KESAVARAO A/L ANANTHARAVOO (16DEM14F1013) DEM 2A

History of semiconducting systems

History of semiconducting systems around 1898, Karl Ferdinand Braun invented a

type of diode during the development of the radio. He used the rectifying properties of galena
crystal (lead sulphide). In 1909, Braun shared the Nobel Prize in physics with Guglielmo
Marconi for the development of wireless telegraphy. Later, semiconductors found
applications in transistors. A transistor is a solid-state electronic device that controls the flow
of electric current. Until World War II, most systems used vacuum tubes for the amplification
and control of electric current. Those vacuum tubes were bulky and fragile, consumed much
power, and tended to overheat. The demands of radar, in particular during World War II,
encouraged scientists to look for another method of amplifying and controlling electric
current in communication devices.

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Properties and Characteristics Of Semiconductors

a.) N-type and P-type semiconductors

The addition of pentavalent impurities such as antimony, arsenic or phosphorous

contributes free electrons, greatly increasing the conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor.
Phosphorous may be added by diffusion of phosphine gas (PH3).

The addition of trivalent impurities such as boron, aluminum or gallium to an intrinsic

semiconductor creates deficiencies of valence electrons,called "holes". It is typical to use
B2H6 diborane gas to diffuse boron into the silicon material.

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b.) P-N Junction

Perhaps the most important current use of n-type semiconductors is in p-n junctions.
These are p-type and n-type semiconductors brought together in close contact, creating what
is called the depletion region. The importance of this contact or junction is the creating of a
region between the p and n layers where p-type holes can recombine with n-type free
electrons producing light, such as in light emitting diodes (LEDs). P-n junctions form the
basis of how a lot of current technology works by creating diodes. In a diode, current can
flow easily in one direction but not the other, which is a basis for digital electronics.

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c.) Depletion Region

In semiconductor physics, the depletion region, also called depletion

layer, depletion zone, junction region, space charge region or space charge layer, is an
insulating region within a conductive, doped semiconductor material where the mobile charge
carriers have diffused away, or have been forced away by an electric field. The only elements
left in the depletion region are ionized donor or acceptor impurities.

The depletion region is so named because it is formed from a conducting region by removal
of all free charge carriers, leaving none to carry a current. Understanding the depletion region
is key to explaining modern semiconductor electronics: diodes, bipolar junction
transistors, field-effect transistors, and variable capacitance diodes all rely on depletion
region phenomena.

The following discussion is limited to the pn junction and the MOS capacitor, but depletion
regions arise in all the devices mentioned above.

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d.) Threshold Voltage

The threshold voltage, commonly abbreviated as Vth or VGS (th), of a field-effect

transistor (FET) is the minimum gate-to-source voltage differential that is needed to create a
conducting path between the source and drain terminals.

At gate-to-source voltages above the threshold voltage (VGS > Vth) but still below saturation
(less than "fully on", (VGS Vth) > VDS), the transistor is in its 'linear region', also known as
ohmic mode, where it behaves like a voltage-controlled variable resistor.

When referring to a junction field-effect transistor (JFET), the threshold voltage is often
called "pinch-off voltage" instead. This is somewhat confusing since "pinch off" applied
to insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET) refers to the channel pinching that leads to
current saturation behaviour under high sourcedrain bias, even though the current is never
off. Unlike "pinch off", the term "threshold voltage" is unambiguous and refers to the same
concept in any field-effect transistor.

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e.) Forward and Reversed Biased Voltage

The forward voltage is the voltage drop across the diode if the voltage at the anode is
more positive than the voltage at the cathode (if you connect + to the anode).You will be
using this value to calculate the power dissipation of the diode and the voltage after the diode.

The reverse voltage is the voltage drop across the diode if the voltage at the cathode is more
positive than the voltage at the anode (if you connect + to the cathode).This is usually much
higher than the forward voltage. As with forward voltage, a current will flow if the connected
voltage exceeds this value. This is called a "breakdown". Common diodes are usually
destroyed but with Z and Zener diodes this effect is used deliberately.

Forward-bias is when the anode (the pointy part of the symbol) is positive and the cathode
(the bar) is negative. Reverse-bias is when the anode is negative and the cathode is positive.
A lot of current flows when the diode is forward-biased provided that the voltage is higher
than 0.6V or so for a silicon diode or 0.3V or so for a germanium device. A very small
amount of current flows if a diode is reverse-biased.

If you have a DVM and some diodes, you can check it for yourself. Diode cathode leads are
usually identified with a band, so if you switch the DVM to a low resistance setting, and
connect the leads across the diode in both directions, you should see a low resistance in one
direction and a high resistance in the other direction, provided that the DVM is supplying a
high enough voltage. Some DVMs have a special diode test setting that is easier to use. LEDs
usually have a flat against the cathode lead.

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f.) Leakage Current

Leakage current is the current that flows through the protective ground conductor to
ground. In the absence of a grounding connection, it is the current that could flow from any
conductive part or the surface of non-conductive parts to ground if a conductive path was
available (such as a human body). There are always extraneous currents flowing in the safety
ground conductor.

In any electrical installation, some current will flow through the protective ground conductor
to ground. This is usually called leakage current. Leakage current most commonly flows in
the insulation surrounding conductors and in the filters protecting electronic equipment
around the home or office. So what's the problem? On circuits protected by GFCIs (Ground
Fault Current Interrupters), leakage current can cause unnecessary and intermittent tripping.
In extreme cases, it can cause a rise in voltage on accessible conductive parts.
The causes of leakage current
Insulation has both electrical resistance and capacitance and it conducts current
through both paths. Given the high resistance of insulation, very little current should actually
leak. But -- if the insulation is old or damaged, the resistance is lower and substantial current
may flow. Additionally, longer conductors have a higher capacitance, causing more leakage
current. That's why GFCI breaker manufacturers recommend one-way feeder length be
limited to 250 feet, maximum.
Electronic equipment, meanwhile, contains filters designed to protect against voltage surges
and other disruptions. These filters typically have capacitors on the input, which adds to the
overall capacitance of the wiring system and the overall level of leakage current.

Measurement of Leakage Current to Ground

When the load is connected (switched on), the leakage current measured includes
leakage in load equipment. If the leakage is acceptably low with the load connected, then
circuit wiring leakage is even lower. If circuit wiring leakage alone is required, disconnect
(switch off) the load.

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Test single-phase circuits by clamping the phase and neutral conductor. The measured value
will be any current flowing to ground.

Test three-phase circuits by clamping around all three-phase conductors. If a neutral is

present, it should be clamped along with the phase conductors. The measured value will be
any current flowing to ground.

Measuring leakage current through the ground conductor

To measure the total leakage flowing to the intended ground connection, place the clamp
around the ground conductor.

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Measuring leakage current to ground via unintentional paths to ground.

Clamping phase/neutral/ground together identifies imbalance current that represents
leakage at an outlet or electrical panel via unintentional paths to ground (such as the panel
sitting on a concrete base). If other electrical bonding connections exist (such as a connection
to a water pipe), a similar imbalance may result.

Tracing the source of leakage current

This series of measurements identifies the overall leakage and the source. The first
measurement can be made on the main conductor to the panel. Measurements 2, 3, 4 and 5
are made subsequently to identify circuits carrying the larger amounts of leakage current. j k l
mn

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g.) Breakdown Voltage

Breakdown voltage, sometimes also called dielectric strength or striking voltage, is

the quantity of electrical force required to transform the electrical properties of an object.
Most commonly, it is used with respect to insulators. The breakdown voltage is the minimum
voltage necessary to force an insulator to conduct some amount of electricity. This
measurement is meaningful only in relation to an existing system; it is the point at which a
material defies the operator's expectations for how it will function.
Insulators, by definition, conduct no electricity. Breakdown voltage is the point at
which a material ceases to be an insulator and becomes a resistor; that is, conducts electricity
at some proportion of the total current. Insulators are characterized by atoms with tightly
bound electrons. The atomic forces holding these electrons in place exceeds most outside
voltages that might induce electrons to flow. This force is finite, however, and can always
potentially be exceeded by an external voltage, which will then cause electrons to flow at
some rate through the substance.
All else being equal, the quality of an insulator increases along with its breakdown voltage.
Hence, porcelain, which has a dielectric strength of around 100 kilovolts per inch, is a
mediocre insulator. Glass, which breaks down at 20 times the voltage that porcelain does, is
much better.
Diodes also have a breakdown voltage. Simple diodes are intended to conduct
electricity only in one direction, referred to as "forward." At a sufficiently high voltage,
however, the diode can be made to conduct electricity in "reverse." Some diodes,
called avalanche diodes, are intended for this type of use. At low voltages, they conduct
electricity in one direction only. At a specific point, they conduct it just as effectively in the
other direction. This distinguishes them from insulators and other diodes, which, even above
the breakdown level, maintain relatively high resistance. Not surprisingly, triodes and other
specialized electronics components also break down at a certain point and begin to conduct
electricity along the path dictated by a sufficiently high voltage.
In practice, determining a material's exact breakdown voltage is difficult. A specific
number attached to this quantity is not a reliable constant like a melting point; it is a
statistical average. Consequently, when designing a circuit, one should make sure that its
maximum voltage is well below the lowest breakdown voltage of any of the materials
involved. An electrical system is only as good as the smallest breakdown voltage of one of its
components.