Chemistry AS Short Notes

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Atomic Structure
Chemical Bonding
States of Matter
Moles and Equations
Enthalpy
Redox and Electrolysis
Equilibrium
Rates of Reaction
Periodicity (Period 3)
Group II and VII
Nitrogen and Sulfur
Organic Chemistry

1.Atomic Structure
Atom : Smallest electrically neutral particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical change.
Element : A substance which cannot be broken down into two or more simpler
substances by chemical means.
Sub Atomic Particles
Name of Particle
Protons (p)
Neutrons (n)
Electrons (e)

Relative Charge
+1
0
-1

Relative Mass
1
Slightly above 1
1/1840, almost negligible.

In the atom, the protons and neutrons are found in the central nucleus (therefore they
are called nucleons) and the electrons orbit this nucleus in shells.
Atomic Number/Proton Number (Z) : Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the
element.
Atomic Number defines the element.
Mass Number/Nucleon Number (A) : Sum of the neutrons and protons in the nucleus of
an atom of the element.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
Electronic Structure
1. Electrons fill into atomic orbitals in order of increasing energy. An electron will
always occupy the lowest energy level possible.
2. When more than one orbital of equal energy are available, they are first filled with
electrons of same spin per orbital, then paired up with opposite spin.
Building Up Principle
There are two discrepancies in the filling order,
: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Instead of filling up 4s and then leaving 4s2 and
3d4 , it leaves two half-filled orbitals which is
more stable.
24Cr

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

Instead of leaving 4s2 3d9, it leaves a full 3d
orbital and a half filled 4s orbital which is more
stable.
29Cu:

In both instances the arrangement leads to lower

energy, therefore it is more stable.

Atomic Orbital: A three dimensional volume of space where an electron has a 95%
probability of being found.
Ionisation Energy
Ionisation Energy is the proof we have for energy levels.
First Ionisation Energy : Energy required per mole to remove and electron from an
gaseous atom to form an unipositive gaseous ion.
Na(9)

Na+(9) + e-

Second Ionisation Energy : Energy required per mole to remove an electron from an
unipositive gaseous ion to form a dispositive gaseous ion.
Na+(9)

Na2+(9) + e-

Successive ionisation energies will increase with the number of electrons removed. As
the electrons are removed, the overall charge of the ion becomes more positive thereby
attracting the electrons more. Ionisation energy increases as a result. Across one
energy level we see a gradual rise in ionisation energy, but a steep rise is observed
when an electron is removed from a new energy level closer to the nucleus.
Factors that affect the ionisation energy of an element.
1. The size of the positive nuclear charge: The more number of protons in the
nucleus, the higher the positive nuclear charge, stronger the nuclear attractions
towards the electrons. An atom with more protons in the nucleus has higher first
ionisation energy.
2. The shielding by the inner shells: The higher the number of inner shells between
the outermost shell and the nucleus, lower the nuclear attraction towards the
outermost shell. First ionisation energy decreases as a result.
3. The distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell: The greater the
distance between the nucleus and the outermost shell, weaker the nucleus
attraction towards the outermost shell. First ionisation energy decreases as a
result.
Variation of first ionisation energy,
Down the Group
Positive nuclear charge increases
Sheilding by inner shells increase.
Distance between outermost electron and
nucleus increases.
First Ionisation Energy decreases although
positive charge increases.

Across the Period

Positive Nuclear charge increases
Sheilding by inner shells remain the same.
Distance between outermost electron and
nucleus decreases.
First Ionisation Energy increases, because
positive nuclear charge increases and size
decreases.

Electronic Structure and Periodic Table

s block elements : Last electron filled into an s orbital
p block element : Last electron filled into an p orbital
d block element : Last electron filled into an inner d orbital