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ECO2013 ‐ Spring 2010
Elasticity
Introduction
Everyone understands the concept of elasticity, even if they’ve never heard of
it. To see why, consider the following example:
Suppose you currently pay $2.50 for a gallon of gasoline, and some event
causes the price to increase by 25% (this event could be a trade war, new
environmental regulations, etc.). At the new price of $3.13, chances are you’ll be
frustrated, but that you’ll still go on using about the same amount of gasoline as
before.
Now suppose you also like to occasionally eat out at Panera, which costs you
$8.50. If the price of a meal were to increase by 25%, it would now cost $10.63.
Presumably, you will choose to eat less at Panera, and more at other restaurants,
where you can still eat for under $10.
Why does the amount of each good that you consume respond differently to
the same 25% increase in price? It’s because the elasticities of the two goods are
different. Elasticity measures consumer responsiveness to changes in price. In our
example, the demand for gasoline wasn’t very responsive to a 25% change in price,
while the demand for the Panera meal was. In this case, we’d say that the demand
for Panera was more elastic than the demand for gasoline, at these prices.
Now that we have a general idea of what elasticity measures, let’s explain
why it is useful as a tool of comparison. First, let’s look at two short‐run demand
curves for gasoline. The first will be for a household that has a single car, and the
second will be for a household that has a Hummer as well as a Prius. Suppose, as in
our example, the price of gas increases from $2.50 to $3.13. Household 1 won’t
reduce its consumption of gasoline that much, since it only drives a single car.
Household 2, however, will most likely stop driving the Hummer as much, and
instead may choose to carpool with the fuel‐efficient Prius. Their consumption of
gasoline will decrease significantly.
So, Household 2’s demand for gas is more elastic than Household 1’s. Note
that it’s entirely possible that Household 2 is consuming more gasoline overall – all
that’s important when measuring elasticity is the change in quantity demanded.
The figures below show the demand curves for gasoline in both households.
GT Concept Note ®
ECO2013 ‐ Spring 2010
Notice that the magnitude of the slope of Household 1’s demand curve is larger than
that of Household 2’s demand (i.e. the demand curve for gas in Household 1 is
“steeper” than in Household 2). This should make sense, since the change in
quantity is much larger in Household 2 than in Household 1, for the same increase in
price. Thus, Household 2’s demand is both flatter and more elastic, at any given
prices.
Now, it may be tempting to think that whenever we see two separate demand
curves, we can conclude that the flatter of the two is always more elastic. In fact, we
cannot always say this. To see why, consider the demand for gasoline and for
Panera:
The demand curve for Panera may “look” flatter, but since the units along the
horizontal axis are different (quantity of gas vs. quantity of Panera meals), we can’t
really compare their slopes mathematically.
Intuitively, we think that the demand curve for gasoline should be steeper,
though, because of the reasons given in the first example. To reconcile our intuition
with the math, we need to get rid of the units. This is exactly what elasticity does.
Elasticity of Demand
The formal definition of elasticity of demand actually produces a numerical
value that allows us to easily compare the elasticities of multiple goods. There are
two ways we can calculate elasticity: at a single point along the demand curve, or
over an interval.
GT Concept Note ®
ECO2013 ‐ Spring 2010
Point Elasticity
The formula for point elasticity of demand is
1 P
ε=
slope Q D
D
Interval Elasticity
The second way to calculate elasticity is over some interval of the demand
curve, before and after a price change. To do this, we need to look at the changes in
quantity and price on a percentage basis.
The formula for interval elasticity is
%ΔQ D
ε= (1)
%ΔP
where the ε is elasticity of demand, %ΔQD is the percentage change in quantity
demanded, and %ΔP is the percentage change in price.
To find the percentage change in quantity demanded and price, use the following
formulae:
GT Concept Note ®
ECO2013 ‐ Spring 2010
D
Q new − Q old
D
Pnew − Pold
%ΔQ = D
%ΔP =
QD P
The numerators are simply the changes in each variable (the change in units, the
change in price); for the denominator, however, we have to pick one of the two
quantities and one of the two prices. There is no perfect answer to which one we
choose, as different choices will give slightly different results. For consistency, we
will be using the smaller of the old and new values for the denominator of each
fraction.
If we let the Greek letter delta (Δ) stand for “change in”, we can rewrite these
formulae as
ΔQ D ΔP
%ΔQ D = D
%ΔP =
Q smallest Psmallest
The formula for interval elasticity then becomes
ΔQ D
D
Q smallest ΔQ D Psmallest
ε= =
ΔP ΔP Q smallest
D
Psmallest
Example: Interval Elasticity
Using the same numbers as in the last example, calculate the elasticity over the
interval from $2.50 to $3.13.
Solution:
The points were (15, 2.50) and (13, 3.13). So, we can
find the changes in quantity and price:
ΔQ D = 13 − 15 = −2
ΔP = 3.13 − 2.50 = .63
The smaller quantity is 13, and the smaller price is
2.50. Thus, the interval elasticity is
ΔQ D Psmallest ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 2.50 ⎞
ε= =⎜ ⎟⎜ ≈ −.61
ΔP Q smallest
D
⎝ .63 ⎠ ⎝ 13 ⎟⎠
Classifying Elasticity
By working with numerical values for elasticities, we can assign precise
ranges for a good to be considered either inelastic, unitarily elastic, or elastic. We
know by the Law of Demand that the two values in the formula for elasticity will be
opposite: either price increases and quantity demanded, or price decreases and
GT Concept Note ®
ECO2013 ‐ Spring 2010
quantity demanded increases. In either case, the elasticity of demand will always be
negative.
By convention, we define the ranges in terms of positive values of elasticity;
so, we use the absolute value of the elasticity, in order to compare positive numbers.
The ranges are as follows:
• If ε < 1 , then demand is inelastic
• If ε = 1 , then demand is unitarily elastic
Substitutes
The observant reader may have noticed another important point from the
first example – namely, the relationship between the number of substitutes a good
has and its elasticity. A consumer that drives a gasoline‐powered automobile has no
alternate way to fuel his car. So, if the price of gas rises and he wants to use his car,
he has few alternatives but to buy the more expensive gas.
This is not true for the consumer who purchases a meal at Panera. If the price
rises too much, there are plenty of other restaurants he can choose from. So, if a
meal at Panera becomes too expensive, he is more than capable of no longer eating
there altogether. It is clear that a good that has many substitutes tends to be elastic,
while a good that has few substitutes tends to be inelastic.
Elasticity of Supply
Until now, we have been talking about the demand side of elasticity; that is,
how much quantity demanded changed with a change in price. We also saw that as
long as the units were the same, the more elastic demand was, the flatter the
demand curve became.
It is also of use to examine elasticity from the supply side of the market. The
concept is perfectly symmetric: we now concern ourselves with how much quantity
supplied changes with a change in price.
The formula for point elasticity of supply is
1 P
η=
slope Q S
S
Application of Elasticity to Supply and Demand Analysis
There are many applications that involve
elasticity of demand and supply, but one general result
is that elasticity allows us to predict whether changes
in price and quantity will be large or small.
As a quick illustration, let’s look at the market
for oil. Both demand and supply are inelastic (demand
because of the lack of substitutes, supply because of
the relatively fixed amount of oil that can be
processed). Now suppose that some event causes a
shock to the supply of oil, shifting the supply curve left.
What will be the effect? We can see that it
doesn’t take much of a shift in supply to drastically
increase the price. This is a result of both inelastic
supply and inelastic demand: price varies a lot.
Conversely, in the market for new cars, both
demand and supply are elastic (there are many
substitutes on both the demand side and the supply
GT Concept Note ®
ECO2013 ‐ Spring 2010
side). If the demand for new cars decreases and shifts to the left, we would observe
a small decrease in the price of new cars. So, if both demand and supply are elastic,
price varies less.
Perfect Elasticity
One final concept that will wrap up our discussion on elasticity of demand
and supply is the notion of demand being perfectly elastic or perfectly inelastic.
Rather than being used as a realistic approximation, perfect elasticity or perfect
inelasticity is more of a convenient conceptual framework that allows us to
approximate the effects of a price change in a market where there are an infinite
amount of substitutes (perfect competition) and one where there are no substitutes.
Let’s first look at perfectly elastic demand. Recall that demand became more
and more elastic as more substitutes were available for that good. A classic example
of a good that exhibits perfectly elastic tendencies is wheat. Wheat is bought and
sold all over the world; thus, for a single wheat farmer, all the wheat that is being
produced globally acts as a substitute.
This means that consumers are extremely
sensitive to changes in price from this single
farmer, since any increase in his price would lead
them to buy from any one of the myriad farmers
available. His demand curve (or any demand curve
for wheat from a single farmer) resembles perfectly
elastic demand, and looks like the graph shown to
the right.
Notice that a perfectly elastic demand curve
has a slope of zero; this is consistent with our
earlier statement that demand curves flatten out as they become more elastic. The
elasticity of this demand curve is infinity.
It is clear that for any transactions to occur in a market with perfectly elastic
demand, they must occur at the price dictated by the demand curve. In the above
graph, the “world price” of wheat would be $2.00, and any farmer that deviated at all
from that price would lose all of his customers. This is the hallmark of a perfectly
competitive market.
A perfectly inelastic market is one in which the quantity demanded never
changes, regardless of changes in price. An example of a perfectly inelastic good
would be a drug that cures cancer. Roughly speaking, no matter what price a
supplier charged for the drug, demand wouldn’t
change; this is because there is no substitute to a
cure for somebody that has cancer. The demand
curve would look like the graph to the left.
The quantity transacted in the market, then,
is completely up to the consumers. Firms are unable
to affect the equilibrium quantity by changing price.
GT Concept Note ®
ECO2013 ‐ Spring 2010
Notice that the slope of a perfectly inelastic demand curve is infinity (or undefined),
and the elasticity is zero.