) .................................................................................................................. 171
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION....................................................................................................... 171
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENT ........................................................................................................ 171
SETTING AND HARDENING OF CEMENT ................................................................................. 172
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 174
Module: 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 175
Lecture: 26 ...................................................................................................................................... 175
CERAMIC INDUSTRIES ................................................................................................................. 175
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 175
CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... 175
RAW MATERIAL ....................................................................................................................... 176
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 177
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 177
Module: 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 178
Lecture: 27 ...................................................................................................................................... 178

WHITEWARES .............................................................................................................................. 178

1.

Whitewares ..................................................................................................................... 178

classification ............................................................................................................................ 178

Manufacture ........................................................................................................................... 179
Properties................................................................................................................................ 181
Uses ......................................................................................................................................... 181
Module: 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 182
Lecture: 28 ...................................................................................................................................... 182
CLAY PRODUCTS AND REFRACTORIES......................................................................................... 182
2.

STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS........................................................................................ 182

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 183

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 183
3.

REFRACTORY MATERIALS ................................................................................................ 184

CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... 184

MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 186
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 188
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 191
Module: 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 193
Lecture: 29 ...................................................................................................................................... 193
SPECIALIZED CERAMIC PRODUCTS AND VITREOUS ENAMEL ..................................................... 193
4.

SPECIALIZED CERAMIC PRODUCTS.................................................................................. 193

5.

VITREOUS ENAMEL ......................................................................................................... 195

MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 195

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 196
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 196
Module: 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 197
Lecture: 30 ...................................................................................................................................... 197
GLASS INDUSTRIES ...................................................................................................................... 197
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 197
TYPES OF GLASSES................................................................................................................... 197
Module: 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 203

Lecture: 31 ...................................................................................................................................... 203

MANUFACTURE OF GLASS .......................................................................................................... 203
RAW MATERIAL ....................................................................................................................... 203
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 204
Module: 7 ........................................................................................................................................... 207
Lecture: 32 ...................................................................................................................................... 207
GLASS (Continued) ...................................................................................................................... 207
MANUFACTURE (Continued)................................................................................................... 207
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 209
Module: 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 211
Lecture: 33 ...................................................................................................................................... 211
FERTILIZER ................................................................................................................................... 211
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 211
TYPES OF SOIL ......................................................................................................................... 211
PLANT NUTRIENTS .................................................................................................................. 212
FUNCTION OF NUTRIENT ........................................................................................................ 212
NEED OF FERTILIZER ................................................................................................................ 215
CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................................................................... 215
Module: 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 220
Lecture: 34 ...................................................................................................................................... 220
AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE........................................................................................................... 220
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 220
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 221
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 223
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 224
Module: 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 225
Lecture: 35 ...................................................................................................................................... 225
SUPERPHOSPHATE ...................................................................................................................... 225
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 225
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 226
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 232

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 232

Module: 8 ........................................................................................................................................... 233
Lecture: 36 ...................................................................................................................................... 233
TRIPLE SUPERPHOSPHATE .......................................................................................................... 233
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 233
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 234
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 238
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 238
Module: 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 239
Lecture: 37 ...................................................................................................................................... 239
UREA............................................................................................................................................ 239
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 239
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 240
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 244
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 245
Module: 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 246
Lecture: 38 ...................................................................................................................................... 246
CALCIUM AMMONIUM NITRATE ................................................................................................ 246
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 246
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 246
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 249
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 249
Module: 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 250
Lecture: 39 ...................................................................................................................................... 250
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE .............................................................................................................. 250
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 250
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 251
1.

Direct reaction ............................................................................................................ 251

2.

Duel salt process ......................................................................................................... 252

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 254

Module: 9 ........................................................................................................................................... 256

Lecture: 40 ...................................................................................................................................... 256

AMMONIUM SULFATE ................................................................................................................ 256
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 256
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 257
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 261
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 261
Module: 10 ......................................................................................................................................... 262
Lecture: 41 ...................................................................................................................................... 262
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE................................................................................................................ 262
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 262
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 262
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 264
USES ........................................................................................................................................ 264
Module: 10 ......................................................................................................................................... 265
Lecture: 42 ...................................................................................................................................... 265
POTASSIUM SULFATE .................................................................................................................. 265
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 265
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 265
1.

Mannheim process...................................................................................................... 265

2.

Recovery from natural complex salts ......................................................................... 267

PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 268

USES ........................................................................................................................................ 268
Module: 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 270
Lecture: 43 ...................................................................................................................................... 270
PAINT INDUSTRIES ...................................................................................................................... 270
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 270
CLASSIFICATION OF PAINTS .................................................................................................... 270
Module: 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 274
Lecture: 44 ...................................................................................................................................... 274
PAINT INDUSTRIES (continued) ................................................................................................... 274
CONSTITUENTS OF PAINTS...................................................................................................... 274

Module: 11 ......................................................................................................................................... 279

Lecture: 45 ...................................................................................................................................... 279
PAINT INDUSTRIES (continued) ................................................................................................... 279
MANUFACTURE ....................................................................................................................... 279
SETTING OF PAINT................................................................................................................... 282
REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD PAINT.......................................................................................... 283
PAINT FALIURE ........................................................................................................................ 284
PROPERTIES ............................................................................................................................. 285

Syllabus
Curriculum of the subject is divided into eleven modules and 45 lectures.
Module No.
Lecture
Topics to be covered
Numbers
Module No. 1
1
Overview
Introduction, classification of chemical industries,
heavy and fine chemicals
Module No. 2
2 7
Industrial Gases
Introduction, manufacture and uses of carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, ammonia,
acetylene.
Module No. 3
8 15
Sodium compounds
Sources, uses and preparation of sodium chloride.
Manufacture, properties and uses of sodium
carbonate, sodium bicarbonate sodium hydroxide
and chlorine.
Module No. 4
16 21
Mineral acids
Manufacture, properties and uses of nitric acid,
sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphorus and
phosphoric acid
Module No. 5
22 25
Cement Industries
Raw materials, manufacturing method, types of
cement
Module No. 6
26 29
Ceramic Industries
Raw materials, manufacturing methods and
properties of white wares, clay products, refractories.
Module No. 7
30 32
Glass Industries
Raw materials, manufacture of glass, types of glass
Module No. 8
33 37
Phosphorus based agrochemicals
Introduction of fertilizers. Synthesis, properties and uses
of ammonium phosphate, super phosphate, triple
super phosphate.
Module No. 9
38 40
Nitrogen fertilizers
Introduction, manufacture & properties of urea,
ammonium chloride, calcium ammonium nitrate
(CAN), ammonium sulfate
Module No. 10 41 - 42
Potassium fertilizers
Introduction manufacture and properties of potassium
chloride and potassium sulfate
Module No. 11 43 45
Paint Industries
Introduction, types, manufacture and properties of
paints

Jay Shri Harsiddhi Mataji

Module 1

Lecture: 1 Overview

Dr. N. K. Patel

Module: 1
Lecture: 1
HEAVY AND FINE CHEMICALS
OVERVIEW
Chemical industries are basically divided into two groups.
First which produces simple compounds from the locally available large
amount of raw materials usually they are very large industries and the product
manufacture are purified to the extent that they can be used as raw material for
other industries or they are directly marketed as a consumer goods. In general they
are heavy chemical industries.
On the other hand certain industries deal with speciality chemicals and they
are making small quantity of product having better quality which is sold into market
as finished good. They are called as fine chemical industries.
Classification
The materials used or produced in the chemical industries are classified in the
following manner.
1. Quantity of production and consumption
a) Heavy chemicals
Those dealt in large quantity normally crude or less purified chemicals.
E.g. mineral acid, NaOH, Na2CO3 etc.
b) Fine chemicals
They are complete purified substances and produced in limited quantity.
E.g. speciality solvent, perfumes, medicines etc.
2. Chemical composition
a) Organic compound
Compounds having carbon atom in the main structure of the molecule is
called organic compound.
E.g. hydrocarbons, phenols, carboxylic acid etc.
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Dr. N. K. Patel

b) Inorganic compound
They are the compounds which do not have carbon in the main structure.
E.g.Na2CO3, K2Cr2O7, MgCl2
c) Polymers
They are the macromolecular mass compounds made from covalent
bonding of repeating structured units which may be natural, synthetic or semi
synthetic. E.g. polystyrene, polyvinylchloride etc.
3. Based on availability
a) Natural compounds
Compounds which are available in nature or produced or extracted from
plant and animals are referred as natural products. Due to large utilization & limited
production the natural source is depleting. E.g. coal, petroleum etc.
b) Synthetic products
Men made compounds are referred as synthetic products. They may be
synthesized using natural product or they are synthesized completely using other
type of synthetic materials, but the main target or such product is that must be
suited to direct applications.
4. Based on application
a) Catalyst
A substance, usually used in small amounts relative to the reactants, that
either increases or decreases the rate of a reaction without being consumed in the
process. If consumed than it should regenerative at the end of process. E.g. AlCl3,
MnO2, Pt etc.
b) Bulk drug
Bulk drug is the active substance used in a drug formulation. It becomes an
active ingredient of a finished dosage form of the drug, but the term does not
include intermediates used in the synthesis of such substances. E.g. Pantoprazole,
Bisacodyl etc.
c) Resin
Resin is a natural or synthetic compound which begins in a highly viscous
state and hardness with treatment.
E.g. Urea formaldehyde, epoxy, polyester etc.

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Lecture: 1 Overview

Dr. N. K. Patel

d) Dyes and Pigments

A dye or a dyestuff is usually a coloured organic compound or mixture that
may be used for imparting colour to a substrate such as cloth, paper, plastic or
leather in a reasonably permanent fashion.
Pigments are defined as colouring agents that are practically insoluble in the
application medium, whereas dyes are colouring agents that are soluble in the
application medium.
Many organic pigments and dyes have the same basic chemical structure.
The insolubility required in pigments can be obtained by excluding solubilizing
groups, by forming insoluble salts (lake formation) of carboxylic or sulfonic acids, by
metal complex formation in compounds without solubilizing groups, and particularly
by incorporating groups that reduce solubility (e.g. amide groups).
e) Solvent
A liquid in which substances (or solutes) are dissolved to form a solution is
called as solvent.
E.g. Benzene, THF, DMF, DMSO etc.
f) Miscellaneous
All other compounds which do not cover in above class are called as
miscellaneous.
E.g. fertilizer, glass etc.

UNIT OPERATION AND UNIT PROCESS

Activities of chemical manufacturing plant are broadly covered under the
label of conversion of raw materials into useful products. In some cases the product
are used as starting materials for further modification and thus the product may not
be termed as end product but is called as intermediate. In another cases the
products are ready for marketing known as finished product. But still some of the
finished products may be used for physical blending or combination with other
materials and binders particularly in pharmaceutical industries.
Form the above discussion materials which are used in chemical industries
can be classified into following categories.
Raw materials
They are naturally occurring material or not produced at the manufacturing
unit and are procured from outside the manufacturing plant.

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Lecture: 1 Overview

Dr. N. K. Patel

Intermediate
They are undergoes some processing and further proceed for modification
Finished product
Product which are ready for marketing or sale
By product
It is useful material generated with main product. Also known as co-product
Waste
Do not have any commercial value. May be discarded after giving some
treatments regarding control of pollution.
Further, any commercial manufacture or production unit of chemicals have
combination of series of physical and chemical changes of raw materials or
intermediates or finished product. Ultimately comprehensive utilization of material for
improvement in chemical properties, modification of chemicals, maximize the yield
and conversion, utilization of waste products etc.
For the systematic study of chemical process industries the physical and
chemical changes which are important for the manufacturing processes have been
classified as unit operation and unit processes respectively
Thus,
Chemical Process Industries = Unit operation + Unit process
Unit operation
Major physical changes occur which are useful to chemical industries are
known as unit operation. In majority of cases, operations are to be done to set up
the condition to carry out chemical changes. Thus very important classification of
various changes useful to chemical industries was needed to be done.
Unit operations shall be broadly classified as follows.

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1. Fluid flow processes

: Fluids transportation, filtration, solids

fluidization

2. Heat transfer processes

: Evaporation, condensation

3. Mass transfer processes

: Gas absorption, distillation, extraction,

adsorption, drying

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Lecture: 1 Overview

Dr. N. K. Patel

4. Thermodynamic processes

: Gas liquefaction, refrigeration

5. Mechanical processes
6. Combination

: Solids transportation, crushing and

pulverization, screening and sieving
: Mixing

7. Separation

: Distillation, extraction

Unit process
Useful chemical transformations with or without physical changes occurs in
the chemical industries are called as unit process e.g. halogenations, oxidation,
reduction, alkylation and acylation etc.
The study of these processes includes
The basic knowledge of chemistry and mechanism of particular chemical
reaction
Design of equipment for the reaction
Optimization of reaction parameter
However, still the condition and parameter for carrying unit process in plant
level may differ from product to product. But the regularities emerged from the study
of a particular process can be useful in setting up condition for the manufacture of
new chemical which may include one or more such unit processes.
E.g. In the unit process nitration
Reaction is almost exothermic
Physicochemical principles of equilibrium and chemical kinetics are similar
Material of construction of plant and equipment for the process can be
predicted
The principles of widely varying sequence of making up a chemical process
do not depend upon the nature of the materials being worked upon and other
characteristic of the system under study. If the step of process is recognized, the
process can be designed in such a way that each step to be used can be studied
individually.
In both unit operations and unit processes the similarities within any unit
operation or unit process are separated and studied; thus drawing attention to the
like qualities of a given physical change or chemical change. Finally these results
help to understanding the process, establishment of reaction parameter and
reactor design. This is the scientific and engineering approach. The ultimate study by
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Dr. N. K. Patel

this method of the technical changes culminated in chemical engineering formulas

and laws for using the classified observations in each unit operation or unit process.
These formulas and laws are the tools for the industrial chemist uses in designing or
operating a chemical plant.
In conclusion, Both physical and chemical changes have been useful not
only to fundamental concept but also to provide the technical detail as well as
smoothen the manufacturing process at optimized reaction condition at low cost.

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