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319-
HOLSTI
ABSTRACT. Against the tenets of realist literature, the article argues that
the main source of war in the last half-century is internally
-derived, and
resides in the nature of post-1945 states. Regional and temporal variations
in the topography of war make suspect realist claims of state similarity
and systemic explanations of war. It is not the security dilemma nor the
international system, but the composition of state legitimacy and the
characteristic of weak, strong, and failed states which explain war today.
Regions populated by strong states, defined in terms of legitimacy, are
arenas of peace, and regions of weak and failed states are a prime location
of war.
War, according
1979:
to
320
The
Topography of War
Since 1945
European
states as a
321
322
&dquo;state of war.&dquo; This did not mean that war was ubiquitous in every neighborhood,
but that states always had to be on guard. Or, as Morgenthau put it later, states
are always preparing for war, engaging in war, or overcoming the effects of the last
war. Even allowing for the possibility that there could be &dquo;islands of peace,&dquo; or short
eras of relaxed tension, the incidence of war in Hobbess and Rousseaus Europe
was sufficient to justify their pessimism. Although numbers differ according to
various studies, the dimensions of the problem are approximately the same. In
previous work (Holsti, 1991), I identified 119 wars among Europes small number
of states between 1648 and 1945, or one war starting on average every 2.5 years.
Little wonder that a theorist seeking an explanation would be impressed by the
dreary repetitiveness of conflicts, crises, peace conferences, and more armed
conflicts. Wars were a permanent feature of the European landscape. Nor has the
situation improved radically in other locales since 1945. Table I lists a total of 187
internal and interstate wars/interventions between 1945 and 1995.
When we adjust for the larger number of states in the system, however, the
incidence of war varies substantially between different historical periods. In the
1648-1713 period, for example, the probability of any states going to war in a given
year was one in forty. For the 50 years since 1945, the risk of involvement in international war or armed intervention for a typical state-assuming an average of 125
states in the period-declined to slightly less than one in one hundred. The supposedly recurrent outcome of anarchy changes significantly over time.
When we break down locales of war, moreover, even greater variations-indeed
anomalies-appear. There has been no interstate war in Western Europe since 1945;
none in North America since 1913-1915 (American armed intervention in Mexico);
in South America only the Falklands War-and that was against an extra-regional
power-since the Peru-Ecuador conflict of 1941. Clearly something is not happening in these areas that, according to realist predictions, should be happening.
Tables I and 2 provide some data on the location and types of war since 1945.
Since so many quantitative studies of war use different data and different criteria
for inclusion, I claim no precision. The data reported here come from a variety of
standard sources. Other recent studies (Arnold, 1991; Nietschmann, 1987) are
unreliable because no criteria for inclusion are indicated, or they are methodologically reliable but somewhat dated (Small and Singer, 1982).
Table I shows the locales of war since 1945. Armed contests have been ubiquitous in Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. There has been no
international war (i.e., two or more armies in armed combat for the purpose of
inflicting military defeat and extracting terms of victory) or massive armed intervention in Western Europe and North America, and no war between states in South
America since 1941. The figures also show that more than two-thirds of all armed
combat in the world since 1945 has taken the form of civil wars, wars of state
against nation, wars of secession, and major armed uprisings to oust governments.
These are internal wars. Nietschmann (1987: 7) suggests an even higher figure: 72
percent of all wars were of the national disintegrative rather than the classical
state-state variety. Both figures are consistent with the argument of this article:
most threats to post-1945 states have been internal, not external. The case is even
stronger when we consider that many of the interstate wars and large armed interventions originated as civil disturbances and wars. Hungary 1956, the Dominican
Republic 1965, and India-Pakistan 1971, are just some of the examples. Indeed, of
the 187 wars listed in Table 1, only 30 were classical armed combats involving two or more
organized armies of internationally-recognized states. That is an incidence of interstate war
323
TABLE 2. Armed
Conflicts per
State
by Region,
1945-1995.
every 1.8 years-higher than in the seventeenth century, but when we normalize for the number of states in the system, a remarkable decline.
Table 2 normalizes the frequency of wars according to the number of states in a
region. We would expect more wars where there are more states, but according to
realist predictions, normalized figures should be similar across regions. However,
the figures in Table 2 show dramatic differences between regions. War since 1945
has been highly concentrated in the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
Internal wars have a different profile. South America ranks fourth highest, while
sub-Saharan Africa and Central America/Caribbean are well below the average.
However we interpret such figures, Western Europe and North America are obvious
anomalies. South America is an anomaly in terms of international war, but comes
closer to the profile of other Third World areas when it comes to domestic armed
strife. The overall pattern of war since 1945, then, does not duplicate European
patterns from 1648 to 1945. There has been considerably less interstate war, considerably more war originating from civil disturbances, and war incidence of both types
has varied widely according to locale.
Other artifacts of a system of anarchy do not fare better in post-1945 international politics. Duplication of past European patterns would include hegemonyseeking, alliances, balances of power, and arms races, all accoutrements of
European diplomatic history and realist analysis. Hegemony-seeking has been
prominent only in the Middle East and arguably in South Asia. It is absent in subSaharan Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia. Formal alliances among Third
World and post-Communist states are conspicuous by their rarity. Today, there is
none in South America, Southeast Asia, Africa, or South Asia; they have been prominent only in the Middle East. Nor do we find Waltzs ubiquitous balances of power.
There is none today in South America (Selcher, 1990: 95), Africa, South Asia,
Southeast Asia, or the former Soviet Union despite the fact that in each of these
regions there are predominant states (Brazil, Nigeria, India, Indonesia, and Russia).
If there has been balancing, it has been between regional states and a super-power
(e.g., the United States and Pakistan). The argument is unconvincing that the cold
war balance of power makes regional balances unnecessary, since we have not seen
once
324
behavior emerge in those regions since 1989. Again, only in the Middle
East do we see some duplication of pre-1945 patterns of European behavior. Even
that common trait of European politics, the border dispute, has been rare in Africa
(Herbst, 1989), leading Robert Jackson and Carl Rosberg (1982: 21) to argue that
balancing
in
Black Africa, an image of international accord and civility and internal disorder and violence would be more accurate .... It is evident that the recent
national and international history of Black Africa challenges more than it
supports some of the major postulates of international relations theory.
...
And
to
that is, where states as Waltz and Deutsch conceive them do not yet exist, or where
they exist more in name than in fact.
This is not to deny that in some areas there are genuine security dilemmas,
complicated sets of external threats and resulting balancing behavior, construction
of deterrents, arms races and even drives for hegemony. One should avoid going
from one analytical fallacy-extending realism to the study of conflict in the Third
World-to another. Much of the literature on conflict in the Third World has until
recently been written from a cold war or geopolitical perspective, and it has generally neglected the domestic sources of conflict in these areas. It would be equally
inappropriate to exclude considerations of external threats in the lives of many postCommunist or Third World states, particularly those in the Middle East, the Horn
of Africa, and the Balkans. However, it is the case that the origins of conflict since
1945 have derived more frequently from weak statehood, the residues of colonialism, and national fragmentation. Many domestically originating conflicts have
become internationalized through complicated networks of ties between dissident
groups and external patrons and protectors. The whole process of the internationalization of domestic conflict needs more study (cf. Heraclides, 1990; de Silva and
May, 1991). But for the historical foundations of post-1945 war we must turn to the
birth of states.
Political
325
was a metaphor to explain the need for governance (particularly during
times of civil disturbance) among atomistic individuals, to outline the benefits it
would provide, and to list the costs it would help avoid. The focus is on sources,
needs and forms. But one searches in vain in Hobbes or Locke to find exactly who
would make the contract among themselves or with a Leviathan. The state of nature
is universal, but the states that result from the social contract are particular. They
are based on some sort of community, but the authors do not outline its entrance
requirements or limits. Hobbes speaks of the commonwealth and Locke of the
nation, but these are assumed rather than defined. During their times, the concept
of nation carried no ethnic meaning; a nation referred to any &dquo;people&dquo; who had
gained political sovereignty (Gazdag, 1992: 13). Only in Rousseau does community
as a social unit begin to appear, this time in the guise of mœurs, rendered as customs
and habits but not ethnicity.
In those philosophers Europe, the community over which there was governance
was a territorial contrivance created through wars, conquests, marriages, and a few
peaceful political amalgamations of previously independent or autonomous units.
Community was based on contiguity. In some places, such as France, England, or
Sweden, there was an ethnic core (cf. Smith, 1989: 352-353). France, for example,
grew originally around areas of the old Frankish kingdom (Paris, the Loire Valley,
and the north) but was fashioned later-largely by force of arms and the extension
of bureaucratic controls-to incorporate the politically unorganized nations of
Bretons, Basques, Alsatians, Occitanians, Catalans, Corsicans, and Flemings as well
as a variety of dukedoms and other traditional political units. At the time of the
French Revolution, one-half of Frances citizens spoke no French, and only about
12 percent spoke it properly. Most of the population in the north and south of the
country could not speak the language at all (Hobsbawm, 1990: 60; on the language
of the Revolutionary regime, see Maugu6, 1979: 46-48). When Italy was unified in
the mid-nineteenth century, only about three percent of the population could speak
standard Italian; a Sicilians speech was incomprehensible to a Milanese. Italian
parliamentarian Massimo dAzeglios quip, &dquo;We have made Italy, now we must
make Italians&dquo; expressed well the sequence of state formation in nineteenthcentury Europe: the state came before the nation. Walker Connor (1990), based on
research into immigration records prior to World War I, has shown that most
European migrants to the United States at the turn of the century had no sense of
being Italian, Ukrainian, Croat, or Slovene, much less Yugoslav. Their identities
were defined in terms of river valleys, villages, and regions.
Eighteenth- and most nineteenth-century European sovereigns, reflecting the
political philosophies of the times, ruled over &dquo;civic,&dquo; &dquo;historic,&dquo; or territorial
communities rather than over &dquo;associational&dquo; (Buckheit, 1978: 4) or &dquo;natural&dquo;
communities (nations based on consanguinity and/or language and religion). The
French &dquo;citizen&dquo; constructed during the Revolution had nothing to do with some
class or ethnic segment of the community. The concepts of patriotism and citizenship were inconsistent with divided loyalties or with special &dquo;rights&dquo; implied in the
modern concept of ethnic minorities or any other special subgroups within the state.
Secessionist and unification movements, such as those in the American colonies,
based their claims on natural law, not on ethnicity, culture, or some other group
attribute. Greek independence in the 1820s was fought for primarily in the name
of religious freedom and local political autonomy rather than ethnic identity, while,
as suggested, Italian unification had everything to do with liberalism and little to
do with the unity of some natural &dquo;people.&dquo; &dquo;Nationhood&dquo; defined in terms of
theory
326
its collateral attributes of history, language, and
arise in Europe until the late nineteenth century-with
Belgium a partial exception. Only then did claims for sovereign statehood in the
multi-national Ottoman, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian empires start to be based
upon the cultural and language attributes of ethnic communities (cf. Hobsbawm,
1990: 79, 102). Even then, however, some claims (e.g., by the Hungarians) continued to emphasize the restoration of historic rights rather than the unique distinctiveness of language, culture, or ethnicity.
The conceptual foundations of state legitimacy changed substantially between the
late nineteenth century and the end of World War I. This change was most vividly
reflected in the 1919 peace settlement. The states exclusiveness, once based on
history and territory (contiguity) now became based on culture, language, and
ethnicity (consanguinity). State territory was made to fit around &dquo;natural&dquo; community, while Woodrow Wilsons ethnically-based understanding of self-determination
replaced traditional civic concepts of the state. Even though Wilson did not intend
to apply the principle of self-determination to the victorious powers, most analysts
expected that once national aspirations in the former multinational empires had
been met, a new era of peace would emerge. When Wilson proclaimed that &dquo;no
people must be forced under a sovereignty under which it does not wish to live&dquo;
(quoted in Buckheit, 1978: 62), he was stating that all the turmoil of European
politics caused by nationalist agitation in the decades prior to the Great War could
only be resolved by sovereign statehood for &dquo;peoples.&dquo; Those &dquo;peoples&dquo; were defined
in terms of ethnicity, culture, language, and/or religion.
This change in the basis of state legitimacy was also reflected in the victorious
Allies recognition policies. Three criteria were operative in Paris during 1919: the
&dquo;peoples&dquo; must have expressed a desire for sovereign independence; that expression should have been by democratic means, through constitutions, institutions of
parliamentary government, or plebiscites; and new &dquo;minorities&dquo; must have their
own rights protected through constitutions, treaties, or
League of Nations guaran-
ethnicity-consanguinity-and
economic base did
tees.
not
327
claims all the rights of the community, the inferior races are exterreduced to servitude, or outlawed, or put in a condition of dependence (Acton, 1907: 192-193).
body which
minated,
or
As we will see, this was a prescient observation, but perhaps less relevant in the
world of Western Europe with which Acton was familiar than to many of the post1945 states.
Europes states thus came to be based on two fundamentally different foundations of legitimacy: historic-civic (e.g., France, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark) and
&dquo;natural&dquo; (Finland, Hungary, and the Baltic and Balkan states). In the former, the
state molded the modern territorial nation, and in the latter the nation (as defined
and even created by elites) helped create the state. In 1919, pre-existing &dquo;natural&dquo;
communities simply made a claim for a higher status, that is, for sovereign statehood (Smith, 1986: 240-244).
Two hybrid states, based neither on civic nor &dquo;natural&dquo; foundations, also emerged
from World War I: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. We are now seeing the results.
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were the creations of diplomats, not the results of
long historical processes or of the upgrading of some &dquo;natural&dquo; community to
sovereign statehood. They were fictions that not even seventy years of history or
the iron rule of communist regimes could transform into some degree of civic or
&dquo;natural&dquo; community. This is exactly the problem faced by many contemporary
post-socialist and Third World states.
328
languages, and commercial patterns into a single administrative zone, or they tore
apart previously integrated societies into separate units (Iraq and Kuwait, for
example). The colonial powers also shifted populations indiscriminately, thus creating multi-ethnic societies where they had not existed before. Fiji, Trinidad, Hawaii,
and Guyana are prominent examples. The numerous and diverse purposes of
colonization---commercial exploitation, slaves, religious proselytization, international status, strategic interests, and great power rivairy-bore no relationship
whatsoever to the creation of &dquo;states.&dquo; Indeed, most colonial regimes explicitly
sought to avoid building the foundations of statehood. According to Migdal (1988:
141), &dquo;British imperial officials ... considered far too extravagant building a
colonial state strong enough to either bypass indigenous forces altogether or absorb
them into a single system of rules.&dquo; Imperial officials ruled primarily through the
co-option and subsidization of &dquo;strongmen&dquo; (clan leaders, religious officials, caudillos, and the like), thus leaving the successor political units with highly fragmented
systems of social control. Colonial authorities made no attempt to encourage a sense
of national consciousness, much less ideas of individual or group rights. Quite the
opposite: their task was to exploit resources through forced or cheap labor. This
required racist ideologies (except in some cases among French colonialists), and
according to Worsley (1964), a process of psychological exploitation or &dquo;infantilization,&dquo; described by Fanon (1961) as colonization of the personality. These hardly
constitute solid foundations for modern statehood.
The idea that the polyethnic/communal fictions called colonies could someday
become independent states emerged only after World War I. By the 1950s it had
become the standard wisdom in &dquo;national (a misuse of the term) liberation&dquo; idealogy and in United Nations rhetoric. Colonial jurisdictions created for multiple nonstate purposes were somehow to become carbon copies or prototypes of the
European territorial states that had created them.
When leaders of national liberation movements spoke of &dquo;self determination&dquo;if they used that term at all-they hardly did so in the name of a &dquo;people,&dquo; because
no such &dquo;people &dquo;-meaning a &dquo;natural&dquo; comrnunity-existed. There were, rather,
congeries of communal-religious groups, ethnicities, tribes, clans, lineages, and
pastorals who wandered freely. Lacking &dquo;natural&dquo; communities or a national history
of uniqueness which might legitimate their claims to statehood, they had to rely on
the territorial creations and concoctions of the colonialists to define their hopedfor communities. In Crawford Youngs words (1983: 200):
anticolonial nationalism found inconvenient the notion that cultural affinities were a necessary basis for exercising [the right of self-determination]. A
shared condition of oppression and alien rule was the essential cause of revolt .
Thus the particular colonial territory was the necessary framework for
challenging foreign hegemony. Nationalists, in seeking united support of all
inhabitants of a given territory to sanction the independence demand, embraced
the colonial entity itself as the defining basis for the &dquo;people&dquo; to whom selfdetermination should apply.
...
...
329
groups cannot be
330
locale of armed combat, the arenas of civil and secessionist wars, many of which
will become internationalized to some extent. Contrary to the Rousseau-Waltz
thesis, then, the security problematic for such states is primarily internal, not external (Korany, 1986; Ayoob, 1991; Holsti, 1992). The main rationale for the armed
forces of many Third World and post-socialist states is not the fear of external
coercion or aggression, but the fear of internal rebellion (cf. Ball, 1988: 393; EkweEkwe, 1990: 154). The poor fit between state and nation-the major legacy of
colonialism-is the essential source of wars in the Third World and, more recently,
in the residues of collapsed communism. As Herbert Ekwe-Ekwe (1990: 155) has
noted, &dquo;It is a cruel irony that six million Africans have had to die in the past twenty
years [since the early 1970s] in conflicts that center principally on whether or not
one African nation or another should belong to states created strategically by
European imperialism to exploit the people and their resources.&dquo;
One of the main tasks of the military in Third World countries in fact has been
to &dquo;integrate&dquo; diverse communities into the states post-colonial territorial domains.
From their perspective, they are involved in &dquo;nation-building.&dquo; From the perspective of groups such as the southern Sudanese, Karens, Tamils, Mizo, Nagas,
Omoros, and dozens of others, the task of the states military is to appropriate their
lands and resources and to destroy their identity, ways of life, and local forms of
governance (Nietschmann, 1987: 7-14; Odhiambo, 1991: 292-298).
Ekwe-Ekwes statement above summarizes the fundamental dilemma of many new
states. In it is encapsulated the conflict between the principle of a states territorial
integrity and the principle of self-determination (Neuberger, 1986: 106). The
attempts to create &dquo;nations&dquo; where none existed before drive secessionist and irredentist movements, most of which take a violent form under the rubric of the inherent
right of self-determination. Without a nation, a state is fundamentally weak. But in
attempting to build strength, usually under the leadership of an ethnic core, minorities become threatened or excluded from power. This is the foundation of the &dquo;insecurity dilemma&dquo; of most new states. It is the source of most wars in our age.
Characteristics of
are
those
states
tively because they have power, but whose authority relies essentially upon the
goodwill of various kinds of &dquo;strongmen&dquo; who are the de facto rule-makers and value
allocators among a variety of ethnic, clan, class, functional, or communal social units
(cf. Migdal, 1988: 31-39). Then there are states with &dquo;mixed&dquo; characteristics, followed
by strong states whose political life rests on a synthesis or integration of state, society,
and nation(s). The critical variable is the degree of a states legitimacy-which is not
331
Weak States
Numerous indicators of strength and weakness are found in different combinations;
their interplay remains largely unexplored. Weak states contain various combinations of the following characteristics:
1.
2.
3.
1992.)
332
4.
&dquo;
5.
6.
&dquo;kleptocracy.&dquo;
Major communal or ideological groups or nations identify with, or are
loyal to, external states and/or societies (e.g., the Kashmiris toward
Pakistan during the 1950s; the Somalis in Kenya in the 1970s; the Turkish
Cypriots; some Shiia in Lebanon, etc.); or significant segments of the
population owe primary or exclusive loyalty to primordial groups (cf.
Jackson, 1987).
The state is incapable of delivering basic services or providing security
and order for the population (India after partition, Lebanon, Somalia, and
Afghanistan today). In these cases, there is indeed a Hobbesian state of
7.
8.
In Michael Manns (1986: 109-136; cf. Thomas, 1989) terms, the weak state is high
in despotic power, but low in infrastructural power. It can rule through coercion,
but it has no deep roots within civil society.
This list is suggestive, not exhaustive. Other characteristics are also relevant (cf.
Korany, 1986: 553-556). However, it contains important elements, and can also
serve as a basis of comparison with the slow and often violent process of state-formation in early modern Europe.
Strong States
Strong states
as
contain characteristics
opposite
as
well
others.
1.
333
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Most social
society.
Pomian (1991), in a parallel analysis, has suggested categories of horizontal and
vertical integration to measure the strength of statehood. A state is horizontally
integrated when its territorial base is essentially uncontested; borders are recognized and considered legitimate both within and outside the country. Vertical
integration implies that a state is able to handle social conflicts and to allocate
values without having to resort to violence; no social group is systematically
excluded from governance.
Failed States
States fail
1.
2.
central authorities. The clan chiefs of Somalia and the PLO in Lebanon
prior to the Israeli invasion of 1982 are examples.
An external power wields effective authority or influence within the territory of the state and has the coercive capacity to resist pressures from the
legal authorities. Syria in Lebanon and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan
are
3.
4.
It_ is
collapse
when
of the
one or more
examples.
Communities war against each other and the central authorities do not
have the capacity to end the slaughter. Rwanda in 1994 is an example.
A state is incapable of providing minimal security for the ordinary tasks
of life-commerce, transportation, agriculture, and communication-to
proceed. These tasks must be performed by outsiders, as has been done
by the United Nations in Somalia, or by local warlords.
important
to
emphasize
&dquo;weak,&dquo; &dquo;strong,&dquo; and &dquo;failed&dquo; states. Most states, most of the time, can be placed
in various positions on a continuum, the ends of which are the ideal types. States
334
West
time also
move
European
&dquo;weak&dquo;
or
states
&dquo;failed&dquo; parts
The Character
of States
are
sites of war.
and War
Strong
335
East is a significant exception), combined with the recurrence of war, also suggests
that the fundamental sources of armed conflict lie within rather than between
states. Despite flags, UN membership, and other symbols of sovereignty, many Third
World and post-Communist states are significantly-and perhaps functionallydifferent from those in Western Europe, North America, and most of South
America. Many governments, for example, do not have the purpose of providing
&dquo;the good life&dquo; for their citizens. Their primary purpose is to provide the good life
for one segment of the society, whether a clan, an ethnic or religious group, a
family, or an organization such as the army .
Waltzs concepts of anarchy and hierarchy are ideal types, and for reasons of
theoretical parsimony, simplifying assumptions have to be made. But if my argument
carries weight, then we really have two worlds of world politics, one populated by
strong states, the other by weak and failed states. The characteristics of relations
among the former differ significantly from those of the latter. This can be shown
empirically using many different indices. If all states were the same, as Waltz
suggests, then we should not observe such significant differences in the outcomes of
relationships. There should be wars, balances of power, hegemons, and arms races
just as much in Europe, North America, and South America as anywhere else in the
world. Yet this is not the case. In the Third and post-Communist worlds, we find the
recurrence of war, but balances of power and hegemony-seeking except in the Middle
East are rare. In summary, if we wish to look for the sources of war in these areas,
we should jettison many of our traditional analytical devices whose origins lie in
European history (Korany, 1986; Holsti, 1992). The study of the state, ethnicity, and
comparative politics provides a better theoretical and methodological platform.
Policy Implications
If the analysis has some plausibility, then our conceptions of international organizations and of the constitutive principles of international practice need re-examination. It is important to recall that the fundamental principles underlying
organizations such as the United Nations are Westphalian. The principles of
sovereign equality, of non-interference, and of territorial integrity which are the
foundations of most contemporary international organizations are important
protective devices for the small and weak against external predators. Imagine how
many countries would have shared the fate of Kuwait in July 1990 were not the
principles of sovereignty and independence among the most sacred of the society
of states. This is one reason why in the last three centuries we have witnessed the
birth of so many states, and the demise of so few. The sanctity and mystique of
statehood remain strong.
Yet, since most of the threats to weak states are internal rather than external,
how can international organizations act when their chief mandate is to maintain
international peace and security? The Somalian situation brings this question to the
forefront. Should the UN attempt to take over the functional tasks of a state when
the indigenous rulers cannot perform them? Should its purpose be to resuscitate
quasi-states that have fallen into chaos and warlordism? Or should the international
community develop new forms of trusteeship, giving itself the very long range and
costly task of creating a genuine civic society in a milieu where it is lacking? Can
the international community create strong states?
What sorts of norms should guide the efforts of international organizations in
their peace-keeping and peace-making tasks? Should the purpose, other than
336
stopping the killing, be to reconstitute states that are largely fictional or to promote
the Wilsonian idea of &dquo;natural&dquo; self-determination? These are not abstract
questions. Where peace-keeping missions have been unable to help bring ethnic
reconciliation-as is the case of Cyprus-should they continue to drain the coffers
of the United Nations and contributing governments in the expectation that
another twenty or thirty years of non-warfare may lead to an eventual restoration
of the prewar situation? Or should the international community recognize that
perhaps the most viable principle of legitimacy is statehood based on some
&dquo;natural&dquo; community? If so, would it not make more sense, for example, to accept
the fact of a Turkish Cypriot state? The peace being worked out for Bosnia, as much
as it may be a cause for future strife, implicitly takes the anti-Deutsch position that
it is better to separate peoples than to try to integrate them. But this challenges
the liberal faith (and pre-twentieth-century practice in most multi-national
empires) that a society can incorporate many groups on the basis of equality and
civility.
The
absurd
act
is to
apply
337
can
be
no
such
thing
as
1993) .
The tenets of realism and geopolitical analysis have blinded us to the continuing
search for politically effective communities. This has been a major source of international instability for more than a century. In some areas the search has led to
peace, but the record of war since 1945 indicates that the European territorial state
has not been a successful prototype for many non-Western communities. The war
between nations and the state continues unabated in many parts of the world, and
presents numerous intellectual and moral challenges for both academics and the
institutions of the international community.
Note
1.
This characterization is representative of many Third World and former Soviet republics.
They had no pre-colonial pedigree of statehood. Significant exceptions include India, the
Maghreb countries (except Libya), Egypt, Ethiopia, Burundi, Rwanda, Madagascar, Lesotho,
Botswana, the Baltic states, and Ukraine. Some small island colonies also had forms of statehood prior to Western colonization. In the remainder, there were various forms of statehood, but they did not approximate colonial or contemporary state boundaries.
References
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Biographical Note
KJ. HOLSTI, of the University of British Columbia,