Indian Journal of Community Psychology, 2014, 10(2),263-277

ISSN-0974-2719

Emotional Labour and Burnout Relationship: Role of

Social Support and Coping
Binayak Shankar* and Sandeep Kumar**

The regulation of emotion is well established at the work place, in the

present market scenario, and was termed as emotional labour by
Hochschild (1983). There are various conceptualizations of emotional
labour mainly; strategic model (Hochschild, 1983); job characteristics
models (Moris & Feldman, 1996); and a mixed model proposed by
Gandey (2000). These models predict burnout (drown out of energy to
do work, Maslach, 1982) to varying degree. The exiting literature point
out to two prominent moderators social support and coping. This paper
reviews the relationship of emotional labour with burn out and
moderation effect of social support and coping.
Keywords: Emotional labour, burnout, social support, coping.

INTRODUCTION
The employment scenario has undergone a transformation during last
two decades. There has been a considerable shift in employment from
agriculture and manufacturing to service sector. The service employees
need to display certain set of emotions such as friendliness, cheerfulness,
warmth, enthusiasm, or confidence. The service industry requires more
than physical and mental capabilities from agriculture and manufacturing
sector that is emotional capability. Emotional capability of service
industry is equivalent to muscular power of agriculture and
manufacturing industries (Hochschild, 1983).
The client interact with frontline employees of the organisation while
their visit. The consumers could not separate the service quality from the
quality of experience they have during their visit. As Pugh (2001)
remarked that the display of positive emotions by the employee is
positively related to the customers positive affect and this positive effect
of the customer leads to positive evaluations of service quality. This has
compelled organisations to have control or regulation over the employee
emotions at the work place. As the interaction between the service
provider and guest is at the core of the service experience, emphasizes
the important role of managing behavior and emotions in the delivery of
quality service. The common perspectives in these works are (1) that
emotions play a critical role in the delivery of service excellence and
customer loyalty and (2) that organizations ensure this delivery of quality
*Research Scholar, **Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi, India

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guest services most often by implementing organizational display rules.

Emotional Labour:
The individual has to show particular type emotions in certain set
of situations, irrespective of their real emotional state in accordance with
collective norms. The individual either conceals or exaggerates actual
feeling, to confirm with collective norms (called display rule). Some
effort is required in concealing or exaggerating the real emotions, the
effort is called emotional labour. Aril R. Hochschild (1983), an
American sociologist coined the term in her seminal book The Managed
Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. She defined the term as
management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily
display (p9). She emphasized the impression management by service
employee is emotional labour. She also specified three features of jobs
involving emotional labour; as:
a) must have face- to- face or voice- to- voice interaction;
b) must have some organizational or professional display rules; and
c) must induce a favorable emotional state.
Ashforth and Humhery (1993) opine that emotional labour as an
act of displaying appropriate emotions considering the objective of
impression management to better social perception of himself/ herself as
well as to condition of interpersonal climate (Grander & Martinko,
1988). There has been great emphasis on the behaviour projection of
emotions in the interpersonal interaction at the work place.
Morris and Feldman (1996) defined emotional labour as planned
and controlled effort to express organizationally desired emotions during
interpersonal transaction. The researchers emphasis organizational
expectations of emotions for employees in their interaction with the
clients and the internal stress experienced during display of discrepant
emotions from their true feelings. They identified four dimensions of
emotional labour which characteristics of job:
a) frequency of interaction;
b) attentiveness (intensity of emotions, duration of interaction);
c) variety of emotions required; and
d) emotional dissonance.
Grandey (2000) defines emotional labour involving managing
emotions so that they are in accordance with organizational or
professional display rule. This conceptualization has an inherent
assumption that some organization or profession has some set of
emotions which are to be displayed during personal interaction with
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clients. This could be the best conceptualisation of emotional labour as it

summarise the definitions of Hochschild (1983) and Morris and
Fieldsman (1996). Although, ignored the factor of emotional dissonance,
which has been historically an integral part of emotional labour.
There been persistent ambiguities on point that what is and what
is not emotional labour. Researchers found the common thread running
through every conceptualization. Emotional labour involves managing
emotions so as to confirm to organizational or professional display rule;
individual put some effort to conceal or exaggerate their true feelings to
satisfy organizational requirement. Emotional labour focuses primarily
on behavioural expression and non- expression or suppression of felt
emotions to be confirming to display rule. Thus, emotional labour is the
deliberate cognitive effort of the employees to display emotions as per
organizational or professional display rule, and are paid for their
meliorate performance in developing positive identification with clients
in interpersonal interaction.
Types of Emotional Labour:
The emotional display is not spontaneous process so the
employees may modify their display in two ways (Grove and Fisk,
1989), either by modifying their true feelings or through deliberate skin
thick emotional display. The former strategy is called deep acting and the
latter strategy is surface acting (Hochschild, 1983). The varieties of
emotional labour are all intrinsically false, though they differ in
intentions. The deep acting is modifying internal emotions to fit the
organizational or professional display rule, in good faith of the
concerned, whereas surface acting involves skin thick, fake or cunning
emotional display.
The emotional labour is concluded to be the amount of effort put
into by service employee in concealing or exaggerating their true feeling
in a planned and controlled way with an intention to induce behavioural
satisfaction to client, as well as managing better social perception of
himself/ herself along with organization. The emotional labour has been
related to various job behaviours in researches, as it was found to be
negatively related to job satisfaction, memory performance,
depersonalization, and positively with job stress, hypertension, heart
disease, and even to exacerbate cancer (Mann, 2004), emotional
exhaustion and burnout (Zapf, 2002).
Burnout:The popular usage of the term burnout came from the novel,
A Burn-Out Case (Greene, 1961). Burnout is a state of emotional,
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mental, and physical exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged

stress (Freudenberger, 1975). It occurs when one feel overwhelmed and
unable to meet constant demands. The use of the term burnout for this
phenomenon began to appear with some regularity in the 1970s in the
United States, especially among people working in the human services.
The importance of burnout as a social problem was identified by both
practitioners and social commentators long before it became a focus of
systematic study by researchers. Burnout as a psychological term for the
experience of long-term overwhelmed of emotional exhaustion, loss of
energy, and withdrawal from work was introduced in the mid 1970s by
two American researchers, Herbert Freudenberger and Christina
Maslach, who independently of each other described the phenomenon.
There may be various sources contributing to the burnout, and
the have been broadly divided into three categories (Scott, 2006):
1. Job related: unclear and impossible requirements; prolonged
high time with no down time; big consequence of failure; lack of
personal control, recognition; and poor leadership.
2. Lifestyle causes: too much work with little balance; no help or
supportive resources; too little social support, sleep, and time off.
3. Psychological factors: perfectionist tendency; pessimism;
excitability; type A personality; poor fit for the job; and lack of
belief in what individual do.
Burnout is the devastating psychological conditions brought about by
unrelieved work stress, which can cause (Maslach & Leiter, 1997):
a) depleted energy and emotional exhaustion;
b) lowered resistance to illness;
c) increased depersonalization in interpersonal relationship;
d) increased dissatisfaction and pessimism; and
e) increased absenteeism and reduced work efficiency.
Further, it was added that burnout is the indicator of the
dislocation between what people are and what they have to do. It
represents erosion in values, dignity, spirit, and will; a corrosion of
human soul. (Maslach & Leiter, 1997).
Emotional Labour and Burnout Relationship:
Burnout results when workers are unable to maintain sufficient
psychological distance between the emotional requirements of their job
and their sense of self, it should not only be found in human service jobs
but should also occur in other jobs that involve emotional labor
(Wharton, 1999). Zapf (2002) found that emotional work combined with
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organizational problems were associated with high levels of burnout.

High emotional demands and high role-conflicts had an impact on all
three dimensions of burnout. Burnout research had its roots in caregiving and service occupations, in which the core of the job was the
relationship between provider and recipient (Maslach, Schaufeli &
Leiter, 2001). The interpersonal context of the job implied, from the
beginning, burnout was studied not as an individual stress response, but
in terms of an individuals relational transactions in the workplace and
focused attention on the individuals emotions, and on the motives and
values underlying his or her work with recipients. The service employees
are emotionally taxed (Maslach & Jackson, 1982), thus service
employees are more porn to burnout. Surface acting, the process whereby
employees modify and control their emotional expressions, is related to
stress outcomes (Brotheridge and Lee, 1998; Brotheridge, 1999;
Erickson and Wharton, 1997; Pugliesi and Shook, 1997; Pugliesi, 1999).
Thus it is expect that surface acting to relate to both exhaustion and
cynicism. Deep acting, the process of controlling internal thoughts and
feelings to meet the mandated display rules, has been found to be related
to a greater sense of personal efficacy at work (Brotheridge and Lee,
1998).
Emotional dissonance is root of major problems of the service
employees (Hochschild, 1983). Inability to express what one feel may
cause the individual to feel false and hypocritical and, in the long run,
may lead to the alienation from ones own emotions, poor self-esteem,
and depression. Brotheridge and Lee (1998) provided evidence that it is
emotional dissonance which is related with psychological strain whereas
other variables of emotion work were not, except through their relation
with emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance is mirrored in
increased levels of role conflict and role ambiguity which have been
found to be predictors of burnout (Lee & Ashforth, 1996).
A recent meta-analysis examining the relationship between
emotional labor and burnout (Bono and Vey, 2004), indicated significant
associations of emotional labour with both emotional exhaustion
(weighted mean correlation=0.30) and depersonalization (weighted mean
correlation=0.23). Thus eresearchers have concluded that emotional
labour and burnout are positively related (Hochschild, 1983; Rafaeli &
Sutton, 1987; Morris & Feldman, 1996; Cote and Morgan, 2002;
Parkinson, 1991; Pugliesi, 1999). Indeed, emotional labour can be either

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healthy or unhealthy for workers depending on how it is performed

(Kruml and Geddes, 2000).
Individuals can reduce the symptoms of burnout through coping
(Maslach & Leiter, 1997). Social support has been seen as one of the
largest predictors toward a reduction in burnout and stress for workers
(Dierendonck, Schaufeli & Buunk, 1998).
Effect of Coping on the Emotional Labour-Burnout Relationship:
Coping refers to those behavioural actions and cognitive
processes that enable an individual to tackle stressful situations. Early
researches conceptualized it as unconscious defence mechanism (Freud,
1933), but recently there has been a shift in conceptualization of coping
as a response to external stressful and negative situation or event (Billing
& Moos, 1981; Mc-Crae, 1984). These responses are conscious strategies
or styles of the individual. Thus, coping is simply the effort put in the
individual to manage the demand with available resources, irrespective
of the success or failure.
Lazarus and friends (1979) suggested five modes of coping:
Information seeking; Direct action; Inhibition of action; Cognitive
processing; and Support of others. Latter, they narrowed it down to two
general ways of coping with stressful situation (Coyne, Aldwin &
Lazarus, 1981; Lazarus & Folkman, 1985) as task focused and emotion
focused. In task focused coping, the individual attempts to eliminate the
source of the source of the stress, e.g. aggressive interpersonal effects to
alter the situation, and cool, rational, deliberate effort to solve the
problem. Where as, in emotion focused coping, the individual attempts to
reduce or eliminate emotional distress associated with or clued by
stressful situation; e.g. distancing, self-control, seeking social support,
escape- avoidance, accepting responsibility, and positive reappraisal.
Task focused coping is related to situations where individual
believe that something constructive can be done about the source of
stress. On the other hand, emotion focused coping is related to situations
where individual perceive the situation to be enduring. Folkman (1984)
found that individual utilizes both coping strategies virtually in every
stressful situation.
The importance of coping strategies is highlighted by Endler and
Parker (1990), who suggest that coping strategies play a major role in
individuals physical and psychological well-being when they are
confronted with negative or stressful life events (1990, p. 844). Abraham
(1998) proposed that self-monitoring tones down the emotional
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dissonance-job satisfaction relationship: high self-monitors experience

significantly less dissatisfaction compared to low self-monitors. Mann
(2004) recommended policies encouraging emotional expression, valuing
emotion as part of the job, prescribing break times, establishing
emotional mentoring, and promoting emotional autonomy.
Thinking about something differently, people come to have
different feelings about it. An example of the use of cognitive appraisals
by front-line service workers, in this case debt collectors, is provided by
Sutton (1991, p 252) who found that collectors were taught how to use
such appraisals in order to assist them to detach themselves emotionally
from debtors.
Anderson (2002) in focused group interviews of Australian
service workers found that Service workers used a variety of strategies to
cope with the challenges presented by the performance of such labour.
These strategies included emotion-focused strategies, such as distancing
and venting, and problem-focused strategies such as learning new skills
or procedures. Some interviewees reported psyching themselves up at
the beginning of a day, as mentioned by Mann (1997). Another set of
strategies, which revolved around relaxation, distancing, and venting
was widely reported.
Effect of Organisational Social Support:
Social Support is the acts of help that an individual receives
through the social interaction. The concept of social support can be
traced to several scholars who published their work in the 1970s (e.g.,
Cassel, 1976; Cobb, 1976; Moss, 1973). They found that social
relationships can moderate the effects of stress on individuals health and
well-being. But, they differed on What is social support? Social
support is the assurance of help from the people around in times of need.
The individual feels secured in the perceived condition of high social
support.
The concept of social support was brought into the
organizational psychology by Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, and
Sowa (1986) through organizational support theory. Further, they
proposed that the employees develop global beliefs about an
organization's readiness to meet their socio-emotional needs and reward
increased work efforts (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Here, the term
perceived organizational support came into existence and defined as
"employees global beliefs concerning the extent to which the
organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being"
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(Eisenberger et al., 1986, p. 504). Levinson (1965) proposed

organizations personification, employees view their favourable or
unfavourable treatment as an indication that the organization favours or
disfavours them. Organizational support theory also addresses the
psychological processes underlying consequences of perceived
organizational support. First, on the basis of the reciprocity norm,
perceived organizational support should produce a felt obligation to care
about the organizations welfare and to help the organization reach its
objectives. Second, the caring, approval, and respect connoted by
perceived organizational support should fulfil socio-emotional needs,
leading workers to incorporate organizational membership and role status
into their social identity. Third, perceived organizational support should
strengthen employees beliefs that the organization recognizes and
rewards increased performance (i.e., performance-reward expectancies)
(Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).
Jonge et al. (2008) wanted to test impact of balancing or
matching the resources at work with job demands would impact on
employee well-being, indicated by level of emotional exhaustion,
motivation, and creativity. The resources included support from
colleagues and supervisors and job control, the latter implied in Ashforth
and Humphreys (1993) framework.
In interviews of Australian service workers found that
performance of emotional labour through deep acting relates to the sense
of authenticity, which, in turn, negatively relates to emotional
exhaustion. Supportive relationships were found to increase rewarding
relationships, which is important because the lack of rewarding
relationships was associated with depersonalisation, emotional
exhaustion, and inauthenticity, and the latter was found to correlate with
the reduced sense of personal accomplishment (Anderson, 2002). Social
support from co-workers was acknowledged as important and facilitated
the use of other coping strategies, such as reducing ego involvement. A
qualitative study by Karabanow (1991) on workers at a childrens shelter
discovered that positive identification with work and a sense of solidarity
and support from co-workers mitigate the impact of emotional labour.
Abraham (1998) also found social support as well as job autonomy to
moderate emotional dissonance, which she identified as one of the
sources of the negative impact of emotional labour (p. 243).
One strategy described by Hochschild (1983) is group cohesion,
which addresses dysfunction resulting from isolation by creating a
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support network of fellow teachers. The availability of social support has

been positively associated with a reduced risk of mental and physical
illness (Stroebe, 2000, p. 244-245). However, social support needs to
match the needs of recipients, and can be unhelpful if it does not
(Bierhoff, 2001, p. 311). Anderson (2002) emphasized that the adverse
effects on social relationships that can be an important negative effect of
performing emotional labour if coping strategies are not effective.
Creating an organizationally-supportive environment as well as
ensuring that employees have supportive work environments does
mediate the negative aspects of burnout and stress.
Conclusion :
The employees in the human service do regulate their emotions
at work place in order to get financial benefits to the employer, which is
termed as emotional labour. The emotional dissonance is the integral part
of the emotional labour. The meaning of emotional labour is lost if the
component of dissonance is not brought along with the strategies of
doing it and the intensity of the emotional demand at the work place
measured through job characteristic.
The emotional labour has been found to be related to burnout,
but there is lack of consistency in the empirical findings. The strategy of
surface acting is empirically associated with burnout, in contradiction to
the qualitative findings of Hochschild (1983, 2003), which indicates even
deep acting could also lead to self- alienation. These differences needs
attention and further qualitative researches should be carried on, to
identify the real cause of burnout in human services.
The experience of emotional labour and burnout is reduced
through use of various coping strategies such as, relaxation, distancing,
venting and also learning new skills or procedures. The emotion-focused
and task-focused strategies were also found to moderate prediction of
burnout through emotional labour. These findings are mainly from the
qualitative researches and needs to be established through empirical
researches.
The social support is also a component of emotion-focused
coping strategy, which had demonstrated significant role in moderating
the effect of emotional labour has yet to be tested independently. There is
also lack of empirical findings to support. There is also need to explore
whether the social support alone is moderating the relationship, or other
factors of the emotion-focused coping strategies are also having

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significant moderating effect. The concept of perceived organizational

support is yet not been tested in any study.
The emotional labour related to burnout through emotional
dissonance. Further, this relationship is moderated by coping strategies
utilized by the employee and availability of social support from the
organization.
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Received : April 29,2013

Revised :
March 06,2013
Accepted :
July 20, 2014

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