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A
AA
An Ansi (American National Standard Institute) cooling class designation indicating open,
natural-draft ventilated transformer construction, usually for dry-type transformers.
Ambient Temperature
The temperature of the surrounding atmosphere into which the heat of the transformer is
dissipated.
Ampere
unit of current flow.
Autotransformer
A transformer in which part of the winding is common to both the primary and the secondary
circuits.
Back to Index | A
B
BIL
Basic Impulse Level, the crest (peak) value that the insulation is required to withstand without
failure.
Bushing
An electrical insulator (porcelain, epoxy, etc.) that is used to control the high voltage stresses
that occur when an energized cable must pass through a grounded barrier.
Buck transformer
Step down the Voltage from Primary Winding to Secondary Winding i.e. 460V to 230V.
Boost transformer
Step up the Voltage from Primary Winding to Secondary Winding i.e. 230V to 460V.
Back to Index | B
C
Cast-coil Transformer
A transformer with high-voltage coils cast in an epoxy resin. Usually used with 5 to 15 kV
transformers.
Continuous Rating
Gaines the constant load that a transformer can carry at rated primary voltage and frequency
without exceeding the specified temperature rise.
Copper Losses
See Load Losses.
Core-Form Construction
A type of core construction where the winding materials completely enclose the core.
Current Transformer
A transformer generally used in instrumentation circuits that measure or control current.
Back to Index | C
D
Delta
A standard three-phase connection with the ends of each phase winding connected in series to
form a closed loop with each phase 120 degrees from the other. Sometimes referred to as 3wire.
Delta Wye
A term or symbol indicating the primary connected in delta and the secondary in wye when
pertaining to a three-phase transformer or transformer bank.
Distribution Transformers
Those rated 5 to 120 kV on the high-voltage side and normally used in secondary distribution
systems. An aplicable standard is ANSI C-57.12.
Dripproof
Constructed or protected so that successful operation is not interfered with by falling moisture
or dirt. A transformer in which the transformer core and coils are not immersed in liquid.
Back to Index | D
E
Exciting Current (No-load Current)
Current that flows in any winding used to excite the transformer when all other windings are
open circuited. It is usually expressed in percent of the rated current of a winding in which it
is measured.
Back to Index | E
F
FA
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating a forced air ventilated transformer, usually for
dry type transformers and typically to increae the transformers and typically to increase the
transformers KVA rating above the natural ventilation or AA rating.
Fan Cooled
Cooled mechanically to stay within rated temperature rise by addition of fans internally and/or
externally. Normally used on large transformers only.
FOA
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating forced oil cooling using pumps to circulate the
oil for increased cooling capacity.
FOW
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating forced oil water cooling using a separate water
loop in the oil to take the heat to a remote heat exchanger. Typically used where air cooling
is difficult such as underground.
Frequency
On AC circuits, designate number of times that polarity alternates from positive to negative and
back again, such as 60 hertz (cycles per second).
Back to Index | F
G
Grounds or Grounding
Connecting one side of a circuit to the earth through low-resistance or low-impedance paths.
This help prevent transmitting electrical shock to personnel. Also aids in the dissipation or
mitigation of Noise (High frequency or other).
Ground Strap
A Flat Strap of varying density, width and length to aid in the dissipation of High frequency
noise, commonly generated by Switching Power Supplies, Lighting Ballasts, Inverters or
Variable Frequency Drives.
Back to Index | G
H
High-voltage and Low-voltage Windings
Terms used to distinguish the wind that has the greater voltage rating from that having the
lesser in two-winding transformers. The terminations on the high-voltage windings are
identified by H1, H2, etc., and on the low-voltage by X1, X2, etc.
Back to Index | H
I
Impedance
Retarding forces of current flow in AC circuits.
Indoor transformer
A transformer that, because of its construction, is not suitable for outdoor service.
Insulating Materials
Those materials used to electrically insulate the transformer windings from each other
and to ground. Usually classified by degree of strength or voltage rating (0, A, B, C, and H).
Isolation transformer
For the purpose of isolating the Source Supply from the Consumer(s), aids in prevention of
noise transmission, adds impedance, can also provide an isolated Ground on the secondary.
Back to Index | I
K
kVA or Volt-ampere Output Rating
The kVA or volt-ampere output rating designates the output that a transformer can deliver for a
specified time at rated secondary voltage and rated frequency without exceeding the specified
temperature rise (1 kVA = 1000 VA).
Back to Index | K
L
Liquid-immersed Transformer
A transformer with the core and coils immersed in liquid (as opposed to a dry-type
transformer).
Load
The amount of electricity, in kVA or volt-amperes, supplied by the transformer. Loads are
expressed as a function of the current flowing in the transformer, and not according to the
watts consumed by the equipment the transformer feeds.
Load Losses
Those losses in a transformer that are incident to load carrying. Load losses include the I2R
loss in the winding, core clamps, etc., and the circulating currents (if any) in parallel windings.
Back to Index | L
M
Mid-tap
A reduced-capacity tap midday in a winding usually the secondary.
Moisture-resistant
Constructed or treated so as to reduce harm by exposure to a moist atmosphere.
N
No-load Losses (Excitation Losses)
Loss in a transformer that ls excited at its rated voltage and frequency, but which is not
supplying load. No-load losses include core loss, dielectric loss, and copper loss in the winding
due to exciting current.
Back to Index | N
O
OA
An ANSI cooling class designation indicating an oil filled transformer.
Back to Index | O
P
Parallel Operation
Single and three-phase transformers having appropriate terminals may be operated in parallel
by connecting similarly-marked terminals, provided their ratios, voltages, resistances,
reactances, and ground connections are designed to permit paralleled operation and provided
their angular displacements are the same in the case of three-phase transformers.
Polarity Test
A standard test performed on transformers to determine instantaneous direction of the voltages
in the primary compared to the secondary (see Transformer Tests).
Poly-phase
More than one phase.
Power Factor
The ratio of watts to volt-amps in a circuit.
Primary Taps
Taps added in the primary winding (see Tap).
Primary Winding
The primary winding on the energy input (supply) side.
Back to Index | P
Rating
The output or input and any other characteristic, such as primary and secondary
voltage,current, frequency, power factor and temperature rise assigned to the transformer
by the manufacturer.
Ratio Test
A standard test of transformers used to determine the ratio of the primary to the secondary
voltage.
Reactance
The effect of inductive and capacitive components of the circuit producing other than unity
power factor.
Reactor
A device for introducing inductive reactance into a circuit for: motor starting, operating
transformers in parallel, and controlling current.
Back to Index | R
S
Scott Connection
Connection for polyphase transformers. Usually used to change from two-phase to three-phase
to three-phase to two-phase.
Sealed Transformer
A transformer completely sealed from outside atmosphere and usually contains an inert gas
that is slightly pressurized.
Secondary Taps
Taps located in the secondary winding (see Tap).
Series/Multiple
A winding of two similar coils that can be connected for series operation or multiple (parellel)
operation.
Shell-type Construction
A type of transformer construction where the core completely surrounds the coil.
Star Connection
Same as wye connections.
Step-down Transformer
A transformer in which the energy transfer is from the high-voltage winding to the low-voltage
winding or windings.
Step-up transformer
A transformer in which the energy transfer is from the low-voltage winding to a high-voltage
winding or windings.
Back to Index | S
T
T-Connection
Use of Scott Connection for three-phase operation. A connection brought out of a winding at
some point between its extremities, usually to permit changing the voltage or current ratio.
Temperature Rise
The increase over ambient temperature of the winding due to energizing and loading the
transformer.
Total Losses
The losses represented by the sum of the no-load and the load losses.
Transformer
V
Volt-amperes
Circuit volts multiplied by circuit amperes.
W
Winding Losses
See Load Losses.
A standard three-phase connection with similar ends of the single-phase coils connected to a
common point. This common point forms the electrical neutral point and may be grounded.
Back to Index | W
Reference: Power transformer maintenance and accepting testing Department of the Army
TM 5686
Results
Corrections caused by the instrument transformers are made to the measured current, voltage
and power values. The power value correction caused by the phase displacement is calculated
as follows:
Equation 4.1
Where:
Pc = corrected power
Pe = power read from the meters
u = phase displacement of the voltage transformer in minutes
i = phase displacement of the current transformer in minutes
= phase angle between current and voltage in the measurement ( is positive at
inductive load)
K = correction
The correction K obtained from equation 4.1 is shown as a set of curves in Figure 4.2.
The corrections caused by the instrument transformers are made separately for each phase,
because different phases may have different power factors and the phase displacements of the
instrument transformers are generally different.
If the measuring current Im deviates from the rated current IN, the power Pkm and the
voltageUkm at rated current are obtained by applying corrections to the
values Pc and Uc relating to the measuring current.
The corrections are made as follows:
Equation 4.2
Equation 4.3
The correction caused by the phase displacement of instrument transformers (Figure 2):
Where:
K correction in percent,
u i phase displacement in minutes
cos power factor of the measurement.
The sign of K is the same as that of u i.
Mean values are calculated of the values corrected to the rated current and the mean values
are used in the following. According to the standards the measured value of the losses shall be
corrected to a winding temperature of 75 C (80 C, if the oil circulation is forced and directed).
The transformer is at ambient temperature when the measurements are carried out. and the
loss values are corrected to the reference temperature 75 C according to the standards as
follows.
The d.c. losses POm at the measuring temperature m are calculated using the resistance
values R1m and R2m obtained in the resistance measurement (for windings 1 and 2 between
line terminals):
Equation 4.4
Equation 4.5
Here Pkm is the measured power, to which the corrections caused by the instrument
transformer have been made, and which is corrected to the rated current according to equation
(4.2).
The short-circuit impedance Zkm and resistance Rkm at the measureing temperature are:
Equation 4.6
Equation 4.7
Equation 4.8
When the losses are corrected to 75 C, it is assumed that d.c. losses vary directly with
resistance and the additional losses inversely with resistance. The losses corrected to 75 C
are obtained as follows:
Equation 4.9
Where:
s = 235 C for Copper
s = 225 C for Aluminium
Now the short circuit resistance Rkc and the short circuit impedance Zkc at the reference
temperature can be determined:
Equation 4.10
Equation 4.11
Results
The report indicates for each winding pair the power SN and the following values corrected to
75 C and relating to the principal and extreme tappings.
Inspection and Test procedures for Instrument Transformers (on photo: Ritz Instrument Transformers)
Procedures to follow:
2. Electrical Tests
2.1 Electrical Tests Current Transformers
1. Perform resistance measurements through bolted connections with a low-resistance
ohmmeter, if applicable, in accordance with Section 1.
2. Perform insulation-resistance test of each current transformer and its secondary wiring
with respect to ground at 1000 volts dc for one minute.For units with solid-state
components that cannot tolerate the applied voltage, follow manufacturers
recommendations.
3. Perform a polarity test of each current transformer in accordance with ANSI/IEEE
C57.13.1.
4. Perform a ratio-verification test using the voltage or current method in accordance
with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1.
5. Perform an excitation test on transformers used for relaying applications in accordance
with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1.
6. Measure current circuit burdens at transformer terminals in accordance with
ANSI/IEEE C57.13.1.
7. When applicable, perform insulation-resistance tests on the primary winding with the
secondary grounded. Test voltages shall be inaccordance with Table 100.5.
8. When applicable, perform dielectric withstand tests on the primary winding with the
secondary grounded. Test voltages shall be inaccordance with Table 100.9.
9. Perform power-factor or dissipation-factortests in accordance with test
equipment manufacturers published data.
10. Verify that current transformer secondary circuits are grounded and have only one
grounding point in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.3. That grounding point should
be located as specified by the engineer in the project drawings.
Go to Index of Procedures
3. Test Values
3.1 Test Values Visual and Mechanical
1. Compare bolted connection resistance values to values of similar connections.
Investigate values which deviate from those of similar bolted connections by more than
50 percent of the lowest value. (1.6.1)
2. Bolt-torque levels shall be in accordance with manufacturers published data. In the
absence of manufacturers published data, use Table 100.12.
3. Results of the thermographic survey.
4. Perform power-factor or dissipation-factortests in accordance with test
equipment manufacturers published data.
5. Verify that the coupling-capacitor voltage transformer circuits are grounded and have
only one grounding point in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.13.3. That grounding point
should be located as specified by the engineer in the project drawings.
Go to Index of Procedures
8. Test results shall indicate that the circuits are grounded at only one point.
Go to Index of Procedures
TABLE 100.5
Transformer Insulation Resistance Acceptance Testing
In the absence of consensus standards, the NETA Standards Review Council suggests the above
representative values.
NOTE: Since insulation resistance depends on insulation rating (kV) and winding capacity (kVA), values obtained
should be compared to manufacturers published data.
Go to Index of Procedures
TABLE 100.9
Instrument Transformer Dielectric Tests Field Acceptance
Table 100.9 is derived from Paragraph 8.8.2 and Tables 2 of ANSI/IEEE C57.13-1993, Standard Requirements for
Instrument Transformers.
+ Periodic dc potential tests are not recommended for transformers rated higher than 34.5 kV.
* DC potential tests are not recommended for transformers rated higher than 200 kV BIL. DC tests may prove
beneficial as a reference for future testing. In such cases the test direct voltage shall not exceed the original factory
test rms alternating voltages.
Go to Index of Procedures
TABLE 100.12
US Standard Fasteners Bolt-Torque Values for Electrical
Connections
Go to Index of Procedures
Reference: Standard for acceptance testing specifications for electrical power equipment and
systems American National Standards Institute
Example of single phase, hand-cranked TTR Transformer Turns Ratio Test Set (Measures the turns ratio and
exciting current of windings in power, potential and current transformers.)
Step 2.
Connect the H designated three-phase test lead with the military style connector at one end
to the mating connection on the test set marked with an H. Ensure that the connectors index
notch lines up properly.
Step 3.
Connect the X designated three-phase test of lead military style connector at one end to the
mating connection on the test set marked with an X. Ensure that the connectors index notch
lines up properly.
Step 4.
Connect the H1, H2, H3 designated test lead to the corresponding H1, H2, H3 transformer
terminal / bushing. Connect the H0 test lead if H0 terminal/bushing is present.
Refer to Figure 1.
Step 5.
Connect the X1, X2, X3 designated test leads to the corresponding X1, X2,X3 transformer
terminals / bushings. Connect the X0 test lead if X0 terminal/bushing is present.
Step 6.
Perform turns ratio measurements for all tap positions.
Step 7.
Confirm that the measured ratios is within 0.5% of the calculated ratios.
Important Note:
Transformers that have wye connections but do not have the neutral of the wye brought out
shall be tested for ratio with three-phase power supply.
Any inequality in the magnetizing characteristics of the three phases will then result in a
shift of the neutral and thereby cause unequal phase voltages. When such inequality is found,
the connection should be changed, either to a delta or to a wye connection, and the line
voltages measured.
When these are found to be equal to each other and the proper values (1.732 times the phase
voltages when connected in wye), the ratio is correct.
1. Equipment required
Following equipment is necessary to perform testings:
Polarity test kit
Megger 500-5000V
Ohmmeter
Multimeter
Autotransformers & Step-up transformers
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2. General inspection
Mechanical checks
General visual inspection and compliance with the drawings and manuals.
Check nameplate ratings and HV, LV terminal markings.
Check that all parts of the transformer are properly assembled and tight.
Check the HV connections are tight.
Check the cable connections on the LV side and the markings.
Check the oil levels and inspect for leakage. (Where applicable)
Electromagnetic type
Check the installation of different sections.
Electrical Checks
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Polarity Test
The polarity is checked using the flick method (application of direct current) and check of
deflection on a bi-directional milliammeter. The test is also used to check primary and
secondary circuit continuity.
When switch k is closed, the milliammeter pointer deflects positive.
When the circuit is opened, the milliammeter pointer deflects in the negative direction.
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Posted JAN 22 201 4 by EDV ARD in TESTI NG AND CO MM I SSI O NI NG , TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 CO MM ENTS
MEGGER Semi-Automatic Capacitance and Dissipation Factor Test Set (Direct readout of capacitance, dissipation
factor and watts dissipated)
Step 1.
Isolate the equipment, apply working grounds to all incoming and outgoing cables and
disconnect all incoming and outgoing cables from the transformer bushing terminals.
Disconnected cables should have sufficient clearance from the switchgear terminals greater
that the phase spacing distance.
Use nylon rope to hold cable away from incoming and outgoing terminals as required.
Step 2.
Isolate the neutral bushing connection if applicable from the transformer grounding bar.
Step 3.
Short-circuit all high voltage bushing terminals together.
Step 4.
Short-circuit all low voltage bushing terminals and the neutral bushing terminal together.
Step 5.
Connect the capacitance and dissipation factor test set. Refer to Figure 1 above.
Step 6.
Record the capacitance and dissipation factor values once the null meter is balance for both
phasing position. Record values for the five test-variable selector switch position.
Figure 1 - The ABB's TrafoStar design used for core type transformers has a circular shaped core limb, surrounded
by concentrically arranged, cylinder shaped windings.
In the usual shell-type power transformer, both primary and secondary are on one leg and are
surrounded by the core, whereas in a core-type power transformer, cylindrical windings cover
the core legs. Shell form LPTs typically use more electrical steel for the core and are more
resilient to short-circuit in the transmission systems and are frequently used in industrial
applications.
The core and windings are contained in a rectangular, mechanical frame called the tank.
Other parts include transformer bushings, which connect LPTs to transmission lines, as well
as tap changers, power cable connectors, gas-operated relays, thermometers, relief devices,
dehydrating breathers, oil level indicators, and other controls.
Power transformer costs and pricing vary by manufacturer, by market condition, and by
location of the manufacturing facility.
In 2010, the approximate cost of an LPT with an MVA rating between 75 MVA and 500 MVA
was estimated to range from $2 to $7.5 million in the United States. However, these estimates
were Free on Board (FOB) factory costs, exclusive of transportation, installation, and other
associated expenses, which generally add 25 to 30 percent to the total cost (see Table 1
below).
Raw materials, particularly copper and electrical steel, are a significant factor in power
transformer prices.
Transportation is also an important element of the total LPT cost, because an LPT can weigh
as much as 410 tons (820,000 lb) and often requires long-distance transport.
Note: Prices are FOB factory and do not include taxes, transportation, special features and
accessories, special testing (short-circuit, etc.), insulating oil, field installation, and/or optional
services. The total installed cost is estimated to be about 2530 percent higher.
Source: NERC Special Report: Spare Equipment Database System, 2011
LPTs require substantial capital and a long-lead time (in excess of six months) to
manufacture, and its production requires large crane capacities, ample floor space, and
adequate testing and drying equipment.
Polarity Detection
This is needed for identifying the primary and secondary phasor polarities. It is a must for
poly phase connections. Both a.c. and d.c methods can be used for detecting the polarities of
the induced emfs.
The dot method is used to indicate the polarities.
The transformer is connected to a low voltage a.c. source with the connections made as shown
in the Figure 1 (a). A supply voltage Vs is applied to the primary and the readings of the
voltmeters V1, V2 and V3 are noted. V1 : V2 gives the turns ratio.
If V3 reads V1V2 then assumed dot locations are correct (for the connection shown).
The beginning and end of the primary and secondary may then be marked by A1 A2 and a1
a2 respectively. If the voltage rises from A1 to A2 in the primary, at any instant it does so
from a1 to a2 in the secondary.
If more secondary terminals are present due to taps taken from the windings they can be
labeled as a3, a4, a5, a6. It is the voltage rising from smaller number towards larger ones in
each winding. The same thing holds good if more secondaries are present.
Figure 1 (b) shows the d.c. method of testing the polarity. When the switch S is closed if
the secondary voltage shows a positive reading, with a moving coil meter, the assumed polarity
is correct. If the meter kicks back the assumed polarity is wrong.
Measurement of sound
Sound level measurements have been developed to quantify pressure variations in air that
a human ear can detect. The smallest pressure variation that a healthy human ear can detect
is 20 Pa. This is the reference level (0 dB) to which all the other levels are compared.
The perceived loudness of a signal is dependent upon the sensitivity of the human ear to its
frequency spectrum. Modern measuring instruments process sound signals through electronic
networks, the sensitivity of which varies with frequency in a manner similar to the human ear.
This has resulted in a number of internationally standardized weightings of which
theAweighting network is the most common.
Sound intensity is defined as the rate of energy flow per unit area and is measured in watts
per square metre. It is a vector quantity whereas, sound pressure is a scalar quantity and is
defined only by its magnitude.
Sound power is the parameter which is used for rating and comparing sound sources. It is
a basic descriptor of a sources acoustic output, and therefore an absolute physical property
of the source alone which is independent of any external factors such as environment
and distance to the receiver.
Sound power can be calculated from sound pressure or sound intensity determinations.
Sound intensity measurements have the following advantages over sound pressure
measurements:
1. An intensity meter responds only to the propagating part of a sound field and ignores
any non-propagating part, for example, standing waves and reflections;
2. The intensity method reduces the influence of external sound sources, as long as their
sound level is approximately constant.
The sound pressure method takes the above factors into account by correcting for background
noise and reflections.
This part of IEC 60076 defines sound pressure and sound intensity measurement methods by
which sound power levels of transformers, reactors and their associated cooling auxiliaries
may be determined.
NOTE For the purpose of this standard, the term transformer means transformer or reactor.
The methods are applicable to transformers and reactors covered by the IEC 60076
series, IEC 60289, IEC 60726 and the IEC 61378 series, without limitation as regards size or
voltage and when fitted with their normal cooling auxiliaries.
This standard is primarily intended to apply to measurements made at the factory.
Conditions on-site may be very different because of the proximity of objects, including other
transformers. Nevertheless, the same general rules as are given in this standard may be
followed when on-site measurements are made.
Reference: INTERNATIONAL STANDARD IEC 60076-10 (Purchase here)
4. Induced AC voltage test (short duration ACSD and long duration ACLD)
To confirm the insulation strength of the transformer connection terminals and the connected
windings to the earthed parts and other windings, both between the phases and through the
winding.
Maximum
operating
voltage
Um kV
Tests
Lightning
impulse
(LI)
Switching
Long
Short
impulse duration AC duration AC
(SI)
(ACLD)
(ACSD)
Applied
voltage
test
uniform
insulated
Um 72,5
type
(note 1)
na
na
(note 1)
routine
routine
uniform
and
gradually
insulated
routine
na
special
routine
routine
routine
routine
(note 2)
routine
special
(note 2)
routine
300
routine
routine
routine
special
routine
Note 1: In some countries, in transformers with Um 72,5 kV applied as routine test and the
ACLD test is applied as routine or type test.
Note 2 : If the ACSD test is defined, the SI test is not applied.
In case of a transformer with one or more thanone gradual insulation, if foreseen by the
induced voltage test, the switching impulse test isdetermined according to the
maximum Umvoltage winding.
The foreseen test voltage can not be reached in lower Um voltage windings. In this case, the
ratio between the tap changers optimum tap position and the windings shall be such arranged
that, the lowest Um voltage winding reaches the most appropriate value. This is acceptable
(IEC 60076-3).
If chopped wave is requested during ligthning impulse (LI) test, the peak value of the
chopped wave is 1.1 times the full wave value (10% higher). For transformers with the high
voltage winding Um> 72.5 kV, the lightning impulse (LI) test is a routine test for all windings of
the transformer.
Waterproof covers should be provided during the period when the transformer tank is
open. If it is not possible to disconnect the cables after jointing they must be tested
beforehand. This means that the jointing and testing programme must be carefully planned to
avoid leaving cable ends unsealed for long periods.
Transformer diagrams should be inspected and the phasing diagram confirmed as correct.
Also before energising, the voltage selector must be set on the appropriate tapping having
regard to the voltage level of the system.
Transformers which are to operate in parallel must be set on the same tapping and they should
be checked as having the same impedance. Voltage selectors should be locked in their set
position and if they are of the off-circuit type they must not be adjusted without the supply
being first switched off. Earthing arrangements for the tank and the neutral or other system
earthing must be confirmed and completed before testing and commissioning.
Where special tests for losses, ratio, phase angle or winding resistances are specified the
assistance of the manufacturer should be sought.
The following points should be checked on the particular type of transformer as
appropriate:
Ensure that the oil level is adequate and that breather tubes are clear. Commission silica
gel units by removing the airtight seals from the cannisters and filling the oil sealing-well to
the correct level with transformer oil.
The colour of the silica gel must be checked and the filling changed if it shows dampness
(red for wet, blue for dry).
Dry-type transformers
As dry-type transformers are more susceptible to external damage they must be carefully
handled and stored on site.
They must also be kept in a dry, warm atmosphere until they are put in service, to prevent
ingress of moisture.
Satisfactory insulation tests are imperative before commissioning. Because they are wholly
dependent on surface radiation and air convection for cooling, they must be checked for any
accumulation of dust or dirt which can block the air ducts and reduce the flow of air.
Cleanliness is essential, particularly where the connection leads leave the windings and at the
terminal supports. Damp dust leads to tracking and causes expensive damage.
It is particularly important to check such transformers for dust in package substations which
may escape the notice of commissioning staff.
Resource: Handbook of Electrical Installation Practice Eur Ing Geoffrey Stokes (Get it from
Amazon)
The heater then becomes a mimic of the actual transformer winding with the winding
temperature gauge measuring a temperature that is roughly equivalent to the true winding
temperature.
In addition to (or instead of ) the winding temperature gauge, most transformers have an oil
temperature gauge that measures the actual top oil temperature. The difference in temperature
between the winding temperature gauge and the top oil temperature gauge is one indication of
how heavily the transformer is loaded.
Winding and/or top oil temperatures should be routinely observed to see whether the
transformer is operating within normal temperature limits. There have been many cases
where an abnormal temperature indication has uncovered serious problems with transformers.
One example of this was a case of an OA cooling class transformer operating with a very
high oil temperature. Further investigation revealed that a leak in the radiator had caused the
oil level to drop below the radiator inlet, resulting in a virtual total loss of cooling. In other
cases, investigations of elevated transformer temperatures have revealed blocked coolers and
malfunctioning cooler controls.
An oil level gauge is required so that the correct oil level can be maintained. There is usually
a mark on the gauge that indicates the 25C level, which is the proper oil level at that
temperature. Maintaining the proper oil level is extremely important because if the oil level falls
below the level of the radiator inlet, flow through the radiator will cease and the transformer will
overheat.
A very low oil level can expose energized and current-carrying components that are designed
to operate in oil and could result in overheating or an electrical flashover. If the oil level is too
high, it could cause over pressurization when the oil expands.
Figure 1 - A situation where ferroresonance may occur. The cable capacitances form three parallel L-C elements that
are in series with each other and the source voltages.
The necessary conditions for ferroresonance are established in the system shown in Figure 1.
In the example shown in Figure 1, the -connected tertiary winding of a large three-winding
substation transformer supplies a distribution type station-service transformer with a Grd.-Y
primary winding. The supply lines to the station-service transformers are through a set of
shielded cables. If the cable runs are fairly long, a significant amount of phase-to-ground
capacitance may exist.
When a transformer core operates near saturation, the B-H curve is highly nonlinear, and the
effective permeability of the core can take on a range of values that vary with the changes in
flux density.
Each of the inductances shown as L1, L2, and L3, will have instantaneous inductance
valuesthat are proportional to the effective permeability of the core at any given instant in time.
These inductances form parallel L-C circuits that are in series with one another and in series
with the source voltage.
Since L1, L2, and L3 are constantly varying along with the effective permeability of the core, it
is almost certain that a series resonant condition will exist at least part of the time during every
cycle.
When a series resonance exists, even for a brief period, this causes very large voltages
across the L-C elements. These voltages are capable of destroying the transformer and
any other equipment connected to it.
The nonlinear nature of this problem makes mathematical analysis virtually impossible, but the
phenomenon has been observed both in the field and experimentally, and the voltages have
been measured and recorded.
In the example above, the conditions for ferroresonance can be disrupted by the simple
expedient of -connected secondary winding to the station service transformer.
The -connected winding assures that the vector sum of the voltages of all three phases add
to zero, stabilizing the neutral point of the Y-connected primary winding and preventing
excessive voltage across the windings. The presence of a -connected secondary winding will
essentially snuff out ferroresonance in this circuit.
Keep in mind that these forces are reversing 50/60 times each second. It is obvious why
internal structures of transformers must be built incredibly strong.
Many times, if fault currents are high, these forces can rip a transformer apart and
causeelectrical faults inside the transformer itself. This normally results in arcing inside the
transformer that can result in explosive failure of the tank, throwing flaming oil over a wide
area.
There are protective relaying systems to protect against this possibility, although explosive
failures do occur occasionally.
Free bucking mechanical failure of an inner winding resulting from radial forces in compression on the winding
Flux fields are dependent of the balance of the ampere turn distribution of the HV and LV
windings. When the ampere turns of the HV and LV windings are equal and balanced, the only
forces are radial.
DETC taps (De Energized Tap Changer) in the HV windings and LTC (Load Tap Changer)
operation result in changes in the ampere turn distribution resulting in axial forces. If the HV
and LV windings are not aligned axially or one winding is physically shorter than the other,
ampere turn balance is significantly affected and axial forces are magnified.
Autotransformers, low impedance, motor starting duty, transformers with multiple voltages by
reconnecting the transformer windings in series and parallel configurations, three
winding transformers with dual secondary windings for start up or unit auxiliary service at
power plants all can result in increased axial and radial forces during a short circuit
and require special consideration.
1. Bridge method
Measurement of turn ratio is based on, applying a phase voltage to one of the windings using a
bridge (equipment) and measuring the ratio of the induced voltage at the bridge.
The measurements are repeated in all phases and at all tap positions, sequentially.
During measurement, only turn ratio between the winding couples which have the same
magnetic flux can be measured, which means the turn ratio between the winding couples
which have the parallel vectors in the vector diagram can be measured. (Figures 2.1, 2.2, 2.3).
In general, the measuring voltage is 220 V a.c. 50 Hz. However, equipment which have other
voltage levels can also be used. The accuracy of the measuring instrument is 0,1%.
Figure 2.3 - Some of the connection groups according to IEC 60076-1 standard
In general according to the standards, if there is less than 3% difference between the effective
(U) value and the average (U) value of the supply voltage, the shape of the wave is
considered as appropriate for measurements.
If the supply voltage is different than sinusoid, the measured no-load losses have to be
corrected by a calculation. In this case, the effective (r.m.s.) value and the average (mean)
value of the voltage are different. If the readings of both voltmeter are equal, there is no need
for correction.
During measurements, the supply voltage U is supplied to the transformer by the average
value voltmeter. In this way, the foreseen induction is formed and as a result of this, the
hysteresis losses are measured correctly. The eddy-current losses should be corrected
according to equation below.
Pm = P0 (P1 + k P2)
Pm: Measured loss
P0: No-load losses where the voltage is sinusoidal
Here: P0 = Ph + PE = k1 f + k2 f2
k = [ U / U' ]2
P1: The hysteresis loss ratio in total losses (Ph) = k1 f
P2: The eddy-curent loss ratio in total losses (PE) = k2 f2
At 50 Hz and 60 Hz, in cold oriented sheet steel, P1 = P2 = % 50. So, the P0 no-load loss
becomes:
Po = Pm / (P1 + k P2)
where P1 = P2 = 0,5
Standard temperature limits for liquid-immersed power transformers are listed in Table
below.
Temperature
65C **
80C
65C
Introduction to D.M.C.R.
Introduction to D.M.C.R.
The DMCR is a protection relay designed for the hermetically sealed oil immersed
transformers without gas cushion. This device enables complete control of the tanks internal
parameters, i.e. pressure, temperature, oil level and gas detection.
Fitted directly to the transformer cover, this relay ensures protection against internal faults,
prolonged overvoltages and fire risks associated with the use of inflammable dielectric fluids.
The accessory continuously monitors:
1. Dielectric fluid level,
2. Tank internal pressure,
3. Dielectric fluid temperature at two different thresholds.
To operate properly, the protection relay mustbe fully filled with fluid (level higher than the
float visible in the transparent section of the unit). If this is not the case, check the instructions
which appear inside each casing.
To ensure optimum protection, the following action and adjustments are recommended:
Finding
Gas emitted or drop in level
Serious fault
De-energize unit
0.20 bar
Serious fault
De-energize unit
Thermostat threshold 1
90C
Overvoltages
Activate alarm
Thermostat threshold 2
100C
Overvoltages
De-energize unit
Pressure switch
2. Overheating is detected
This may be due to:
1. Improper cooling of the transformer (insufficient air flow around unit or plan-troom
ventilation),
2. Continuous overvoltage.
Go to Content
Standards
This protection relay has been designed according to the European standard EN 50216-3,
specification which came into action on the 5th of June 2002.
This standard applies to protection relays for hermetically sealed oil immersed transformers, (in
accordance with the EN 60076 standard) and induction coils (in accordance with the EN 60289
standard) without gas cushion for an indoor or outdoor use.
The DMCR relay is an IDEF Systemes design, made in France. It has two French and one
European patents.
Go to Content
Possibilities of D.M.C.R.
1. Oil level control and gas detection
The DMCR enables to control both the oil level and the presence of gas inside the
transformers tank. The DMCR body is a small see-through tank fitted ontothe transformers
tank.
Should gas form inside the transformer, it will then accumulate inside the DMCR and
cause the oil level to drop.
Visual information
The level drop is first visible through the lowering of the small red float inside the upper part of
the DMCR, followed by the lowering of the main red float.
The 360 degree visibility is a specifically designed and patented system.
Electrical information
A circular magnet is fitted in the main float and it acts upon a magnetic changeover
contact(REED switch) sitting inside the brass tube that runs through the float. The lowering of
the float triggers the activation of an electrical contact, through the magnets motion.
A bleeding system facilitates gas collection inside the relay so that one can analyze it and
understand the reason for its presence. The bleeding system has a male G1/8 thread,
accordingto the standard.
For the oil level and gas detection control, the contacts have been chosen in order to use the
REED switchs working contact when the float is in a high position. This means that, in such a
position, i.e. with a normal oil level and therefore normal conditions of use, the contact has
already switched.
This is a positive safety system. With this method, any potential damage to the switch is
immediately spotted.
The DMCR below is filled in with oil: the main float and the secondary float are both in high
position.
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2. Pressure control
Pressure inside a transformers tank can increase significantly when:
1. There is a temperature rise due to the transformer charge: oil expands and pressure
increases
2. An internal short-circuit occurs and provokes an oil temperature rise.
An adjustable pressure captor detects overpressure in the transformers tank. It features a
changeover contact actuated by a soft membrane which deforms under pressure.
The DMCRs pressure captor is accessible from above, once the top removed
Go to Content
3. Temperature control
Visual check:
A needle thermometer indicates the temperature inside the transformer.
Electrical check
Two identical adjustable thermostats detect potential over-heating inside the transformer.
The thermostats feature a changeover contact actuated bya diaphragm linked by a capillary
tube to a temperature probe sitting deep inside the central brass tube, which is immersed in
the transformers tank. The capillary tube and probe are filled in with a liquid which expands
proportionally to the temperature surrounding the probe.
The ALARM thermostat detects a primary temperature threshold.
The TRIPPING thermostat detects a secondary temperature threshold, superior to the first.
Go to Content
RESO URCES:
Posted JAN 5 2013 by EDV ARD in TESTI NG AND CO MM I SSI O NI NG, TRANSFO RM ERS with 4 CO MM ENTS
In the current voltage method, the measuring current passing through the winding
also passes through a standard resistor with a known value and the voltage drop
values on both resistors (winding resistance and standard resistance) are compared to
find the unknown resistance (winding resistance).
One should be careful not to keep the voltage measuring voltmeter connected to the
circuit to protect it from high voltages which may occur during switching the current
circuit on and off.
The bridge method is based on comparing an unknown (being measured) resistor with
a known value resistor.
When the currents flowing in the arms are balanced, the current through the
galvanometer will be zero. In general, if the small value resistors (e.g. less than 1
ohm) are measured with a Kelvin bridge and higher value resistors are measured with a
Wheatstone bridge, measurement errors will be minimised.
BEST Test laboratory is equipped with the most advanced testing facilities and is
capable of conducting all tests required by IEC standards except short circuit
mechanical withstand test, conducted in an independent international laboratory, CESIItaly.
Tests performed on the transformers can be classified as follows:
Tests during manufacturing, routine tests, type tests, special tests, acceptance tests,
site tests, defect analysis / identification and tests before maintenance.
Resource: BEST Transformer Tests (BALIKESR ELEKTROMEKANK SANAY
TESSLER A..)
Importance of Transformer Inrush Current (on photo: Data Center Power Transformer by digitalrealtytrust
@ Flickr)
Residual Flux
When a transformer is taken off-line, there will be a certain amount of residual flux that
can remain in the core due to the properties of the magnetic core material.
The residual flux can be as much as 50 to 90% of the maximum operating flux,
depending on the type of core steel. When voltage is reapplied to the transformer, the
flux introduced by this source voltage will build upon that which already exists in the
core.
In order to maintain this level of flux in the core, which can be well into the saturation
range of the core steel, the transformer can draw current well in excess of the
transformers rated full load current.
Depending on the transformer design, the magnitude of this current inrush can be
anywhere from 3.5 to 40 times the rated full load current. The waveform of the
inrush current will be similar to a sine wave, but largely skewed towards the positive or
negative direction. This inrush current will experience a decay, partially due
to transformer losses, which will provide a dampening effect; however, the current
can remain well above rated current for many cycles.
This inrush current can have an effect on the operation of relays and fuseslocated in
the system near the transformer.
Decent approximations of the inrush current require detailed information regarding the
transformer design which may be available from the manufacturer but is not typically
available to the user.
Actual inrush currents will also depend upon where in the source voltage wave the
switching operations occur, the moment of opening effecting the residual flux
magnitude, and the moment of closing effecting the new flux.
The Purpose Of Transformer Gas Relay (on photo: Gas actuated relay for oil-filled transformers by Cedaspe S.p.a.)
Introduction
The transformer gas relay is a protective device installed on the top of oil-filled
transformers. It performs two functions. It detects the slow accumulation of gases, providing
an alarm after a given amount of gas has been collected.
Also, it responds to a sudden pressure change that accompanies a high rate of gas
production (from a major internal fault), promptly initiating disconnection of the transformer.
An incipient fault or developing fault, usually causes slow formation of gas.
Examples of incipient faults are:
Current flow through defective supporting and insulating structures;
Defective joints at winding terminals causing heating;
Minor tap changer troubles; and
Core faults.
A major fault is one that results in a fast formation of a large volume of gases. Examples
of such faults are:
Shorts between turns and windings; and
Open circuits, which result in severe arcing.
Failure to disconnect the transformer under fault conditions can result in severe equipment
damage from high gas and oil pressures and the effect of the electrical fault.
partially oil-filled chamber moves as the gas volume increases. It operates an alarm switch
when the amount of gas collected reaches a specified level.
An indicator coupled to the float also provides a means to monitor the rate at which gas is
being generated.
The second chamber, a pressure chamber, connects directly to the transformer oil circuit. It
connects vertically to the accumulation chamber, providing a path for the rising gas.
An air-filled bellows within the pressure chamber acts as the pressure change detector.
A sudden pressure surge in the oil compresses the bellows and forces the
air within to move a diaphragm. The moving diaphragm actuates a switch that initiates tripping
of the transformer.
Sudden pressures, such as oil circulating pump surges, are normal operating events and the
relay must be set to ride through them. In practice, it is necessary to make sure the relay is set
to operate at about 7 KPa (1 psi) above the maximum oil circulating pump surge pressure.
Dangerously high pressure increases from major faults are relieved by an explosion vent on
the top of the transformer tank.
This is basically a diaphragm sealed pipe with its open end directed away from
the transformer.
A significant increase in pressure bursts the diaphragm and discharges gases and hot oil with
a possibility of resulting fire.
Transformer Differential Protection Principles (on photo Penelec Collinsville transformer substation 4 by PA
Powerliner @ Flickr)
Introduction
Similar to bus protections, transformers are protected by differential relays.
Inter-winding faults (short circuits) and ground faults within power transformers can be
detected by this protection scheme.
Failure to detect these faults and quickly isolate the transformer may cause serious damage
to the device.
Remember that a differential relay is basically an instantaneous overcurrent relay that
operates on the difference of current flowing into and out of the protected zone.
For transformers the differential protection (Figure 1) is basically the same as that for a bus
but there are certain differences that we will look more closely at.
These differences are a direct result of three characteristics or a transformer:
1. A transformer has a turns ratio so the current in is not really equal to the current out. The
current transformers are not likely exactly matched to the transformer turns ratio so there will
always be an unbalance currentin the operating coil of a transformer differential relay.
2. Transformers require magnetising current. There will be a small current flow in the
transformer primary even if the secondary is open circuited.
3. A transformer has an inrush current. There is a time period after a transformer is energized
until the magnetic field in the core in alternating symmetrically. The size and the length of this
inrush depends on the residual field in the core and the point in the ac cycle the transformer is
re-energized.
In large transformers in might be ten or twenty times the full-load current initially and it might
take several minutes to reduce to negligible values.
Transformer differential relays haverestraint coils as indicated in Figure 1. The value of the
operate current has to be a certain set percentage higher than the current flowing in the
restraint coils. For this reason transformer differential relays are said to percentage-differential
relays.
Referring again to Figure 1, you will notice that when the transformer is first energized, there
will not be any current flowing in CT2. The CT1 secondary current I1s flows through both the
restraint and operate coils and prevents operation unless the current is very high.
The restraint coils also prevent relay operation due to tap-changes, where the ratio of
transformer input to output current can continuously vary.
One other item included in transformer differential relays, but not shown in the diagram, is
second harmonic restraint.
When transformers are first energized there is over-fluxing (saturation) of the core and the
large inrush energizing current has a distorted waveform. This waveform is described as
having high second harmonic content.
The transformer differential relays make use of this known fact and add in extra restraint when
it detects this second harmonic. This extra feature prevents the transformer from tripping due
to magnetizing current when being energized, but does not add any time delay.
Because the differential relay will not operate with load current or faults outside the protected
zones (through faults), it can be set to operate at a low value of current thereby giving rapid
operation when a fault occurs. There is no need to time delay the operation of the relay and
therefore a fast acting type of relay can be used.
Resource: Science and Reactor Fundamentals Electrical CNSC Technical Training Group
WEG - A three-phase oil transformer 225 MVA, 275 kV for distribution of energy at Tealing Grind substation, of
Scottish Hydro-Electric Transmission Ltd., in Scotland, one of the largest Utilities in Europe.
Safety Clearance Recommendations for Transformer (on photo 10/0.4 kV transformer substation by FIMA)
Clearance Tables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Less
Flammable
Liquid
Fire
NonCombustible Vertical
Volume (m3) Resistant Combustible
Wall
Distance
Wall
Wall
NA
0.9 Meter
0.9 Meter
0.9 Meter
0.9
Meter
<38 m3
1.5 Meter
1.5 Meter
7.6 Meter
7.6
Meter
>38 m3
4.6 Meter
4.6 Meter
15.2 Meter
15.2
Meter
Mineral Oil
<1.9 m3
1.5 Meter
4.6 Meter
7.6 Meter
7.6
Meter
7.6 Meter
15.2 Meter
15.2
Meter
15.2 Meter
30.5 Meter
30.5
Meter
> 19 m3
7.6 Meter
Go to Content
Distance
NA
0.9 Meter
<38 m3
1.5 Meter
>38 m3
7.6 Meter
<1.9 m3
1.5 Meter
1.9 m3 to 19 m3
7.6 Meter
> 19 m3
15.2 Meter
Less
Flammable
Mineral Oil
Go to Content
Distance (min)
Up to 112.5 KVA
Distance (min)
Distance (min)
Over 35KV
Go to Content
Distance (min)
Up to 75 KVA &
Up to 600V
Furnace
Installed without a vault in a building or room of fire
transformers (Up resistant construction
to 75 kVA)
Go to Content
Up to 75 KVA
3.0 Meter
6.0 Meter
9.0 Meter
Go to Content
Distance (min)
3.0 Meter
2.1 Meter
3.0 Meter
4.2 Meter
3.0 Meter
3.0 Meter
3.0 Meter
0.9 Meter
1.8 Meter
4.5 Meter
6.0 Meter
3.0 Meter
3.6 Meter
to
overhead
HV Line
Fuel tanks
7.5 Meter
1.5
Meter
7.5 Meter
Granaries
6.0 Meter
0.6
Meter
15 Meter
Homes
6.0 Meter
0.6
Meter
15 Meter
Barns, sheds,
garages
6.0 Meter
0.6
Meter
15 Meter
Water wells
1.5 Meter
1.5
Meter
15 Meter
Antennas
3.0 Meter
0.6
Meter
Height of
Antenna +
3.0 Meter
Go to Content
Switching Impulse Test of the Transformer (on photo Mississippi State University High Voltage Laboratory as
University Research Center)
Due to over-saturation of the core during switching impulse test, a few low amplitude, reverse
polarity (e.g. positive) impulses are applied after each test impulse in order to reset the
transformer core to its starting condition (demagnetised). By this way,the next impulse voltage
waveform is applied. The tap position of the transformer during test is determined according to
test conditions.
The on-off impulse voltages are applied to each high voltage terminal sequentially.
Meanwhile, the neutral terminal is earthed. The windings which are not under test are left open
(earthed at one point). This connection is similar to the induced voltage test connection. The
voltage distribution on the winding is linear like the induced voltage test and the voltage
amplitudes at the un-impulsed windings are induced according to the turn ratio.
Meanwhile, necessary arrangements should be made since the voltage between phases will
be1,5 times the phase-neutral voltage.
The test circuit connections of three phase transformers depend on; structure of the
core(three or five legged), the voltage level between phases and the open or closed state of
the delta winding (if any). At first, a voltage with 50 % decresed value is used at the tests,then
impulse voltages at full values and at numbers given in standards are used. The peak value of
the voltage is measured.
The change of the voltage waveform and winding current are measured with a special
measuring instrument and recorded. The negativities in the transformer during the test are
determined by comptring the voltage and current oscillograms.
The sudden collapses of the voltage (surges) and abnormal sounds show deformation of the
insulation in the transfomer. The deformation of the voltage waveform and increase in noise
due to magnetic saturation of the core should not be considered as fault.
The test voltage values, impulse shapes, and number of impulses at different voltage levels
must be stated in the report.
Switching Impulse Voltage Waveform :
Front : T1 100 S = 1,67 T
90% value : Td 200 S
Time for cutting the axis : T2 500 S
Resource: Transformer tests BALIKESR ELEKTROMEKANK SANAYTESSLERA..
Content
Introduction
Overcurrent protection of transformers >600V (NEC450.3A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Introduction
Rating of Sec. Fuse / Circuit Breaker at Point B= 250% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next
higher Standard size.
OverCurrent Protection at Secondary Side (Secondary Voltage >600V):
Rating of Sec. Fuse at Point B= 250% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next Lower Standard
size.
Rating of Sec. Circuit Breaker at Point B= 300% of Sec. Full Load Current or Next Lower
Standard size.
Example: 750KVA, 11KV/415V 3Phase Transformer having Impedance of Transformer
5%
Full Load Current At Primary side = 750000/(1.732X11000) = 39A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X39A = 118A, so next lower standard size of fuse = 110A.
OR Rating of Primary Circuit Breaker = 6X39A = 236A, so next lower standard size of
Circuit Breaker = 225A.
Full Load Current at Secondary side = 750000/(1.732X415) =1043A.
Rating of Secondary of Fuse / Circuit Breaker = 2.5X1043A=2609A, so standard size of
Fuse = 2500A.
Go to Content
Rating of Sec. Circuit Breaker at Point B= 250% of Sec. full load current or next lower
standard size.
Example: 750KVA, 11KV/415V 3Phase Transformer having Impedance of Transformer
8%
Full Load Current At Primary side = 750000/(1.732X11000) = 39A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 3X39A = 118A, so next lower standard size of Fuse = 110A.
OR Rating of Primary Circuit Breaker = 4X39A = 157A, so next lower standard size of
Circuit Breaker = 150A.
Full Load Current at Secondary side = 750000/(1.732X415) = 1043A.
Rating of Secondary of Fuse / Circuit Breaker = 2.5X1043A=2609A, so standard size of
Fuse = 2500A.
Go to Content
Fuse
Secondary Protection
More than 600V
C. B.
Fuse
Less than
600V
C.B or
Rating
Any
location
Less than
6%
600%(NH) 300%(NH)
Rating
300 %(
NH)
Fuse
250%(NH) 125%(NH)
Any
300%(NH) 250%(NH)
Not
required
Not
required
Not
required
Less than
6%
600%
300%
300%
250%
250%
6% To 10%
400%
300%
250%
225%
250%
Rating of Sec. Fuse / C.B at Point A = 167% of Pri. full load current or next lower
standard size.
Example: 3KVA, 480/230 3Phase transformer, full load current at Pri. side =
3000/(1.732X480) = 4A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 1.67X4A = 6A, so next lower standard size of Fuse = 6A.
OverCurrent Protection at Primary Side (More than 9A):
Rating of Pri. Fuse / C.B at Point A = 125% of Pri. full load current or next higher
standard size.
Example: 15KVA, 480/230 3Phase transformer, full load current at Pri. side =
15000/(1.732X480) = 18A
Rating of Primary Fuse = 1.25X18A= 23A, so next higher standard size of Fuse = 25A.
Go to Content
Primary Protection
More than 2A to 9A Less than
9A
2A
Secondary Protection
More than
9A
Less than
9A
167%
300%
Not required
Not
required
Primary and
secondary
protection
250%
250%
125%(NH)
167%
250%
Main Differences
Shunt Reactor and Transformer both appear similar in construction. Reactors are also often
equipped with Fans for cooling similar to Power Transformers.
However, there are major differences between the two. While a Power Transformer is
designed for efficient power transfer from one voltage system to another, a shunt reactor is
intended only to consume reactive VArs (or in other words it can be stated as to produce
lagging VArs).
Thus, there are more than one winding on a Power Transformer with magnetic core which
carry the mutual flux between the two. In reactor there is just one winding. The core is not
therefore meant only to provide a low reluctance path for flux of that winding to increase the
Inductance.
In case of a Power Transformer, primary Ampere-Turns (AT) is sum of exciting AT and
secondary AT. AT loss (in winding resistance, eddy loss and hysteric loss) is kept to as
minimum as possible. Exciting AT is small compared with the secondary AT. Rated current is
based on the load transfer requirement.
Magnetizing current is small and is negligible value when compared with the secondary rated
current. Further, since mutual flux is main flux which results in transformation, leakage flux is
kept small and will be based on fault current limitation.
In case of a Shunt Reactor due to absence of other windings, all primary AT is equal to
the exciting AT. Similar to a Power Transformer, loss in AT (in winding resistance, eddy
current and hysteresis) are also kept to minimum by design. Magnetizing ATis major
component of a Shunt Reactor. Reactor magnetizing current is its rated current.
Since a Shunt Reactor magnetizing current is large, if it is designed with Iron alone as a Power
Transformer, there will be large hysteresis loss. Air gaps in Iron core are provided in a Shunt
Reactor to reduce this loss and to minimize the remanent flux in the core.
Thus a Shunt Reactor may also be constructed without iron (air-core).
By construction, a Shunt Reactor can be oil immersed or dry type for both with and without
iron core.
Dry type Reactors are constructed as single phase units and are thus arranged in a fashion to
minimize stray magnetic field on surrounding (in the absence of metallic shielding). When such
an arrangement is difficult, some form of magnetic shielding is required and designed with care
to minimize eddy current loss and arcing at any joints within the metallic loops. One of the
advantages of dry type reactor is absence of inrush current.
Oil immersed reactors can be core-less or with gapped iron core. These are either single
phase or three phase design with or without fan cooling. These are installed within tanks which
hold oil & act as metallic magnetic shields.
In some cases, a Shunt Reactor may have additional small capacity winding which can provide
power for small station power loads. Since Shunt Reactor rating is normally based on MVAr
rating, this added station load VA shall be accounted for in designing the Reactor for such
applications.
Shunt reactors are used in high voltage systems to compensate for the capacitive generation
of long overhead lines or extended cable networks.
Transformer Heat, Copper and Iron Losses (on photo courtesy of Siemens: Geafol -Cast-resin transformer)
Some of the flux however, will try to flow at angles to the core and will cause eddy currents to
be set up in the core itself.
The term eddy is used because it is aside from the main flow. To combat this effect, the core is
laminated as illustrated in Figure 3. The laminations provide small gaps between the plates.
As it is easier for magnetic flux to flow through iron than air or oil, stray flux that can cause core
losses is minimized.
Some of the flux however, will try to flow at angles to the core and will cause eddy currents to
be set up in the core itself.
The term eddy is used because it is aside from the main flow. To combat this effect, the core is
laminated as illustrated inFigure 3. The laminations provide small gaps between the plates.
As it is easier for magnetic flux to flow through iron than air or oil, stray flux that can cause core
losses is minimized.
SIPROTEC 4 7UT6 Differential Protection Relay for Transformers - Connection of transformer differential protection
with high impedance REF (I7) and neutral current measurement at I8
1. The transformer inrush currents. The operating speed required means that a time delay
longer than the duration of this current cannot be used (several tenths of a second);
2. The action of the on-load tap changer causes a differential current.
The characteristics of transformer differential protection are related to the transformer
specifications:
1. Transformation ratio between the current entering Iin and the current leaving Iout ;
2. Primary and secondary coupling method;
3. Inrush current;
4. Permanent magnetizing current.
The block diagram is shown in Figure 1 below.
In order to prevent tripping upon occurrence of high fault currents of external origin,
biaseddifferential protection devices are used.
This is because of:
The differential current due to the on-load tap changer;
The current transformer measurement errors, as for pilot wire differential protection for
cables or lines.
Protection is activated when:
transformer primary and secondary currents would cause the protection to be activated.
Therefore, the protection must be able to distinguish between a differential current due to a
fault and a differential inrush current.
Experience has shown that the inrush current wave contains at least 20% of second harmonic
components (current at a frequency of 100 Hz), while this percentage is never higher than 5%
upon occurrence of an overcurrent due to a fault inside the transformer.
The protection must therefore simply be locked when the percentage of second harmonic
component in relation to the fundamental harmonic component (current at 50 Hz) is higher than
15%, i.e. I2/I1 > 15%.
The main use of this connection is to step up the voltage i.e. at the begining of high tension
transmission system. It can be noted that there is a phase shift of 30 between primary line
voltage and secondary line voltage as leading.
Phase shift of 30 between primary line voltage and secondary line voltage
Key points
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
This feature enables proper coordination of protective devices and is a very important design
consideration.
The neutral of the Y grounded is sometimes referred to as a grounding bank, because it
provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary
circuit.
Harmonic Suppression:
The magnetizing current must contain odd harmonics for the induced voltages to be sinusoidal
and the third harmonic is the dominant harmonic component. In a three-phase system the third
harmonic currents of all three phases are in phase with each other because they are zerosequence currents. In the Y-Y transformer connection, the only path for third harmonic
current is through the neutral.
In the -Y connection, however, the third harmonic currents, being equal in amplitude and in
phase with each other, are able to circulate around the path formed by the connected
winding. The same thing is true for the other zero-sequence harmonics.
Grounding Bank:
It provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the primary
circuit. For suppose an ungrounded generator supplies a simple radial system through -Y
transformer with grounded Neutral at secondary as shown Figure. The generator can supply a
single-phase-to-neutral load through the -grounded Y transformer.
Let us refer to the low-voltage generator side of the transformer as the secondary and the highvoltage load side of the transformer as the primary. Note that each primary winding is
magnetically coupled to a secondary winding.
The magnetically coupled windings are drawn in parallel to each other:
Through the second transformer law, the phase-to-ground load current in the primary circuit is
reflected as a current in the A-C secondary winding. No other currents are required to flow in
the A-C or B-C windings on the generator side of the transformer in order to balance ampereturns.
On a wye-wye, a low-side ground fault causes primary ground fault current, making
coordination more difficult. Actually, ground fault protection is one of the primary advantages
of delta-wye units.
Applications
Commonly used in a step-up transformer
As for example, at the beginning of a HT transmission line. In this case neutral point is stable
and will not float in case of unbalanced loading. There is no distortion of flux because
existence of a -connection allows a path for the third-harmonic components.
The line voltage ratio is 3 times of transformer turn-ratio and the secondary voltage leads the
primary one by 30. In recent years, this arrangement has become very popular for distribution
system as it provides 3- , 4-wire system.
supply at 400 V, with the domestic voltage of 230 available between each phase and an
earthed neutral point.
Delta-Delta Connection
In this type of connection, both the three phase primary and secondary windings
areconnected in delta as shown in the Figure 1:
The voltages on primary and secondary sides can be shown on the phasor diagram (Figure
2):
This connection proves to be economical for large low voltage transformers as it increases
number of turns per phase.
Key points
1. Primary side Line Voltage = Secondary Side Line Voltage.
2. Primary side Phase Voltage= Secondary Side Phase Voltage.
3. No phase shift between primary and secondary voltages.
Application
1. Suitable for large, low voltage transformers.
2. This type of connection is normally uncommon but used in some industrial facilities to
reduce impact of SLG faults on the primary system.
3. It is generally used in systems where it need to be carry large currents on low voltages
and especially when continuity of service is to be maintained even though one of the
phases develops fault.
6.
7.
8. Current Transformers
9. Current transformer ratio selection and performance require special attention when
applyingtransformer protection. Unique factors associated with transformers,
including its winding ratios, magnetizing inrush current, and the presence of winding
taps or load tap changers, are sources of difficulties in engineering a dependable and
secure protection scheme for the transformer.
10. Errors resulting from CT saturation and load-tap-changers are particularly critical for
differential protection schemes where the currents from more than one set of CTs are
compared.
11. To compensate for the saturation=mismatch errors, overcurrent relays must be set to
operate above these errors.
12.
13.
CT Current Mismatch
14. Under normal, non-fault conditions, a transformer differential relay should ideally have
identical currents in the secondaries of all current transformers connected to the relay
so that no current would flow in its operating coil. It is difficult, however, to match
current transformer ratios exactly to the transformer winding ratios.
15. This task becomes impossible with the presence of transformer off-load and on-load
taps or load tap changers that change the voltage ratios of the transformer windings
depending on system voltage and transformer loading.
16. The highest secondary current mismatch between all current transformers connected in
the differential scheme must be calculated when selecting the relay operating setting. If
time delayed overcurrent protection is used, the time delay setting must also be based
on the same consideration.
17. The mismatch calculation should be performed for maximum load and throughfault conditions.
18.
19.
CT Saturation
20. CT saturation could have a negative impact on the ability of the transformer
protection to operate for internal faults (dependability) and not to operate for external
faults (security).
21. For internal faults, dependability of the harmonic restraint type relays could be
negatively affected if current harmonics generated in the CT secondary circuit due to
CT saturation are high enough to restrain the relay. With a saturated CT, 2nd and 3rd
harmonics predominate initially, but the even harmonics gradually disappear with the
decay of the DC component of the fault current. The relay may then operate eventually
when the restraining harmonic component is reduced.
22. These relays usually include an instantaneous overcurrent element that is not
restrained by harmonics, but is set very high (typically 20 times transformer rating).
This element may operate on severe internal faults.
23. For external faults, security of the differentially connected transformer protection may
be jeopardized if the current transformers unequal saturation is severe enough to
produce error current above the relay setting. Relays equipped with restraint windings
in each current transformer circuit would be more secure.
24. The security problem is particularly critical when the current transformers are
connected to bus breakers rather than the transformer itself. External faults in this
case could be of very high magnitude as they are not limited by the transformer
impedance.
25.
Initial
33.
Recovery Inrush
34. A magnetizing inrush current can also flow if a voltage dip is followed by recovery to
normal voltage.
35. Typically, this occurs upon removal of an external fault. The magnetizing inrush is
usually less severe in this case than in initial energization as the transformer was not
totally de-energized prior to voltage recovery.
36.
37.
Sympathetic Inrush
38. A magnetizing inrush current can flow in an energized transformer when a nearby
transformer is energized.
39. The offset inrush current of the bank being energized will find a parallel path in the
energized bank. Again, the magnitude is usually less than the case of initial inrush.
Both the recovery andsympathetic inrush phenomena suggest that restraining the
transformer protection on magnetizing inrush current is required at all times, not only
when switching the transformer in service after a period of de-energization.
40.
41.
Primary-Secondary Phase-Shift
42. For transformers with standard delta-wye connections, the currents on the delta and
wye sides will have a 30 phase shift relative to each other. Current transformers used
for traditional differential relays must be connected in wye-delta (opposite of the
transformer winding connections) to compensate for the transformer phase shift.
43. Phase correction is often internally provided in microprocessor transformer protection
relays via software virtual interposing CTs for each transformer winding and, as with
the ratio correction, will depend upon the selected configuration for the restrained
inputs.
44. This allows the primary current transformers to all be connected in wye.
45.
46.
Turn-to-Turn Faults
47. Fault currents resulting from a turn-to-turn fault have low magnitudes and are
hard to detect.
48. Typically, the fault will have to evolve and affect a good portion of the winding or arc
over to other parts of the transformer before being detected by overcurrent or
differential protection relays.
49. For early detection, reliance is usually made on devices that can measure the resulting
accumulation of gas or changes in pressure inside the transformer tank.
50.
51.
Through Faults
52. Through faults could have an impact on both the transformer and its protection
scheme. Depending on their severity, frequency, and duration, through fault currents
can cause mechanical transformer damage, even though the fault is somewhat limited
by the transformer impedance.
53. For transformer differential protection, current transformer mismatch and saturation
could produce operating currents on through faults. This must be taken into
consideration when selecting the scheme, current transformer ratio, relay sensitivity,
and operating time.
54. Differential protection schemes equipped with restraining windings offer better
security for these through faults.
55.
56.
Backup Protection
57. Backup protection, typically overcurrent or impedance relays applied to one or both
sides of the transformer, perform two functions. One function is to backup the primary
protection, most likely a differential relay, and operate in event of its failure to trip.
58. The second function is protection for thermal or mechanical damage to the transformer.
Protection that can detect these external faults and operate in time to prevent
transformer damage should be considered. The protection must be set to operate
before the through-fault withstand capability of the transformer is reached.
59. If, because of its large size or importance, only differential protection is applied to a
transformer, clearing of external faults before transformer damage can occur by other
protective devices must be ensured.
60. Resource: Power System Protection Arun Phadke, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Posted FEB 5 201 2 by EDV ARD in M AI NTENANCE , TRANSFORM ERS with 2 CO MM ENTS
63.
64. Transformer porcelain bushings spare parts (Pure porcelain structure, copper conductor, with low
temperature rise and good heat dissipation.)
65.
66. The two most common types of bushings used on transformers as main lead entrances
are solid porcelain bushings on smaller transformers and oil-filled condenser bushings
on larger transformers.
67.
68. Transformer with 420kV RIP bushings
69. Solid porcelain bushings consist of high-grade porcelain cylinders that conductors pass
through. Outside surfaces have a series of skirts to increase the leakage path distance
to the grounded metal case. High-voltage bushings are generally oil-filledcondenser
type. Condenser types have a central conductor wound with alternating layers of paper
insulation and tin foil and filled with insulating oil. This results in a path from the
conductor to the grounded tank, consisting of a series of condensers. The layers are
designed to provide approximately equal voltage drops between each condenser layer.
70. Acceptance and routine maintenance tests most often used for checking the condition
of bushings are Doble power factor tests. The power factor of a bushing in good
condition will remain relatively stable throughout the service life.
71. A good indication of insulation deterioration is a slowly rising power factor. The most
common cause of failure is moisture entrance through the top bushing seal.
72. This condition will be revealed before failure by routine Doble testing. If Doble testing is
not performed regularly, explosive failure is the eventual result of a leaking bushing.
73. This, many times, results in a catastrophic and expensive failure of the transformer
as well.
Posted DEC 28 2011 by EDVARD in ENERGY AND POWER , TRANSFO RM ERS with 6 CO MM ENTS
76.
77. Core-balance current transformers
78.
79. The core-balance current transformer (or CBCT) is normally of the ring type, through
the centre of which is passed cable that forms the primary winding. An earth fault
relay, connected to the secondary winding, is energised only when there is residual
current in the primary system.
80. The advantage in using this method of earth fault protection lies in the fact that only
one CT core is used in place of three phase CTs whose secondary windings are
residually connected. In this way the CT magnetising current at relay operation is
reduced by approximately three-to-one, an important consideration in sensitive earth
fault relays where a low effective setting is required. The number of secondary turns
does not need to be related to the cable rated current because no secondary current
would flow under normal balanced conditions.
81. This allows the number of secondary turns to be chosen such as to optimise the
effective primary pick-up current.
82. Core-balance transformers are normally mounted over a cable at a point close up to
the cable gland of switchgear or other apparatus. Physically split cores (slip-over
types) are normally available for applications in which the cables are already made up,
as on existing switchgear.
83. SOURCE: Network Protection & Automation Guide -Current and Voltage Transformers
Example
Decide Size of circuit breaker (overcurrent protection device) is required on the primary side
to protect a 75kva 440v-230v 3 transformer.
75kva x 1,000 = 75,000VA
75,000VA / (440V x 3) = 98.41 amps.
The current (amps) is more than 9 amps so use 125% rating.
123 amps x 1.25 = 112.76 amps
Use 125 amp 3-pole circuit breaker (the next highest fuse/fixed-trip circuit breaker size per
NEC 240.6). The overcurrent device on the primary side must be sized based on the
transformer KVA rating and not sized based on the secondary load to the transformer.
Top
Example
Decide size of circuit breaker (overcurrent protection device) is required on the secondary side
to protect a 75kva 440v-230v 3 transformer. We have Calculate the secondary overcurrent
protection based on the size of the transformer, not the total connected load.
75kva x 1,000 = 75,000va
75,000va / (230V x 3) = 188.27 amps. (Note: 230V 3 is calculated)
The current (amps) is more than 9 amps so use 125% rating.
188.27 amps x 1.25 = 235.34 amps
Many overcurrent devices, today, are used in circuits that are above their interrupting rating.
By using properly sized Current Limiting Fuses ahead of these devices, the current can usually
be limited to a value lower than the interrupting capacity of the overcurrent devices.
Top
VAMP transformer and feeder manager suitable for feeder and transformer applications where
The development of modern power systems has been reflected in the advances in
transformer design. This has resulted in a wide range of transformers with sizes ranging from a
few kVA to several hundred MVA being available for use in a wide variety of applications. The
considerations for a transformer protectionpackage vary with the application and importance
of the transformer. To reduce the effects of thermal stress and electrodynamic forces, it is
advisable to ensure that the protection package used minimises the time for disconnection in
the event of a fault occurring within the transformer.
Small distribution transformers can be protected satisfactorily, from both technical and
economic considerations, by the use of fuses or overcurrent relays.
This results in time-delayed protection due to downstream co-ordination requirements.
However, time-delayed fault clearance is unacceptable on larger power transformers used in
distribution, transmission and generator applications, due to system operation/stability and cost
of repair/length of outage considerations.
Transformer faults are generally classified into five categories:
1. Winding and terminal faults
2. Core faults
3. Tank and transformer accessory faults
4. Onload tap changer faults
5. Abnormal operating conditions
6. Sustained or uncleared external faults
For faults originating in the transformer itself, the approximate proportion of faults due to each
of the causes listed above is shown in Figure 1.
Winding Faults
A fault on a transformer winding is controlled in magnitude by the following factors:
1. Source impedance
2. Neutral earthing impedance
3. Transformer leakage reactance
4. Fault voltage
5. Winding connection
Reference: Network protection and automation guide
ASTM standards for transformer oil testing and complete analysis of a transformers oil
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) has developed the standards for oil
testing. The following tests we recommended for a complete analysis of a transformers oil:
Acids are formed as by-products of oxidation or sludging, and are usually present any time an
oil is contaminated.
The concentration of acid in an oil can be determined by the amount of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) needed to neutralize the acid in 1 g of oil. Although it is not a measure of the oils
electrical strength, it is an excellent indicator of the pressure of contaminants. It is especially
useful when its value is monitored over a number of sampling periods and trending data is
developed.
Top
rotated until a match is obtained. This test is most effective when results are compiled over a
series of test intervals, and trending data is developed.
Dielectric
breakdown
D-877
Oil
High Molecular
Wight
Hydrocarbon
Silicone
Tetrachloroethylen
e
0.03 MGKOH/GM
maximum
0.01 MGKOH/GM
maximum
0.25 MG-KOH/GM
maximum
Interfacial
Tension D971
or D-2285
33 Dynes/cm
minimim
N/A Maximum
0.05 D-2129
Visual
Clear bright
Condition D- pale straw
1524
N/A
Crystal clear
D-2129
Clear, Slightpink
Iridscent
0.1%
maximum
0.1%
maximum
2% maximum
Water
Content D1533
15kV and
below
35
PPM*maximu
m
80
PPM*maximu
m
25 PPM*maximum
Above 15kV 25
Below 115kV PPM*maximu
m
115kV
230kV
20
PPM*maximu
m
Above 230kV 15
PPM*maximu
m
35 Dynes/cm
minimim
35
PPM*maximu
m
* Or in accordance with manufacturers requirements. Some manufacturers recommend 15 PPM maximum for all
transformers.
Tension when winding the coils needs to be controlled to insure the conductors for either a disc or helical winding
can be braced for the radial forces during a fault event.
For secondary winding faults, the primary winding fault current is determined by the variable
transformation ratio; as the secondary fault current magnitude stays high throughout the
winding, the primary fault current is large for most points along the winding.
Delta-connected Winding
No part of a delta-connected winding operates with a voltage to earth of less than 50% of the
phase voltage. The range of fault current magnitude is therefore less than for a star winding.
The actual value of fault current will still depend on the method of system earthing; it should
also be remembered that the impedance of a delta winding is particularly high to fault currents
flowing to a centrally placed fault on one leg.
The impedance can be expected to be between 25% and 50%, based on the transformer
rating, regardless of the normal balanced through-current impedance.
As the prefault voltage to earth at this point is half the normal phase voltage, the earth fault
current may be no more than the rated current, or even less than this value if the source or
system earthing impedance is appreciable. The current will flow to the fault from each side
through the two half windings, and will be divided between two phases of the system.
The individual phase currents may therefore be relatively low, resulting in difficulties in
providing protection.
Interturn Faults
In low voltage transformers, interturn insulation breakdown is unlikely to occur unless the
mechanical force on the winding due to external short circuits has caused insulation
degradation, or insulating oil (if used) has become contaminated by moisture.
A high voltage transformer connected to an overhead transmission system will be subjected to
steep fronted impulse voltages, arising from lightning strikes, faults and switching operations. A
line surge, which may be of several times the rated system voltage, will concentrate on the end
turns of the winding because of the high equivalent frequency of the surge front. Part-winding
resonance, involving voltages up to 20 times rated voltage may occur.
The interturn insulation of the end turns is reinforced, but cannot be increased in proportion to
the insulation to earth, which is relatively great. Partial winding flashover is therefore more
likely. The subsequent progress of the fault, if not detected in the earliest stage, may well
destroy the evidence of the true cause.
A short circuit of a few turns of the winding will give rise to a heavy fault current in the shortcircuited loop, but the terminal currents will be very small, because of the high ratio of
transformation between the whole winding and the short-circuited turns.
The graph in Figure 3 shows the corresponding data for a typical transformer of 3.25%
impedance with the short-circuited turns symmetrically located in the centre of the winding.
Core Faults
A conducting bridge across the laminated structures of the core can permit sufficient eddycurrent to flow to cause serious overheating. The bolts that clamp the core together are always
insulated to avoid this trouble. If any portion of the core insulation becomes defective, the
resultant heating may reach a magnitude sufficient to damage the winding.
The additional core loss, although causing severe local heating, will not produce a noticeable
change in input current and could not be detected by the normal electrical protection; it is
nevertheless highly desirable that the condition should be detected before a major fault has
been created.
In an oil-immersed transformer, core heating sufficient to cause winding insulation damage will
also cause breakdown of some of the oil with an accompanying evolution of gas. This gas will
escape to the conservator, and is used to operate a mechanical relay.
Tank Faults
Loss of oil through tank leaks will ultimately produce a dangerous condition, either because of
a reduction in winding insulation or because of overheating on load due to the loss of cooling.
Overheating may also occur due to prolonged overloading, blocked cooling ducts due to oil
sludging or failure of the forced cooling system, if fitted.
Substation transformers can range from the size of a garbage can to the size of a small
house; they can be equipped with a wide array of gauges, bushings, and other types of
auxiliary equipment. The basic operating concepts, however, are common to all transformers.
An understanding of these basic concepts, along with the application of common sense
maintenance practices that apply to other technical fields, will provide the basis for a
comprehensive program of inspections, maintenance, and testing. These activities will increase
the transformerss service life and help to make the transformers operation both safe and
trouble-free.
Heat and contamination are the two greatest enemies to the transformers operation. Heat will
break down the solid insulation and accelerate the chemical reactions that take place when the
oil is contaminated. All transformers require a cooling method and it is important to ensure that
the transformer has proper cooling.
Proper cooling usually involves cleaning the cooling surfaces, maximizing ventilation, and
monitoring loads to ensure the transformer is not producing excess heat.
Contamination
Contamination is detrimental to the transformer, both inside and out. The importance of basic
cleanliness and general housekeeping becomes evident when longterm service life is
considered. Dirt build up and grease deposits severely limit the cooling abilities of radiators
and tank surfaces. Terminal and insulation surfaces are especially susceptible to dirt and
grease build up. Such buildup will usually affect test results.
The transformers general condition should be noted during any activity, and every effort
should be made to maintain its integrity during all operations.
Transformer Oil
The oil in the transformer should be kept as pure as possible. Dirt and moisture will start
chemical reactions in the oil that lower both its electrical strength and its cooling capability.
Contamination should be the primary concern any time the transformer must be opened. Most
transformer oil is contaminated to some degree before it leaves the refinery.
It is important to determine how contaminated the oil is and how fast it is degenerating.
Determining the degree of contamination is accomplished by sampling and analyzing the oil on
a regular basis.
Service Life
Although maintenance and work practices are designed to extend the transformers life, it is
inevitable that the transformer will eventually deteriorate to the point that it fails or must be
replaced. Transformer testing allows this aging process to be quantified and tracked, to help
predict replacement intervals and avoid failures.
Historical test data is valuable for determining damage to the transformer after a fault or failure
has occurred elsewhere in the circuit. By comparing test data taken after the fault to previous
test data, damage to the transformer can be determined.
Introduction
Three phase transformer consists of three sets of primary windings, one for each phase, and
three sets of secondary windings wound on the same iron core.
Separate single-phase transformers can be used and externally interconnected to yield the
same results as a 3-phase unit.
The primary windings are connected in one of several ways. The two most common
configurations are the delta, in which the polarity end of one winding is connected to the nonpolarity end of the next, and the star, in which all three non-polarities (or polarity) ends are
connected together. The secondary windings are connected similarly. This means that a 3phase transformer can have its primary and secondary windings connected the same (deltadelta or star-star), or differently (delta-star or star-delta).
Its important to remember that the secondary voltage waveforms are in phase with the primary
waveforms when the primary and secondary windings are connected the same way. This
condition is called no phase shift.
But when the primary and secondary windings are connected differently, the secondary voltage
waveforms will differ from the corresponding primary voltage waveforms by 30 electrical
degrees. This is called a 30 degree phase shift. When two transformers are connected in
parallel, their phase shifts must be identical; if not, a short circuit will occur when the
transformers are energized.
Polarity
An AC voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked
by a magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which way
round the coils are connected. The voltages will either be in-phase or displaced by 180 deg.
When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil
voltages can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in
the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or
not.
When Pair of Coil of Transformer have same direction than voltage induced in both coil are in
same direction from one end to other end. When two coil have opposite winding direction than
Voltage induced in both coil are in opposite direction.
Example Dyn11
Transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D) a star connected secondary (y) with
the star point brought out (n) and a phase shift of 30 deg leading (11).
The point of confusion is occurring in notation in a step-up transformer. As the IEC600761standard has stated, the notation is HV-LV in sequence. For example, a step-up transformer
with a delta-connected primary, and star-connected secondary, is not written as dY11, but
Yd11. The 11 indicates the LV winding leads the HV by 30 degrees.
Transformers built to ANSI standards usually do not have the vector group shown on their
nameplate and instead a vector diagram is given to show the relationship between the primary
and other windings.
Use the hour indicator as the indicating phase displacement angle. Because there are 12 hours
on a clock, and a circle consists out of 360, each hour represents 30.Thus 1 = 30, 2 = 60, 3
= 90, 6 = 180 and 12 = 0 or 360.
The minute hand is set on 12 oclock and replaces the line to neutral voltage (sometimes
imaginary) of the HV winding. This position is always the reference point.
Example
Connection
Yy0
Dd0
Dz0
30 lag
Yd1
Dy1
Yz1
60 lag
Dd2
Dz2
120 lag
Dd4
Dz4
150 lag
Yd5
Dy5
Yz5
180 lag
Yy6
Dd6
Dz6
150 lead
Yd7
Dy7
Yz7
Dd8
Dz8
120 lead
60 lead
30 lead
Dd10
Yd11
Dy11
Dz10
Yz11
The phase-bushings on a three phase transformer are marked either ABC, UVW or 123 (HVside capital, LV-side small letters). Two winding, three phase transformers can be divided into
four main categories
Oclock
TC
Group I
0 oclock, 0
delta/delta, star/star
Group II
6 oclock, 180
delta/delta, star/star
Group III
1 oclock, -30
star/delta, delta/star
Group IV
11 oclock, +30
star/delta, delta/star
Group
Basic concept
There are essentially four types of faults: three-phase, single line-to-ground, double line-toground, and line-to-line.
Each of these types of faults can result in different magnitudes of fault current.
In all types, however, there is a common element: an abnormally low-impedance path or
shorted path for current to flow, hence the name short circuit current. Such a condition can
lead to extremely high currents.
By Ohms Law, voltage equals current times impedance (resistance). Therefore, when the
impedance becomes very low and the voltage does not change, the current becomes very
high. Large electrical currents produce a lot of heat transfer, which increases the temperature
of cables, transformers, etc.
The increase in temperature can cause insulation damage. These currents also produce
high magnetic forces, which can actually bend buses in switchgear.
High fault currents cause magnetic forces that are proportional to the square of the fault
current.
e(t) = L di + Ri(t)
This is a differential equation with constant coefficients, of which the solution is in two
parts:
Where:
the closing angle which defines the point on the source sinusoidal voltage when the fault
occurs
= tan-1(L/R) or = tan-1(X/R)
The second term in the equation for fault current is recognized as the DC component of the
current, and has an initial maximum value when:
- = / 2, and zero value when = .
Notes:
Here we introduce the concept of X/R ratio. We can very well see that since L = XL or
simply X hence DC component of fault current to large extent depends upon = tan1
(X/R) or simply X/R ratio.
The X/R ratio is important because it determines the peak asymmetrical fault current.
In X/R ratio when X equals zero, there is only symmetrical current with no DC
component. With R equals zero, the DC component would never decay. One can say
there will always be both resistance and reactive components in the system.
The resistance and reactance of a circuit establishes a power factor.
The power factor (p.f.) is given by the following equation: p.f. = cos(tan-1(X/R))this
equation means that the power factor and X/R ratio are related.
Therefore, system power factor and system X/R ratio are different ways of saying
the same thing. Please note that as power factor decreases, the X/R ratio increases.
It is impossible to predict a that is at what point the fault will be applied or take place on the
sinusoidal cycle and therefore it is not possible to determine exactly what magnitude the DC
component will reach.
the sine wave causes the current to reach a much larger value than that of the sine wave
alone.
The waveform that equals the sum of the sine wave and the decaying exponential is called
theasymmetrical current because the waveform does not have symmetry above and below
the time axis.
The sine wave alone is called the symmetrical current because it does have symmetry above
and below the time axis.
Hence we can define asymmetrical fault current in the following way: If, in a circuit containing
only reactance, the short circuit occurs at any point at the peak of the voltage wave, there will
be some offset of the current.
The amount of offset depends upon the point on the voltage wave at which the short circuit
occurs.
This is known as asymmetrical short circuit current. Maximum asymmetry occurs when
short circuit takes place when voltage is zero.
Asymmetrical fault remains only for few cycles after which it becomes symmetrical fault.
Decay of asymmetrical component depends on the value of X/R. More the value of R, faster is
the decay of asymmetrical fault current.
Magnitude of asymmetrical fault current is more than that of symmetrical fault current.
If the short circuit current does not include DC component it is called symmetrical short
circuit current. If the short circuit current contains DC component it is called as asymmetrical
component.
Figure above represents the short circuit current with and without DC component.
An Overview Of Short Circuit Current - Part 2 (on photo Main Switchboard by jayreynoldsisreal @Flickr)
Continued from previous technical article: An Overview Of Short Circuit Current (part 1)
Reactance
Sub transient reactance Xd is the apparent reactance of the stator winding at the instant
short circuit occurs, and it determines the current flow during the first few cycles of a short
circuit.
Transient reactance Xd is the apparent initial reactance of the stator winding, if the effect of all
amortisseur windings is ignored and only the field winding considered. This reactance
determines the current following the period when subtransient reactance is the controlling
value.
Transient reactance is effective up to 1/2 sec. i.e. 30 cycles or longer, depending upon the
design of the machine.
Synchronous reactance Xd is the apparent reactance that determines the current flow when a
steady state condition is reached.
It is not effective until several seconds after the short circuit occurs, consequently it has no
value in short circuit calculations for the application of circuit breakers, fuses and contactors
selection but is useful for relay setting studies.
Below figure gives simplified representation of Asymmetrical and symmetrical fault
current as well as different reactance:
During first few cycles reactance of system/synchronous machine is least and short circuit
current is highest. This stage is called subtransient reactance. This reactance is denoted
by X. After first few cycles decrement in RMS value of short circuit current is less. This state is
called transient reactance and is denoted byX.
Finally transient dies out and current reaches the steady sinusoidal state. Reactance in this
state is called steady state reactance and is denoted by Xd.
Here we can introduce the concept of short circuit making and breaking current. During the first
few cycles of fault current the reactance is least and magnitude of short circuit current is
highest. Current increases to maximum value at the peak of first current loop.
All switching device are subjected to high electro-magnetic forces. To ensure that
switching device like circuit breakers withstand safely this high magnitude of short circuit
current, switching device is tested for short circuit making current. Hence we can also define
theshort circuit making current as peak value of first current loop of short circuit current.
Short circuit making current
= Peak value of steady state SC current + doubling effect caused by first peak containing
DC component
= 1.8 x peak value of steady state short circuit current (considering doubling effect)
= 1.8 x 2 x RMS value of steady state short circuit current
= 2.5 x RMS value of steady state short circuit current
Since RMS value of steady state short circuit current is called breaking current so short circuit
making current can be written as:
Above expression for calculating the making current is also given by Indian standard 10118,
part-2 for selection, installation and maintenance of switchgear and controlgear.
However as per Indian standard 8623-part-1 for low voltage switchgear and controlgear
assembly:
Relationship between peak and RMS. values of short-circuit current The value of peak shortcircuit current (peak value of the first loop of the short-circuit current including DC. component)
for determining the electrodynamic stresses shall be obtained by multiplying the RMS. value
of the short-circuit current by the factor n.
Standard values for the factor n and the corresponding power factor are given in below table:
I 5 kA
0.7
1.5
5kA <I 10 kA
0.5
1.7
10kA <I 20 kA
0.3
20kA <I 50 kA
0.25
2.1
50kA <I
0.2
2.2
One can observe the difference in selection of multiplying factor n in case of two different IS.
As per IS 10118 part-2 multiplying factor should be 2.5 and as per 8623 part-1 multiplying
factor should be n times and n should be selected as per above table.
Since IS 8623 latest edition is 1998 and IS 10118 has been published before 8623 hence
generalized value of n in IS 10118 must have been elaborated in IS 8623. Also note the fact
that IS 10118 considers the doubling effect as 1.8 times which may vary depending upon
amount of DC component which in turn depends upon the X/R ratio.
Exact and accurate knowledge of system X/R ratio is difficult to obtain, only power system
engineers who are exclusively involved in system studies can throw some light on it. Hence
different values of multiplying factor at different power factor (in other words X/R) in IS 8623 is
more reliable and is used by all switchgear manufacturers.
All the switchgears are type tested as per IS 8623 part-1 Readers are advised to refer the
equivalent IEC 439 part-1 for technical comparison and analysis of multiplying factor n.
Electrical loads are either static (such as lighting) or dynamic loads (like motors). Dynamic
loads have residual voltage and voltage of fault point is zero (if it is ground fault) or very less
than line voltage hence current starts flowing from dynamic loads to fault points.
During a short circuit condition the system voltage will decay. A stable voltage supply no
longer exists. The rotating magnetic field in the rotor will attempt to support the reduced
voltage condition by becoming a power source. The motor is now providing additional current
into the faulted electrical system.
This phenomenon is called motor contribution.
The amount of current is dependent on the motor impedance. At first there is an asymmetrical
current containing both AC and DC components.
Lack of a stable voltage supply causes the AC component to decay when the rotor flux begins
to drop. Without a stable voltage supply, the transient DC component also decays. Induction
motor contribution typically lasts from one to four cycles from time equal zero during a short
circuit condition.
However, synchronous motors short circuit contribution can last from six to eight cycles. The
main difference is the induction motor does not have an excitation capability of a synchronous
motor; therefore, it cannot maintain voltage for the same amount of time.
In either case the motor contribution is present during the first cycle.
There are three basic sources of short circuit current:
1. Generators
2. Synchronous motors and synchronous condensers
3. Induction motor
Due to residual flux in the rotor of the induction motor, it contributes fault current for 1-4
cycles. Normally, induction motor current contribution is considered for fault calculations.
ANSI standard C37.010 [1] offers guidance when calculating motor contribution for a group of
low voltage motors if detail motor data are not available. Assuming a motor contribution of four
times rated full load current is acceptable. The standard arrived at this value by assuming the
motor contribution of 3.6 times rated current came from 75% induction motors and 4.8 times
rated current from 25% synchronous motors.
A circuit element where voltage is induced by changing current in it is inductor and property is
called inductive property. As per Lenz Law rate of change of current is positive and induced
voltage is negative.
Thus inductance acts in negative direction around the circuit to oppose change in current and
hence can also limit the short circuit current.
There are three basic limiters of short circuit current:
1. Transformer impedance
2. Cable impedance
3. Series reactor impedance (if any)
Continued from previous technical article: An Overview Of Short Circuit Current (part 2)
Calculation basis
1/ The busbar and switchgear of Marshalling kiosk is sized for short time rating as per
contribution from MV source through LT transformer.
3/ For circuits connected by transformer same base kVA is selected for both the circuits (HV
and LV) because power remains constant throughout so same base kVA should be considered
throughout.
4/ As a rule only two bases should be selected first and from these two the remaining bases
should be calculated. This is so because kV, kVA, I and Z are interrelated. They must obey
ohms law. If we select base kVA and base kV than other base like base I and base Z are
calculated from base kV and base kVA.
Vice-versa will be inconvenient that is selecting base I and Z and calculating other bases like
kV and kVA will make calculation difficult.
= 0.63 MVA
= 11/0.433 kV
3. Frequency
= 50Hz
4. Transformer Impedance
= 5% = 0.05 PU
= 3 x 40 x 11 = 762 MVA
Calculation
Actual Fault Current available at AC distribution board
Base MVA
= 0.63
Base kV
= 11
Base Current in kA
= 192.1
= 0.0008
= 0.05
= 0.0508
Base kVA = same as above, since this parameter remains constant throughout the circuit
Base kV = 0.415V Base kV at LV circuit
Distance in meters of transformer from ACDB = 20
Distance in meters of BMK from ACDB = 50
Size of connecting cable in Sq mm from transformer to ACDB = 3.5C x 300 Sq mm Al, XLPE
Resistance in Ohms/kM of connecting cable from transformer to BMK = 0.128
Total resistance over route length = 200.128 /1000 = 0.003
PU resistance = Actual Resistance x Base kVA/ (BasekV2 x 1000)
= 0.003 x 0.63 x 1000 / (0.415 x 0.415 x 1000) = 0.009
Reactance in Ohms/kM of connecting cable from transformer to BMK = 0.0705
Total reactance over route length = 0.070520 /1000 = 0.001
PU reactance = Actual Reactance x Base kVA/(Base kV 2x 1000)
= 0.001 x 0.63 x 1000 / (0.415 x 0.415 x 1000) = 0.0052
PU impedance of cable from LT transformer to ACDB
= ((PU resistance)2+(PU reactance)2)= (0.0092+ 0.07052) = 0.011
Si. No
Equipment
CURRENT RATING
CALCULATED SHORT
TERM CURRENT
RATING IN kA
OPTIMUM SELECTION
OF SHORT TIME
CURRENT RATING IN kA
RMS
Assymmetrical
RMS
Assymmetrical
Symmetrical peak value = Symmetrical peak value =
nxRMS
nxRMS
Symmetrical
Symmetrical
1
Main LT board
17.24
34.5 (n=2)
35
73.5 (n=2.1)
Marshalling kiosk
4.75
7.1 (n=1.5)
10
17 (n= 1.7)
REFERENCES:
1. Indian Standard 8623, part-1-SPECIFICATION FOR LOW-VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
AND CONTROLGEAR ASSEMBLIES
2. Indian Standard 10118, part-2-CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE SELECTION,
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SWITCHGEAR AND CONTROLGEAR
3. The Importance of the X/R Ratio in Low-Voltage Short Circuit Studies- Research paper
DATE: November 17, 1999 REVISION: 0 by AUTHOR: John Merrell
4. Short-circuit-current Calculating Procedures by Donald Beeman, Alan Graeme Darling,
and R. H. Kaufmann
5. Industrial Power Engineering and Applications Handbook by K.C. Agrawal