Agric. sci. dev., Vol(3), No (8), August, 2014. pp.

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Factors controlling degradation of pesticides in the soil environment: A

Review
Hassan Shahgholi*
Ph.D student of Agroecology, department of Agronomy, faculty of agriculture, Zabol University, Zabol, Iran

Ahmad Gholamalizadeh Ahangar

Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Soil and Water Engineering, University of Zabol, Zabol, IR Iran
*Corresponding author: h_agroo2000@yahoo.com

Keywords

Abstract

Pesticides
Biodegradation
Degradation

Once a pesticide is introduced into the environment, whether through an application a disposal or a spill, it is
influenced by many processes. These processes determine a pesticides persistence and movement. Todays
concern is movement of pesticides to groundwater. An understanding of the fate processes can help every
pesticide applicator ensure that applications are not only effective but also environmentally safe. Microbial
degradation is the breakdown of pesticides by fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms that use pesticides
as a food source. Most microbial degradation of pesticides occurs in the soil. Soil conditions such as
moisture, temperature, aeration, pH and the amount of organic matter affect the rate of microbial degradation
because of their direct influence on microbial growth and activity. The frequency of pesticide application
also is a factor that can influence microbial degradation. Rapid microbial degradation is more likely when
the same pesticide is used repeatedly in a field. This paper reviews what is known of the influence of the
physical and chemical characteristics of the soil system, such as moisture content, organic matter and clay
type, nutrients, temperature, salinity and pH on the sorption, desorption, degradation and biodegradation of
pesticides. An understanding of the fate of pesticides is essential for rational decision-taking regarding their
authorization.

1.

Introduction

A possible way to solve the problems of pesticide waste, leaching or contamination of soils by spillage is bioremediation with pesticidedegrading microorganisms. Previous studies concerning bioremediation of pesticide contamination have concentrated on residues in soil, and
several researchers have demonstrated that the degradation in soil of pesticides including parathion [6], 2, 4, 5-T [35] and atrazine [61] can be
accelerated by inoculation with appropriate microorganisms. However, others have reported the failure of inoculants to enhance the dissipation
of pesticide in natural soil environments [46; 27]. Successful inoculation has been shown to depend on inoculum density [22], on pollutant
bioavailability [29], and on soil conditions such as moisture, temperature, pH and organic matter content [77]. Biological factors such as
competition with the indigenous microfora for substrates [32], antagonism and predation [27] also affect inoculum survival and activity. The
nature of the pesticide-degrading microorganisms can also affect bioremediation success. Fast-growing microorganisms, which carry constitutive
enzymes and are able to degrade a wide range of pesticides with similar chemical structures, can be the most useful in bioremediation strategies
[74].

2.

Pesticide Degradation

Degradation of pesticides refers to the breakdown of pesticides within the environment. The degradation may occur through photodegradation,
chemical degradation or biodegradation [73]. In some cases there is a complete mineralization of the pesticides whereas in other cases only a
partial degradation takes place. This may potentially lead to an accumulation of metabolites, which sometimes are more toxic, i.e. more
hazardous, than the mother-compound [25]. Sometimes the pesticides are not degraded even though they have proven to be biodegradable. This
may, as mentioned above, be due to different environmental factors affecting the activity of the degrader organisms; essential nutrients may be
missing, environmental conditions may be unsuitable, or the concentration of the pesticide may be too high or too low [1; 41].
All chemicals are susceptible to photodegradation to some extent. The degree of photodegradation will depend on the intensity of the sunlight
and the time of exposure. However many pesticides move relatively quickly into the soil and are thus no longer exposed to sunlight and therefore
not susceptible to photodegradation [24]. Chemical degradation is due to reactions of the pollutant with e.g. water, oxygen or other chemicals
[44]. Biodegradation refers to the degradation of the pesticides by organisms; most often microorganisms like bacteria and fungi, but in some
cases plants may be involved in the degradation as well [73]. The degradation rates are affected by soil properties, e.g. pH and temperature.
Lower degradation rates have been observed with a pH above 6.5 and higher rates with pH below 5 [24]. However the effect of pH will depend
on the compound being degraded and the organisms responsible for the degradation, and studies by Walker et al. [79] showed a more rapid
degradation in soils with higher pH. The temperature of the soil also influences degradation rates; the rate of most reactions catalyzed by
enzymes tends to double for every 10 oC increase in temperature [between 10 and 45 oC]. An increase in soil temperature will thus lead to an
increase in degradation rate [44].

3.

Factors influencing pesticides degradation in soil

3.1 Effect of Pesticide structure

The structure of a pesticide molecule determines its physical and chemical properties and inherent biodegradability. The introduction of
substituents on a benzene ring influences its degradation. Minor alterations in structure frequently cause a drastic change in the susceptibility of a
compound to biotransformations. Introduction of polar groups such as OH, COOH and NH2 may provide the microbial system, a site of attack.

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Agriculture Science Developments Vol(3), No (8), August, 2014.

Halogen or alkyl substituents tend to make the molecule more resistant to biodegradation [18]. Chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT,
pentalene and dieldrin are insoluble in water, sorb tightly to soil and are thus relatively unavailable for biodegradation. The insecticide
carbofuran and the herbicide 2, 4-D, which are of different molecular structure, can be degraded in a matter of few days in field soils. Minor
differences in the position or nature of substituents in pesticides of the same class can influence the rate of degradation [76].
3.2 Effect of Pesticide concentration
Concentration of pesticide application is an important parameter in determining the rate of biodegradation. The degradation kinetics of many
pesticides approaches first order; the rate of degradation decreases roughly in proportion with the residual pesticide concentration [76]. Gupta
and Gajbhiye [32] reported that the half-life of flufenacet in three Indian soils, viz., inseptisol, vertisol and ultisol, varied from 10.1 to 31.0 days
at low rate [1.0 g g-1 soil] compared to 13.0 to 29.2 days at high rate [10.0 g g-1 soil] of application. Yu et al. [89] reported that the half-lives
of butachlor in non- rhizosphere, wheat rhizosphere and inoculated rhizosphere soils ranged from [6.3 to 18.0] days at 1.0 mg kg-1, [2.9 to 19.9]
days at 10.0 mg kg-1 and [10.8 to 23.2] days at 100.0 mg kg-1 indicating the degradation of butachlor to be dependent on application rate and
soil type. Prakash and Suseela Devi [57] reported the reduced degradation rate of butachlor at higher initial concentrations, which could be
attributed to limitation in the number of reaction sites in soil and toxic effect on microorganisms or enzyme inhibition.
3.3 Effect of Soil types 3
Soil properties like organic matter, clay content, pH, etc. affect the degradation of pesticides in soil. Therefore, it is important to study the effect
of soil types in pesticide degradation. Gold et al. [26] reported that soil pH and clay content greatly affect the persistence of bifenthrin,
chlorpyriphos, cypermethrine, fenvelerate, permethrin and isofenphos under field conditions. Jones and Ananyeva [41] reported that the
degradation of metalaxyl and propachlor occurred at different rates in different soils. The half-lives in pasture, arable and pine forest soil were
10, 19 and 36 days respectively for metalaxyl and 2.6, 6.1 and 8.2 days for propachlor. The presence of organic matter and clay content might
have posed synergistic effect in fluchloralin dissipation. Gupta and Gajbhiye [32] stated that the degradation of flufenacet was greatly influenced
by soil types and the half-life values varied from 10.1 to 22.3 days in an inseptisol, 10.5 to 24.1 days in a ultisol and 29.2 to 31.0 days in a
vertisol. Hafez and Thiemann [33] mentioned that the degradations of imidacloprid and diazinon were faster in the silty loam soil followed by
sandy loam and sandy soil. Degradation of pencycuron was soil dependent [53]. Pencycuron degraded faster in coastal saline soil than alluvial
soil and in soil amended with decomposed cow manure whereas microbial mediated degradation of pencycuron was more in alluvial soil than in
coastal saline soil.
3.4 Effect of Soil moisture
Water acts as solvent for pesticides movement and diffusion and is essential for microbial functioning. Pesticide degradation is slow in dry soils.
The rate of pesticide transformation generally increases with water content. In very wet soils such as rice paddies, the rate of diffusion of
atmospheric oxygen into the soil is limited and anaerobic pesticide transformation can prevail over aerobic degradation. Poor oxygen transfer at
high moisture content can, however, accelerate or retard the degradation of pesticides. Phorate was more persistent in flooded soil than in
nonflooded soil [85]. The herbicides atrazine and trifluraline disappeared more rapidly under anaerobic conditions than under aerobic conditions.
The insecticide -BHC persists for several years in aerobic soils, but it is biodegraded partly in submerged soils and a high content of organic
matter hastens the biodegradation [59]. DDT is fairly stable in aerobic soils, but is degraded rapidly to DDD in submerged soils [76]. The
alteration in the oxidation state is important in microbes-pesticides interaction because the oxidized or reduced forms of pesticides often
determine their toxicity in the environment through adsorption, solubility etc. [39] and also the microbial activity under submerged condition.
Thus, the transformation of pesticides in the submerged soils is different from that of the soils in field moist state. In contrast, Baskaran et al. [7]
reported that soil moisture content had no effect on the degradation of imidacloprid and bifenthrin. Racke et al. [1994] also found similar type of
behaviour while studying the degradation of chlorpyriphos. Schneiders et al. [65] reported that the half-lives of rimsulfuron were 24.5 and 22.5
days under anaerobic and aerobic conditions respectively in a sandy loam soil. Pencycuron degraded rapidly in aerobic soil compared the
submerged soil [53].
3.5 Effect of Soil pH
Several studies have shown that the pH of the soil affects the degradation rate. Most studies suggest the soil PH most competent for the best
grade of degradation is around pH 7 [or neutral pH] [48] and usually below this range the breakdown is slowed down [3]. If it is necessary to
adjust the pH, there is an opportunity to regulate it with buffer solutions 55]. In this study the buffer M8 stock solution was used to guarantee the
right pH [51]. The soil pH plays an important role in particular for the adsorption of ionic pesticides like glyphosate or sulcotrione [14; 47].
Depending on the charge of the pesticide, the adsorption will increase [or decrease] with pH. For example, the retention of glyphosate increases
when the soil pH decreases because the number of negative charges of the molecule decreases, allowing the adsorption on negatively charged
adsorbents like clay or organic matter.
Soil pH may affect pesticide adsorption, abiotic and biotic degradation processes [13]. It influences the sorptive behavior of pesticide molecule
on clay and organic surfaces and thus, the chemical speciation, mobility and bioavailability [39]. For instance, the sorprtion of prometryn to clay
montmorillonite is more at pH 3 than at pH 7 [76]. The effect of soil pH on degradation of a given pesticide depends greatly on whether a
compound is susceptible to alkaline or acid catalyzed hydrolysis [63].
3.6 Effect of Soil salinity
Limited information is available on the degradation of pesticides in saline soils although salinity is a severe problem in many arid, semiarid and
coastal regions. Parathion was degraded faster in nonsaline soil than in saline soils and its stability increased with increasing electrical
conductivity [66]. However, reports on the stability of pesticides in estuarine and seawater of varying degrees of salinity are available. A high
salt content in seawater may be innocuous [84] or inhibitory to degradation [89; 45]. Degradation of pencycuron was less in the coastal saline
soil compared to the alluvial soil [53].
3.7 Effect of temperature
The grade of the degradation is increasing with the rise of the temperature, as proved in studies completed under tropical circumstances. At these
climates most of the DDT departs through volatilization [40]. The role of the temperature is important as well in the bioreactor experiments;
mostly the aim is keeping the temperature on approximately room temperature, for the best results not below 10C [48] but between 15-45C
[79].Some studies suggest temperatures 40C, or higher, as the desirable temperature for the best degradation rate of DDT [30]. The number of
the biochemical reactions rise with the temperature rise, although above a certain temperature the microbial cells decease [79].

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Agriculture Science Developments Vol(3), No (8), August, 2014.

Sometimes the pesticides are not degraded even though they have proven to be biodegradable. This may, as mentioned above, be due to different
environmental factors affecting the activity of the degrader organisms; essential nutrients may be missing, environmental conditions may be
unsuitable, or the concentration of the pesticide may be too high or too low [1; 41].
3.8 Effect of soil organic matter
Soil organic matter originates from crop residues, microbial biomass and organic amendments. It has very heterogeneous composition and
contains both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups [15]. Even if organic matter only represents few percents of the total dried material in soil, it
is a major sorbent of pesticides in soil [14]. This is attributed to its high chemical reactivity towards both mineral surfaces and organic
molecules, allowing various types of interaction with pesticides. The sorption capacities of organic matter are not only controlled by their
chemical composition, but also by their size, due to a greater number of sorptive sites related to a greater surface area with decreasing particlesize [10]. In general, the adsorption of pesticides increases with organic matter, except for ionic molecules. Soil organic matter can either
decrease the microbially mediated pesticide degradation by stimulating pesticide adsorption processes or enhance microbial activity [55] by
cometabolism [83; 75]. The addition of organic materials to flooded soils enhanced the bacterial degradation of some organochlorine insecticides
such as BHC, DDT, methoxychlor and heptachlor [91]. Microbial degradation of linuron in nonsterilized soils was stimulated by organic matter
amendment [39]. A certain minimum level of organic matter [probably greater than 1.0%] is essential to ensure the presence of an active
autochthonous [the indigenous flora and fauna of a region] microbial population that can degrade pesticides [13].
3.9 Effect of nutrients
Microorganisms activities directly related to the availability of nutrients required. The strengthening of soil organic matter through
enhancements leads to stimulation of microbial activity in soil and facilitate the biodegradation process [50]. The nutrients and the oxygen will
stimulate the microorganism growth, which is essential to reaching the right degradation rate. The nutrients will let the microbes produce the
necessary enzymes, which will degrade the contaminants. Carbon is the most needed nutrient, followed by nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and
phosphorus. The most desirable ratios are carbon to nitrogen 10:1, and carbon to phosphorus 30:1. Sulfur, potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, chloride, iron are other important elements building up the microbial cells [79]. The processes responsible for the removal of
pesticides from the soil or sparse they are more or less interdependent. For example, pesticide sorption by soil solids probably protects them
from microbial attack, but it will facilitate the deformation of the chemical. Absorption process prevents the release of pesticides into the soil
solution and the loss caused displacement and its dynamics during leaching and runoff are [50].
3.10 Microorganisms in the soil
One way to classify the inhabitants of the soil is according to their size. The three big groups according to this classification are micro-, mezo-,
and macro- biota. The bacteria belong to the micro fauna, and there can be a few thousand of species found in the soil, approximately 3500
million per g soil, and around m average lengths. The soil bacteria can be categorized as decomposers, nitrogen fixers, disease suppressors,
aerob and anaerob, actino bacteria, and sulphur oxidizers [4]. The bacteria suitable for the degradation of DDT includes Escherichea Coli,
Enterobacteraerogenes, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumonia, Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus sp. [species], and Hydrogenomonas [9]. In a
study accomplished with activated sludge system, Pseudomonas sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Micrococcus, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus
circulans, Bacillus sp., Flavobacterium sp. Were isolated as microorganisms successfully degrading DDT [70]. In the present study the most
important are the aerob bacteria in the aspect of the degradation. The indigenous [or isolated] microorganisms degrade the toxic pollutants. At
the end of the process, there should be mostly CO2 and water, with the residual microbial biomass and the oxidized inorganic compounds, and
finally the byproducts [48].
3.11 Soil Microbial Biomass
Microbial biomass is defined as the part of organic matter in soil that constitutes living microorganisms smaller than 5-10 cubic micrometers.
Microorganisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, algae, protozoa and micro fauna. Usually, plant roots and faunas larger than 5-10 cubic
micrometer such as earthworms, are not included [72]. Microbial biomass being an important attributes of soil quality [20] and is an ecologically
important parameter [8]. Several workers have studied the effects of pesticides application using this parameter.
Two fungicides, viz, captan and thiram caused significant decreases in the microbial biomass [2]. Within 8 days, microbial biomass of captan
and thiram amended soils returned to the level of control soil. At higher rates fungicides caused long-term decreases in the biomass. Pencycuron
resulted in a short-lived and transitory toxic effect on soil microbial biomass [52].
Effects of repeated applications of carbofuran and carbosulfan [insecticides], iprodione and vinclozolin [fungicides] and MCPA, simazine and
paraquat [herbicides] on soil microbial biomass were investigated in arable soils [21]. Carbofuran did not show any detectable detrimental effect
on soil microbial biomass, but repeated application of carbofuran significantly reduced microbial biomass. There was dramatic reduction in soil
microbial biomass following vinclozolin application and this was due to a reduction in fungal biomass; iprodione showed less obvious biomass
trends. MCPA and simazine caused no detectable effects on the microflora, but repeated paraquat application significantly lowered soil
microbial biomass, chiefly the fungal biomass. The results indicated that there might be substantially variable effects on soil microbial biomass
produced by single or repeated applications of different pesticides. Side effects of four herbicides, three fungicides, one insecticide and one
growth regulator were studied on the soil microflora for two year in a field experiment [69]. Successive application of the pesticides caused only
slight and short-lived side effects on the soil microbial biomass depending on weather conditions.
Thiram degrades by microbial action or by hydrolysis more rapidly in acidic soils and in soils high in organic matter. In a humus sandy soil, at
pH 3.5, Thiram decomposed after 4 to 5 weeks, while at pH 7.0, Thiram decomposed after 14 to 15 weeks. Thiram persisted for over two months
in sandy soils, but disappeared within one week from a compost soil. The major metabolites of Thiram in the soil are copper dimethyldithiocarbamate, dithiocarbamate, dimethylamine and carbon disulfide. Minor degradative products included nitrite ions [nitrate reduction] and
dimethylnitrosamine [5]. Richardson [64] reported more than 95% conversion of Thiram to metabolites by soil microorganisms after 55 days of
incubation.
Several works have reported that native microorganisms from soil and sediment are capable of degrading pesticides. Eizuka et al. [23] evaluated
ipconazole [triazole fungicide] degradation by soil microorganisms. They reported that bacteria, Actinomycetes and fungi were responsible for
the degradation of this compound. Singh et al. [68] isolated a native fungal strain from corn field soil able to use atrazine as source of nitrogen.
The fungus degraded 44% of atrazine in 20 days. Chlorpyrifos has been reported to be resistant to enhanced degradation which was attributed to
the antimicrobial activity of 3, 5, and 6- trichloro- 2- pyridinol [TCP] [61]. However, Venkata Mohan et al. [75] studied the degradation of a
chlorpyrifos contaminated soil using native mixed microflora in slurry bioreactor at 3000 g /g, 6000 g g-1 and 12000 g g-1. They found that
91%, 82% and 14% of chlorpyrifos was respectively degraded after 72 h.

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Agriculture Science Developments Vol(3), No (8), August, 2014.

Yu et al. [90] isolated and characterized a fungal strain capable of degrading chlorpyrifos utilizing the pesticide as sole carbon and energy. They
reported that the fungus was able to degrade >80% of chlorpyrifos. Pesticides are usually applied simultaneously or one after another for crop
protection, and this type of pesticide application often leads to a combined contamination of pesticide residues in the soil environment. A
laboratory study was conducted to investigate the influence of chlorothalonil on chlorpyrifos degradation and its effects on bacterial, fungal, and
Actinomycete soil populations [17].
Chlorpyrifos degradation was not significantly altered by its combination with chlorothalonil. However, the inhibitory effect of chlorpyrifos on
soil microorganisms was increased by its combination with chlorothalonil, and the increase was related to the added chlorothalonil levels.
Compared with those in the controls, the populations of bacteria, fungi, and Actinomycetes were significantly reduced by chlorpyrifos alone, and
the inhibition increased with chlorothalonil addition. The results suggested that combined effects should be taken into account to assess the
actual impacts of pesticide applications. A review of Briceno et al. [12] shows that various bacteria and fungi present in soils has the capacity to
degrade or mineralize several pesticide groups. The studies show that addition of organic amendment and nutrients can affect mainly the
adsorption, movement, and biodegradation of pesticides. Repeated application of pesticides in the same field for a certain number of years
developed an active microbial population in soil with the ability to degrade determined compounds [38]. Pesce and Wunderlin [55] reported the
biodegradation of lindane by a native bacterial consortium isolated from contaminated soil.
These authors reported that B. thiooxidans and S. Paucimobilis degraded lindane after 3 days of aerobic incubation. Mercadier et al. [47]
reported that 50% of fungicide iprodione was degraded by bacterial isolated from soil as Pseudomonas sp. Atrazine, monocrotophos, alachlor
and 4- chlorophenol have been degraded also by soil microorganism [90; 11]. Guerin [30] studied the natural attenuation of a low mobility
insecticide, endosulfan, in low and high level contaminated soil, but the mineralization did not play any important role in natural attenuation of
endosulfan by soil microorganisms. Chirnside et al. [16] studied an indigenous microbial consortium isolated from contaminated soils to
evaluate its potential to degrade atrazine and alachlor. They determined that the indigenous microbial consortium was capable of degrading both
herbicides, but the consortium exhibited a unique degradation pattern being atrazine degradation dependent on alachlor degradation. Many
Actinomycetes can degrade different pollutants, including several pesticides. A review by De Schrijver and De Mot [19] showed that the genera
Arthrobacter, Clavibacter, Nocardia, Rhodococcus, Nocardioides, and Streptomyces behave as pesticide degrading Actinomycetes.
Glyphosate temporarily enhanced bacterial propagule numbers, while actinomycete and fungal propagule numbers were unaffected in incubated
soil samples over 27 days [86]. Glyphosate and 2,4-D were applied at field application rates to tilled field plots in a mixed cropping area in
South Central Alberta for 45 days [87]. Glyphosate did not influence any of the microbial parameters tested. Addition of 2, 4-D significantly
influenced the microbial parameters investigated, but the effects were transient, being detectable only within the first 1-5 days of addition. The
effects of 2, 4-D addition on the microbial parameters tested, even when significant, were typically small and probably of little ecological
consequence especially when spatial and temporal variations in these parameters were taken into account. In another study the same authors
observed that 2, 4-D and glyphosate increased microbial biomass in field plots with weeds present [88]. Isopropyl amine salt of glyphosate
stimulated soil microbial biomass across a range of soils varying in fertility [36]. It appeared that soil microbes degraded glyphosate rapidly even
at high application rate regardless of soil type or organic matter content. Imazethapyr, in both laboratory and field trials, did not affect microbial
biomass at the field rate. But at higher application rates it inhibited microbial biomass [62].
Effects of 19 years of cumulative annual field application of five pesticides [benomyl, chlorfenvinphos, aldicarb, triadimefon and glyphosate],
applied at or slightly above the recommended rates in 25 combinations, on soil microbial biomass were investigated [37]. The addition of
aldicarb reduced soil microbial biomass and the effect appeared to be persistent. The continuous use of these pesticides, either singly or in
combination, had no measurable long-term harmful effects on the soil microbial biomass.
Application of 2,4-D and its analog 2,4,5-T at 0.75 g g-1 in soils led to a distinct increase in microbial biomass C content over that of untreated
soil samples both under flooded and nonflooded conditions. 2, 4-D was inhibitory to microorganisms at higher rates of application to soil.
Repeated application of a commercial formulation of hexachlorocyclohexane [HCH] to flooded soil caused a marked increase in microbial
biomass content. Technical grade -HCH was also stimulatory to microbial biomass content [65].
Rimsulfuron adversely affected the microbiological processes but not at field dose under laboratory conditions, at varying conditions of
temperature and humidity in a silty clay loam soil [56]. Temperature and humidity conditions exerted slight and transitory effects. In another
study rimsulfuron or imazethapyr, with sludge compost did not impair soil microbial biomass at field dose but not at higher rates [55]. Organic
amendments in conjunction with the herbicides reduced the detrimental effect on soil microbial biomass. However, based on laboratory studies
rimsulfuron could pose environmental risks [81] as microbial biomass decreased compared to untreated soil. The relationship between the soil
microbial biomass content and the persistence of imazamox and benfluralin in three different soils, incubated under different laboratory
conditions was determined [80]. Microbial biomass decreased compared to untreated soil. The microbial biomass returned to the initial values at
varying times depending on incubation conditions.
The literature revealed that several studies on the impact of different pesticides, more particularly the herbicides, were done mostly under
laboratory conditions. Laboratory studies seldom reflect field conditions as several factors, which might influence are not taken into account.
Effect of pesticides on microbial biomass in problem soils and also under waterlogged conditions such as those in rice paddies, was grossly
ignored. Pesticides, when applied in field rate, do not impair microbial biomass. Moreover, microbial biomass studies do not reflect the impact
of pesticides on different microbial components and communities.

4.

Conclusion

The use of chemical pesticides has brought benefits such as the increment of agricultural production, soil productivity and products quality,
which is reflected in economic benefits, vector disease control and in general, in public health. However, due to only 10 per cent of applied
pesticides reach to the target organism, a high percentage is deposited on non-target areas [soil, water, sediments] and impacts to non-target
organism such wild life, besides affecting public health. Due to the extensive pesticides use, currently there are polluted sites with these
compounds [mainly soils], besides of the production of great amounts of pesticide wastes, stored obsolete pesticides and empty containers. For
this reason, it is necessary to generate strategies for waste treatment and/or for the bioremediation of polluted sites. The biological treatment is an
important technology from an economical and environmental point of view. Currently, the use of native or genetically modified organism to
degrade or remove pesticides has emerged as a powerful technology for in situ remediation There are reports of different organisms [bacteria,
algae, yeasts, fungus and plants], characterized in relation to their genome and the enzymes that they produce, that can be used for waste
treatment or bioremediation of soil and water. In this last process, it is necessary to considerate the soil composition, which is the responsible of
the final destination of these compounds.

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Agriculture Science Developments Vol(3), No (8), August, 2014.

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