PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

CHAPTER 24:
Quantization of light
(3 Hours)

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 24
Learning Outcome:
24.1

Plancks quantum theory (1/2 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

a.
Distinguish between Planks quantum theory and
classical theory of energy
b.
Use Einsteins formulae for photon energy,

E hf

hc

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

24.1 Plancks quantum theory

24.1.1 Classical theory of black body radiation

Black body is defined as an ideal system that absorbs all the

radiation incident on it. The electromagnetic (EM) radiation
emitted by the black body is called black body radiation.
From the black body experiment, the distribution of energy in
black body, E depends only on the temperature, T.

E k BT

(24.1)

where k B : Boltzmann' s constant

T : temperature in kelvin

If the temperature increases thus the energy of the black body

increases and vice versa.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

The spectrum of EM radiation emitted by the black body

(experimental result) is shown in Figure 24.1.
Experimental
result
Rayleigh -Jeans
theory
Wiens theory

Classical
physics

Figure 24.1
From the curve, Wiens theory was accurate at short
wavelengths but deviated at longer wavelengths whereas the
reverse was true for the Rayleigh-Jeans theory.
4

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

The Rayleigh-Jeans and Wiens theories failed to fit the

experimental curve because this two theories based on classical
ideas which are
Energy of the EM radiation is not depend on its frequency
or wavelength.
Energy of the EM radiation is continuously.

24.1.2 Plancks quantum theory

In 1900, Max Planck proposed his theory that is fit with the
experimental curve in Figure 24.1 at all wavelengths known as
Plancks quantum theory.
The assumptions made by Planck in his theory are :
The EM radiation emitted by the black body is in discrete
(separate) packets of energy. Each packet is called a
quantum of energy. This means the energy of EM radiation
is quantised.
The energy size of the radiation depends on its frequency.
5

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

According to this assumptions, the quantum of the energy E

for radiation of frequency f is given by

E hf

(24.2)

where h : Planck's constant 6.6310

Since the speed of EM radiation in a vacuum is

34

Js

c f
then eq. (24.2) can be written as

hc

(24.3)

From eq. (24.3), the quantum of the energy E for radiation is

inversely proportional to its wavelength.
6

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

It is convenient to express many quantum energies in electronvolts.

The electron-volt (eV) is a unit of energy that can be defined
as the kinetic energy gained by an electron in being
accelerated by a potential difference (voltage) of 1 volt.
Unit conversion:

1 eV 1.60 10 19 J

In 1905, Albert Einstein extended Plancks idea by proposing

that electromagnetic radiation is also quantised. It consists of
particle like packets (bundles) of energy called photons of
electromagnetic radiation.
Note:

For EM radiation of n packets, the energy En is given by

En nhf
where

(24.4)

n : real number 1,2,3,...

7

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

24.1.3 Photon

Photon is defined as a particle with zero mass consisting of a

quantum of electromagnetic radiation where its energy is
concentrated.
A photon may also be regarded as a unit of energy equal to
hf.
Photons travel at the speed of light in a vacuum. They are
required to explain the photoelectric effect and other
phenomena that require light to have particle property.
Table 9.1 shows the differences between the photon and
electromagnetic wave.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24
EM Wave

Energy of the EM wave

depends on the intensity
of the wave. Intensity of
the wave I is proportional
to the squared of its
amplitude A2 where

IA

Photon

Energy of a photon is
proportional to the
frequency of the EM
wave where

E f

Its energy is continuously

and spread out through
the medium as shown in
Figure 24.2a.

Its energy is discrete as

shown in Figure 24.2b.

Photon
Figure 24.2b

Figure 24.2a
Table 24.1

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Example 24.1 :
A photon of the green light has a wavelength of 740 nm. Calculate
a. the photons frequency,
b. the photons energy in joule and electron-volt.
(Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00108 m s1 and
Plancks constant, h =6.631034 J s)
Solution : 740 10 9 m
a. The frequency of the photon is given by

c f

3.00 108 740 10 9 f

b. By applying the Plancks quantum theory, thus the photons

energy in joule is E hf
E 6.63 10 34 4.05 1014

and its energy in electron-volt is

2.69 10 19
E
1.60 10 19

10

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CHAPTER 24

Example 24.2 :
For a gamma radiation of wavelength 4.621012 m propagates in
the air, calculate the energy of a photon for gamma radiation in
electron-volt.
(Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00108 m s1 and
Plancks constant, h =6.631034 J s)
Solution : 4.62 10 12 m
By applying the Plancks quantum theory, thus the energy of a
photon in electron-volt is

hc

6.63 10 3.00 10
E
34

4.62 10 12
E 4.31 10 14 J
4.31 10 14

1.60 10 19

11

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PHYSICS
CHAPTER 24
Learning Outcome:
24.2

The photoelectric effect (3 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

a)
Explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
b)
Define threshold frequency, work function and stopping
potential.
c)
Describe and sketch diagram of the photoelectric effect
experimental set-up.
d)
Explain the failure of wave theory to justify the
photoelectric effect.

12

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 24
Learning Outcome ( Cont..):
24.2

The photoelectric effect (3 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

c)
Explain by using graph and equations the
observation of photoelectric effect experiment in
terms of the dependence of :
i.

Kinetic energy of photoelectron on the frequency of

light
1
2
2

ii.

iii.

mv max eVs hf hf0

Photoelectric current on the intensity of incident

light
Work function and threshold frequency on the types
of metal surface

W0 hf 0

13

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 24
Learning Outcome ( Cont..):
24.2

The photoelectric effect (3 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

f.

Use Einsteins photoelectric equation

K m ax eVs hf W

14

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

24.2 The photoelectric effect

is defined as the emission of electron from the surface

of a metal when the EM radiation (light) of higher frequency
strikes its surface.
Figure 24.3 shows the emission of the electron from the surface
of the metal after shining by the light.

EM
radiation

- - - - -

photoelectron

- - - - -

Metal
Free electrons
Figure 24.3

Photoelectron is defined as an electron emitted from the

surface of the metal when the EM radiation (light) strikes its
15
surface.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

24.2.1 Photoelectric experiment

The photoelectric effect can be studied through the experiment

made by Franck Hertz in 1887.
Figure 24.4a shows a schematic diagram of an experimental
arrangement for studying the photoelectric effect.
EM radiation (light)
cathode
anode

photoelectron

vacuum

glass

V
power supply

rheostat

Figure 24.4a
16

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

The set-up apparatus as follows:

Two conducting electrodes, the anode (positive electric
potential) and the cathode (negative electric potential) are
encased in an evacuated tube (vacuum).
The monochromatic light of known frequency and intensity is
incident on the cathode.
Explanation of the experiment
When a monochromatic light of suitable frequency (or
wavelength) shines on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted.
These photoelectrons are attracted to the anode and give rise to
the photoelectric current or photocurrent I which is measured by
the galvanometer.
When the positive voltage (potential difference) across the
cathode and anode is increased, more photoelectrons reach the
anode , thus the photoelectric current increases.

17

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

As positive voltage becomes sufficiently large, the photoelectric

current reaches a maximum constant value Im, called
saturation current.
Saturation current is defined as the maximum constant
value of photocurrent when all the photoelectrons have
reached the anode.
If the positive voltage is gradually decreased, the photoelectric
current I also decreases slowly. Even at zero voltage there are
still some photoelectrons with sufficient energy reach the anode
and the photoelectric current flows is I0.
Finally, when the voltage is made negative by reversing the
power supply terminal as shown in Figure 24.4b, the
photoelectric current decreases even further to very low values
since most photoelectrons are repelled by anode which is
now negative electric potential.

18

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24
EM radiation (light)
cathode

anode

photoelectron

vacuum

glass

V
power supply

rheostat

Figure 24.4b: reversing power supply terminal

As the potential of the anode becomes more negative, less
photoelectrons reach the anode thus the photoelectric current
drops until its value equals zero which the electric potential at
this moment is called stopping potential (voltage) Vs.
Stopping potential is defined as the minimum value of
negative voltage when there are no photoelectrons
reaching the anode.
19

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

The potential energy U due to this retarding voltage Vs now

equals the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectron.

U K max
1
2
(24.5)
eVs mv max
2
where m : mass of the electron
The variation of photoelectric current I as a function of the
voltage V can be shown through the graph in Figure 9.4c.

Photoelectric current, I

Im

I0

Simulation 9.1
Figure 24.4c

Vs
After

Voltage ,V
Before reversing the terminal

20

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

24.2.2 Einsteins theory of photoelectric effect

A photon is a packet of electromagnetic radiation with

particle-like characteristic and carries the energy E given by

E hf

and this energy is not spread out through the medium.

Work function W0 of a metal
Is defined as the minimum energy of EM radiation required
to emit an electron from the surface of the metal.
It depends on the metal used.
Its formulae is W E
0
min and Emin hf 0

W0 hf 0

(24.6)

where f0 is called threshold frequency and is defined as the

minimum frequency of EM radiation required to emit an
electron from the surface of the metal.
21

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Since c=f then the eq. (24.6) can be written as

W0

hc

(24.7)

where 0 is called threshold wavelength and is defined as the

maximum wavelength of EM radiation required to emit an
electron from the surface of the metal.
Table 24.2 shows the work functions of several elements.
Element

Work function (eV)

Aluminum

4.3

Sodium

2.3

Copper

4.7

Gold

5.1

Silver

4.3
Table 24.2

22

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Einsteins photoelectric equation

In the photoelectric effect, Einstein summarizes that some of the
energy E imparted by a photon is actually used to release an
electron from the surface of a metal (i.e. to overcome the
binding force) and that the rest appears as the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electron (photoelectron). It is
given by
1
E K max W0 where E hf and K max mv max 2

1
2
hf mv max W0
2

(24.8)

where eq. (24.8) is known as Einsteins photoelectric equation.

Since Kmax=eVs then the eq. (24.8) can be written as

hf eVs W0

(24.9)

where Vs : stopping voltage

e : magnitude for charge of electron

23

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24
Note:

1st case:

hf W0 OR f f 0

hf

Figure 24.5a Metal

2nd case: hf

Electron is emitted with maximum

kinetic energy.

W0

- v0
-

Figure 24.5b Metal

3rd case:

K max

W0 OR f f 0

hf

vmax

hf W0

OR

W0

K max 0

Electron is emitted but maximum

kinetic energy is zero.

f f0

hf

No electron is emitted.
Figure 24.5c

Metal

W0
24

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Example 24.3 :
Cadmium has a work function of 4.22 eV. Calculate
a. its threshold frequency,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons when the cadmium is
shined by UV radiation of wavelength 275 nm,
c. the stopping potential.
(Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and

e=1.601019 C)

Solution : W 4.22 1.60 10 19 6.75 10 19

0
a. By using the equation of the work function, thus

W0 hf 0

6.75 10 19 6.63 10 34 f 0

25

PHYSICS

19
19

4
.
22
1
.
60

10

6
.
75

10
J
0
9
275 10 m

Solution : W
b. Given

CHAPTER 24

By applying the Einsteins photoelectric equation, thus

E K max W0
hc 1
2
mv max W0
2
6.63 10 34 3.00 108 1
2
31
19

9
.
11

10
v

6
.
75

10
max
9
2
275 10

c. The stopping potential is given by

K max

1
2
mv max
2

1
2
eVs mv max
2
1
19
1.60 10 Vs 9.11 10 31 3.26 10 5
2

26

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Example 24.4 :
A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 1014 Hz
and 7.90 1014 Hz is incident on a sodium surface, which has a
work function of 2.28 eV.
a. Calculate the threshold frequency of the sodium surface.
b. What is the range of frequencies in this beam of light for which
electrons are ejected from the sodium surface?
c. Determine the highest maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons that are ejected from this surface.
(Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and

e=1.601019 C)

27

PHYSICS
Solution : W

CHAPTER 24

2.28 1.60 10 19 3.65 10 19 J

a. The threshold frequency is

W0 hf 0
3.65 10 19 6.63 10 34 f 0

b. The range of the frequencies that eject electrons is

c. For the highest Kmax, take

f 7.90 1014 Hz

By applying the Einsteins photoelectric equation, thus

E K max W0
1
2
hf mv max W0
2

6.63 10 7.90 10 K
34

14

max

3.65 10 19
28

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Exercise 24.1 :
Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and
e=1.601019 C
1.

The energy of a photon from an electromagnetic wave is

2.25 eV
a. Calculate its wavelength.
b. If this electromagnetic wave shines on a metal, electrons
are emitted with a maximum kinetic energy of 1.10 eV.
Calculate the work function of this metal in joules.
ANS. : 553 nm; 1.841019 J
2. In a photoelectric effect experiment it is observed that no
current flows when the wavelength of EM radiation is greater
than 570 nm. Calculate
a. the work function of this material in electron-volts.
b. the stopping voltage required if light of wavelength 400 nm
is used.
(Physics for scientists & engineers, 3rd edition, Giancoli, Q15,
p.974)

ANS. : 2.18 eV; 0.92 V

29

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Exercise 24.1 :
3.

In an experiment on the photoelectric effect, the following data

were collected.
Wavelength of EM
radiation, (nm)

Stopping potential,
Vs (V)

350

1.70

450

0.900

a. Calculate the maximum velocity of the photoelectrons

when the wavelength of the incident radiation is 350 nm.
b. Determine the value of the Planck constant from the above
data.
ANS. : 7.73105 m s1; 6.721034 J s

30

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

24.2.3 Graph of photoelectric experiment

Variation of photoelectric current I with voltage V

for the radiation of different intensities but its frequency is

fixed.

Vs

2I m

Intensity 2x

Im

Intensity 1x

Figure 24.6a
Reason:
From the experiment, the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of the radiation as shown in
Figure 24.6b.
31

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24
I

2I m
Im
0

Light intensity

Figure 24.6b
for the radiation of different frequencies but its intensity is
fixed.
I

Im
f2

f2 > f1
f1

Vs2 Vs1 0

V
Figure 24.7a

32

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Reason:
From the Einsteins photoelectric equation,

Stopping voltage ,Vs hf eV W

s
0

W0
h
Vs f
e
e

y m x c

Vs2
Vs1

0
W0

f 0 f1 f 2

frequency, f
hf e(0) W0
If Vs=0,
W0 hf f 0

Figure 24.7b

33

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

For the different metals of cathode but the intensity and

frequency of the radiation are fixed.

Im
W02 > W01

W01
Figure 24.8a

W02

Vs1 Vs20

Reason: From the Einsteins photoelectric equation,

Vs

hf
e

hf eVs W0

Vs1
Vs2

1
hf
Vs W0
e
e

y m x c
W01 W02

Figure 24.8b

hf E

W0

Energy of a photon
in EM radiation
34

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Variation of stopping voltage Vs with frequency f of the radiation

for different metals of cathode but the intensity is fixed.

Vs

W01 W02

W03

W03 >W02 > W01

Figure 24.9

f 01

f 02 f 03

Reason: Since W0=hf0 then

hf eVs W0

W0 f 0

W0
h
Vs f
e
e

y m x c

Threshold (cut-off)
frequency
hf e(0) W0
If Vs=0,

W0 hf

f0

35

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

24.2.4 Failure of wave theory of light

Table 24.3 shows the classical predictions (wave theory),

photoelectric experimental observation and modern theory
explanation about photoelectric experiment.

Classical predictions

Experimental
observation

Modern theory

Emission of
photoelectrons occur
for all frequencies of
light. Energy of light is
independent of
frequency.

Emission of
photoelectrons occur
only when frequency
of the light exceeds
the certain frequency
which value is
characteristic of the
material being
illuminated.

When the light frequency is

greater than threshold
frequency, a higher rate of
photons striking the metal
surface results in a higher
rate of photoelectrons
emitted. If it is less than
threshold frequency no
photoelectrons are emitted.
Hence the emission of
photoelectrons depend on
the light frequency
36

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Classical predictions

Experimental
observation

Modern theory

The higher the

intensity, the greater
the energy imparted to
the metal surface for
emission of
photoelectrons. When
the intensity is low, the
energy of the radiation
is too small for
emission of electrons.

Very low intensity but

high frequency
radiation could emit
photoelectrons. The
maximum kinetic
energy of
photoelectrons is
independent of light
intensity.

The intensity of light is the

number of photons
radiated per unit time on a
unit surface area.
Based on the Einsteins
photoelectric equation:

K max hf W0

The maximum kinetic

energy of photoelectron
depends only on the light
frequency and the work
function. If the light
intensity is doubled, the
number of electrons emitted
also doubled but the
maximum kinetic energy
remains unchanged. 37

PHYSICS
Classical predictions

Light energy is spread

over the wavefront, the
amount of energy
incident on any one
electron is small. An
electron must gather
sufficient energy
before emission, hence
there is time interval
between absorption of
light energy and
emission. Time interval
increases if the light
intensity is low.

CHAPTER 24
Experimental
observation

Photoelectrons are
emitted from the
surface of the metal
almost
instantaneously
after the surface is
illuminated, even at
very low light
intensities.

Modern theory

The transfer of photons

energy to an electron is
instantaneous as its energy
is absorbed in its entirely,
much like a particle to
particle collision. The
emission of photoelectron
is immediate and no time
interval between
absorption of light energy
and emission.

38

PHYSICS
Classical predictions

Energy of light
depends only on
amplitude ( or
intensity) and not on
frequency.
Note:

CHAPTER 24
Experimental
observation

Energy of light
depends on
frequency.

Modern theory

According to Plancks
quantum theory which is

E=hf
Energy of light depends on
its frequency.

Table 24.3

Experimental observations deviate from classical predictions based on

wave theory of light. Hence the classical physics cannot explain the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
The modern theory based on Einsteins photon theory of light can
explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
It is because Einstein postulated that light is quantized and light is
emitted, transmitted and reabsorbed as photons.
39

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Example 24.5 :
a. Why does the existence of a threshold frequency in the
photoelectric effect favor a particle theory for light over a wave
theory?
b. In the photoelectric effect, explains why the stopping potential
depends on the frequency of light but not on the intensity.
Solution :
a. Wave theory predicts that the photoelectric effect should occur at
any frequency, provided the light intensity is high enough.
However, as seen in the photoelectric experiments, the light must
have a sufficiently high frequency (greater than the threshold
frequency) for the effect to occur.
b. The stopping voltage measures the kinetic energy of the most
energetic photoelectrons. Each of them has gotten its energy
from a single photon. According to Plancks quantum theory , the
photon energy depends on the frequency of the light. The
intensity controls only the number of photons reaching a unit area
40
in a unit time.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Example 24.6 :

In a photoelectric experiments, a graph of the light frequency f is

plotted against the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the
photoelectron as shown in Figure 24.10.

f 1014 Hz

4.83

K max(eV )

Figure 24.10
Based on the graph, for the light of frequency 7.141014 Hz,
calculate
a. the threshold wavelength,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectron.
(Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and

e=1.601019 C)

41

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Solution : f

7.14 1014 Hz

a. By rearranging Einsteins photoelectric equation,

f 1014 Hz

hf K max W0

4.83

K max(eV )

W0
1
f K max
h
h
1
f K max f 0
h

y m x c

From the graph, f 0 4.83 1014 Hz

Therefore the threshold wavelength is given by

c
0
f0
3.00 108

4.83 1014

42

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Solution : f

7.14 1014 Hz

b. By using the Einsteins photoelectric equation, thus

1
2
hf mv max W0
2
1
2
hf mv max hf0
2
1
2
mv max h f f 0
2

1
2
9.11 10 31 vmax 6.63 10 34 7.14 1014 4.83 1014
2

43

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Exercise 24.2 :
Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and
e=1.601019 C
1.

A photocell with cathode and anode made of the same metal

connected in a circuit as shown in the Figure 24.11a.
Monochromatic light of wavelength 365 nm shines on the
cathode and the photocurrent I is measured for various values
of voltage V across the cathode and anode. The result is
shown in Figure 24.11b

I (nA)

365 nm

5
G
V

1
Figure 24.11a

0
Figure 24.11b

V ( V)
44

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Exercise 24.2 :
1.

a. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron.

b. Deduce the work function of the cathode.
c. If the experiment is repeated with monochromatic light of
wavelength 313 nm, determine the new intercept with the
V-axis for the new graph.
ANS. : 1.601019 J, 3.851019 J; 1.57 V
2. When EM radiation falls on a metal surface, electrons may be
emitted. This is photoelectric effect.
a. Write Einsteins photoelectric equation, explaining the
meaning of each term.
b. Explain why for a particular metal, electrons are emitted
only when the frequency of the incident radiation is greater
than a certain value?
c. Explain why the maximum speed of the emitted electrons
is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation?
(Advanced Level Physics, 7th edition, Nelkon&Parker, Q6, p.835)
45

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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 24

Next Chapter
CHAPTER 25 :
Wave properties of particle

46