PT Level I Course

Surface Methods Level I Course 2012
Table of Contents
Chapter I General knowledge related to Non Destructive Testing ............................................................. 2
Part I LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
Chapter 2 Basic Principles of Liquid Penetrant Testing ..............................................................................25
Chapter 3 Equipment and Materials ...............................................................................................................31
Chapter 4 Techniques ......................................................................................................................................41
Chapter 5 Interpretation of Test Results .......................................................................................................55
Chapter 6 Codes, Standards, Procedures and Safety ..................................................................................63
Page 1

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL KNOWLEDGE RELATING TO NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
1.0 Introduction To Non Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing is a fundamental and essential tool for control of quality of engineering
materials, manufacturing processes, reliability of products in services, and maintenance of systems
whose premature failure could be costly or disastrous. Non destructive testing is normally
interpreted to mean the use of physical methods for testing materials and products without harm to
those materials and products. It is frequently important to know a property or characteristic of a
material or product which, if tested directly, would be destructive. Therefore it becomes necessary
to perform a non-destructive test on some property or characteristic which can be related to that
about which knowledge is desired. The test may be very simple in some cases, but in others may be
complex and difficult
1.1 Purposes of Non-destructive Testing
Since the 1920s, the art of testing without destroying the test object has developed from a
laboratory curiosity to an indispensable tool of production. No longer is visual examination of
materials, parts and complete products the principal tests in great variety are in worldwide use to
detect variations in structure, minute changes in surface finish, the presence of cracks or other
physical discontinuities, to measure the thickness of materials and coatings and to determine other
characteristics of industrial products. Scientists and engineers of many countries have contributed
greatly to non-destructive test development and applications.
The various non-destructive testing methods are covered in detail in the literature but it is always
wise to consider objectives before plunging into the details of a method. What is the use of
non-destructive testing? Why do thousands of industrial concerns buy the testing equipment, pay
the subsequent operating costs of the testing and even reshape manufacturing processes to fit the
needs and findings of non-destructive testing?
Modern non-destructive tests are used by manufacturers
1. To ensure product integrity, and in turn, reliability
2. To avoid failures, prevent accidents and save human
3. To ensure customer satisfaction and maintain the manufacturer's reputation
4. To aid in better product design
5. To control means of determining adequate quality manufacturing processes
6. To lower manufacturing costs;
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1.2 Applications of NDT
NDT is most commonly used where component failure may have a catastrophic consequences
such as in air planes, electric power plants, petrochemical plants, as well as gas transmission
lines, offshore drilling platforms, and ground transportation systems and structures. Primary uses
of NDT are
Raw Material Inspection
Pre Service Inspection i.e. testing of newly manufactured items to make sure the parts
comply with design specifications
In Service Inspection i.e. the periodic inspection of items that are in some type of on-going
service to determine if the part is suitable for continued service
The prediction of remaining life in operating systems is highly dependent on the operating
conditions and a detailed knowledge of the precise condition of material required. NDT is used to
assess the current condition of the materials that have been in service by detecting presence of
cracking or progressive wall thinning due to long term corrosion.
1.3 Types of NDT Methods
NDT methods which are commonly used are: Visual or Optical Inspection, Dye-Penetrant Testing,
Magnetic Particle Testing, Eddy Current Testing, Radiographic Testing, Ultrasonic Testing and
Leak Testing. These methods are known as conventional NDT methods. Compared to these NDT
methods like neutron radiography, thermal and infrared testing and acoustic emission, etc. are
known as non-conventional NDT methods. A brief description of the conventional NDT methods
is given below:
1.3.1 Visual Testing (VT)
Often overlooked in any listing of NDT methods, visual inspection is one of the most common and
most powerful means of non-destructive testing. Visual testing requires adequate illumination of
the test surface and proper eye-sight of the tester. To be most effective visual inspection does,
however, requires special attention because it requires training, e.g. knowledge of product and
process, anticipated service conditions, acceptance criteria and record keeping, and it has its own
range of equipment and instrumentation. Often the equipment needed is simple (Figure 1): a
portable light, a mirror on stem, a 2 X or 4 X hand lens and one illuminated magnifier with
magnification 5X or 10X.. For internal inspection, light lens systems such as borescopes allow
remote surfaces to be examined. More sophisticated devices of this nature using fibre optics permit
Page 3

the introduction of the device into very small access holes and channels. Most of these systems
provide for the attachment of a camera to permit permanent recording.
Figure 1 Various Optical Aids used in Visual Inspection
A.
Mirror on stem: may be flat for normal view or concave for limited magnification.
B.
Hand magnifying glass (magnification usually 2-3X).
C.
Illuminated magnifier, field of view more restricted than D (magnification 5-10X).
D.
Inspection glass, usually fitted with a scale for measurement, the front surface is placed in
contact with the work (magnification 5-10X).
E.
Borescope or intrascope with built-in illumination (magnification 2-3X).
The applications of visual testing include:

1)
Checking of the surface condition of the test specimen.
2)
Checking of alignment of matting surfaces.
3)
Checking of shape of the component.
4)
Checking for evidence of leaking.
5)
Checking for inner surface defects.
1.3.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface discontinuities in any
industrial product which is made of a non-porous material. This method is widely used for testing
of non-magnetic materials. In this method a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the product
for a certain predetermined time after which the excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The
surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which remains in the
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discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence, as well as the location, size and
nature of the discontinuity. Penetrant Testing is discussed in detailed in later chapters.
Penetrants used as liquid penetrant are either visible dye penetrant or fluorescent dye penetrant.
The inspection of indications by visible dye penetrant is made under white light while inspection
of indications by fluorescent dye penetrant is made under ultraviolet (or black) light under
darkened conditions. The liquid penetrant processes are further sub-divided according to the
method of washing of the specimen. The penetrants can be: (i) water-washable, (ii)
post-emulsifiable, i.e. an emulsifier is added to the excess penetrant on surface of the specimen to
make it water-washable, and (iii) solvent removable, i.e. the excess penetrant is needed to be
dissolved in a solvent to remove it from the test specimen surface. In order of decreasing
sensitivity and decreasing cost, the liquid penetrant processes can be listed as:
1)
Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye penetrant.
2)
Solvent removable fluorescent dye penetrant.
3)
Water washable fluorescent dye penetrant.
4)
Post emulsifiable visible dye penetrant.
5)
Solvent removable visible dye penetrant.
6)
Water washable visible dye penetrant.
1.3.3 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials which can be easily magnetized. This
method is capable of detecting open-to-surface and just below-the-surface flaws. In this method
the test specimen is first magnetized either by using a permanent or an electromagnet or by passing
electric current through or around the specimen. The magnetic field thus introduced into the
specimen is composed of magnetic lines of force. Wherever there is a flaw which interrupts the
flow of magnetic lines of force, some of these lines must exit and re-enter the specimen. These
points of exit and re-entry form opposite magnetic poles. When minute magnetic particles are
sprinkled onto the surface of such a specimen, these particles are attracted by these magnetic poles
to create a visual indication approximating the size and shape of the flaw. Figure 2 illustrates the
basic principle of this method.
Depending on the application, there are different magnetization techniques used in magnetic
particle testing.
Page 5

D
e
p
e
n
Figure 2 Basic principle of magnetic particle testing
These techniques can be grouped into the following two categories:

a)
Direct Current Techniques: These are the techniques in which the current flows through the
test specimen and the magnetic field produced by this flow of current is used for the
detection of defects. These techniques are shown in Figure 3
Figure 3: Circular magnetization with contact heads (left) : Prod Magnetization (right)
b)
Magnetic Flux Flow Techniques: in these techniques magnetic flux is induced into the
specimen either by the use of a permanent magnet or by flowing current through a coil or a
conductor. These techniques are shown in Figure 4
Figure 4 Yoke Magnetization (left) ; Longitudinal Magnetization (right)
Page 6

1.3.4 Radiographic Testing Method (RT)
The radiographic testing method is used for the detection of internal flaws in many different
materials and of many configurations. An appropriate radiographic film is placed behind the test
specimen (Figure 1.5) and is exposed by passing either X-rays or gamma rays through it. The
intensity of the X-rays or gamma rays while passing through the product is modified according to
the internal structure of the specimen and thus the exposed film, after processing, reveals the
shadow picture, known as a radiograph, of the product.
Figure 5 Basic Principle of Radiographic Testing
Page 7

It is then interpreted to obtain data about the flaws present in the specimen. This method is used on
wide variety of products such as forgings, castings and weldment.
Radiography is an important tool in nondestructive testing. The method offers a number of
advantages over other NDT methods, but one of its disadvantages is the health risk associated with
the radiation. Health effects can occur due to either long-term low level exposure or short-term
high level exposure. X-rays and gamma rays are ionizing radiation and as such they are harmful to
human beings. If received in higher doses, these radiations can be lethal. The most dangerous thing
about X-rays and gamma rays is that their presence cannot be felt even if being received in large
doses and causing damage to the human body. For example, a lethal dose of radiation will cause
only a 0.002 C rise in temperature of human body which cannot be perceived by the human
senses. The effects of ionizing radiation on human beings can be classified as somatic and genetic.
1.3.4.1
Somatic effects
The damage caused by the ionizing radiation to the exposed individual is known as somatic effect.
These effects can be further divided into immediate and delayed somatic effects. Immediate
somatic effects are the effects which are apparent in the exposed individual within hours or a few
days. These effects include vomiting, nausea, fatigue, paleness, loss of hair, loss of appetite, etc.
The delayed somatic effects may appear in the exposed individual years after the exposure. These
effects may include:
1. Cataract of the lenses of the eyes which may cause partial or total blindness.
2. Cancer such as bone and lung cancer and leukemia.
3. A plastic anemia caused by radiation damage to bone marrow.
4. Shortening of life span and premature ageing.
1.3.4.2
Genetic effects
Genetic effects, which are caused by the damage to the genes of the exposed individual, affect the
off-spring of the exposed individual. This is the most important of long term effects of low level
radiation exposure. Genetic effects are significant only if gonads receive radiation exposure.
Page 8

1.3.5 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which high frequency sound waves are
introduced into the material being inspected. Most ultrasonic inspection is done at frequencies
between 0.5 and 20 MHz well above the range of human hearing which is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
The sound waves travel through the material with some loss of energy (attenuation) due to material
characteristics. The intensity of sound waves is either measured, after reflection (pulse echo) at
interfaces (or flaw) or is measured at the opposite surface of the specimen (pulse transmission).
The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the presence and location of flaws. The
degree of reflection depends largely on the physical state of matter on the opposite sides of the
interface, and to a lesser extent on specific physical properties of that matter. For instance, sound
waves are almost completely reflected at metal-gas interfaces. Partial reflection occurs at
metal-liquid or metal-solid interfaces. Ultrasonic testing has a superior penetrating power than
radiography and can detect flaws deep in the test specimen (say up to about 6 to 7 metre of steel). It
is quite sensitive to small flaws and allows the precise determination of the location and size of the
flaws. The basic principle of ultrasonic testing is illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Figure 6 Basic Principle of Ultrasonic Testing (Pulse echo technique)
Ultrasonic testing method is:

1)
Mostly used for detection of flaws in materials
2)
Widely used for thickness measurement
3)
Used for the determination of mechanical properties and grain structure of materials
Page 9

4)
1.3.6
Used for the evaluation of processing variables on materials
Eddy Current Testing (ET)
This method is applicable to electrically conductive materials only. In this method eddy currents
are produced in the product by bringing it close to an alternating current carrying coil. The
alternating magnetic field of the coil is modified by the magnetic fields of the eddy currents. This
modification, which depends on the condition of the part near to the coil, is then shown as a meter
reading or cathode ray tube presentation. Figure 1.7 (a & b) gives the basic principles of eddy
current testing.
Figure 7 Generation of eddy currents in the test specimen (left) Distortion of eddy currents due to defect(right)
There are three types of probes (Figure 8) used in eddy current testing. Internal probes are usually
Figure 8 Eddy Current Probes : Surface Probes (left) ; Internal Probe (bobbin) (middle) ; Encircling Probe (right)
Page 10

used for the in-service testing of heat exchanger tubes. Encircling probes are commonly used for
the testing of rods and tubes during manufacturing. The uses of surface probes include the location
of cracks, sorting of materials, measurement of wall and coating thickness, and case depth
measurement. This method is used:
1)
For the detection of defects in tubings

2)
For sorting of materials
3)
For the measurement of thin wall thicknesses from one surface only
4)
For measuring thin coatings and
5)
For measuring case depths
1.3.7
Leak Testing (LT)
Since many structures are designed to be pressurized or pressure tight, defect is often a leak. There
are several methods (Table 1.1) for locating leaks ranging from simple liquid seepage onto a dry
surface, perhaps mixed with a dye, to highly precise measurement of the escape of helium or
radioactive gas. The level of sensitivity depends upon the method used and is chosen in relation to
the severity of the application.
Table 1.1 COMPARISON OF LEAK TESTING METHODS
Method
Air/soap solution
Detector
Relative sensitivity
Visual bubbles
1x
Sound of escaping gas
10 x
Air/water
Air
(Ultrasonic detector)
Hydrogen/Methanol
Visual bubbles
100 x
Hydrogen
Pirani gauge
100 x
Halogen gas
Heated anode
700 x
(Electron capture gauge)

Hydrogen or helium
Mass spectrometer
800 x
Radioactive gas (Krypton-85)
Counter
800 x
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1.2 NDT Level-1 Certification
1.2.1 Pre Requisites
a) Education, Training and Experience
According to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC- 1A Personnel Qualification and
Certification in Non-destructive Testing Candidates for certification in NDT should have
sufficient education, training, and experience to ensure qualification in those NDT methods in
which they are being considered for certification. To be considered for Level I certification, a
candidate should satisfy following training and experience criteria
Examination Method
Training
Hours
Experience
Min Hours in
Method
Total Hours in NDT
Liquid Penetrant Testing
70
130
Magnetic Particle Testing
12
70
130
b) Vision Examination
Near-Vision Acuity. The examination should ensure natural or corrected near-distance
acuity in at least one eye such that the applicant is capable of reading a minimum of Jaeger
Number 2 or equivalent type and size letter at the distance designated on the chart but not
less than 12 inches (30.5 cm) on a standard Jaeger test chart. This should be administered
annually.
Color Contrast Differentiation. The examination should demonstrate the capability of
distinguishing and differentiating contrast among colors or shades of gray used in the
method as determined by the employer. This should be conducted upon initial certification
and at five-year intervals thereafter.
1.2.2 Responsibilities of Level-1 (Operator or Technical Assistant Level)
A person having Level-1 Certificate shall be capable of:
1)
Carrying out NDT operations according to written instructions and under the supervision
of Level-2 or Level-3 personnel.
2)
Setting up the equipment.
3)
Carrying out the tests and recording the results obtained.
4)
Classifying and reporting on the results in terms of written criteria.
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However, a person having a Level-1 certificate shall not be responsible for the choice of the test
method or technique to be used not for the assessment of test result.
1.3
MATERIALS
1.3.1 Properties of Materials

1.3.1.1
1.3.1.1.1
Physical properties
Specific gravity
Specific gravity is a unit of measurement based on the mass of a volume of material compared with
the mass of an equal volume of water.. When two molten metals are mixed together the metal with
the lower specific gravity will be forced to rise to the top
1.3.1.1.2
Density
A metal is said to be dense when it is compact and does not contain defects such as slag inclusions or
gas pockets. Density is expressed as the quantity per unit volume. The density of low carbon steel,
for example, is 0.238 pounds per cubic inch (7.85 gm per cm3). The density of aluminium, a much
lighter metal, is only 0.096 pounds per cubic inch (2.7 gm per cm3).
1.3.1.1.3
Porosity
Porosity is the opposite of density. Some materials are porous by their nature and allow liquids under
pressure to leak through them
1.3.1.1.4
Melting point
The melting point is the temperature at which a substance passes from a solid to a liquid state. For
water this is 32 F (0 C). Steel has a melting point around 2700 F (1482 C) depending upon the
carbon range. Higher the melting point, greater is the amount of heat needed to melt a given volume
of metal.
1.3.1.1.5
Volatility
Volatility is the ease with which a substance may be vaporized. A metal which has a low melting
point is more volatile than a metal with a high melting point. Volatility is measured by the
temperature at which a metal boils under atmospheric pressure.
1.3.1.1.6
Weldability
Weldability is the capacity of a metal substance to form a strong bond of adherence while under
pressure or during solidification from a liquid state.
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1.3.1.2
Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties are defined as the properties of a material that reveal its elastic and inelastic
(plastic) behaviour when force is applied, thereby indicating its suitability for mechanical
applications, for example, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, elongation, hardness, and fatigue
limit. Other mechanical properties, not mentioned specifically above, are yield strength, yield
point, impact strength, and reduction of area, to mention a few of the more common terms. In
general, any property relating to the strength characteristics of metals is considered to be a
mechanical property.
Elasticity and plasticity
When stress or force is applied to a metal, it changes shape. For example a metal under a
compressive stress will shorten and metal in tension will lengthen. This change in shape is called
strain. The ability of metal to strain under load and then return to its original size and shape when
unloaded is called elasticity. The elastic limit (proportional limit) is the greatest load a material
can withstand and still spring back into its original shape when the load is removed. Within the
elastic range stress is proportional to strain and this is known as Hookes law. The relationship
between applied stress or load and the consequent strain or change in length is shown in Figure 9.
The end of the straight line portion
is known as the elastic limit. A
point on the curve slightly higher
than the elastic limit is known as the
yield point or yield strength. The
allowable or safe load for a metal in
service should be well below the
elastic limit. If higher loads are
applied, however, the range of
elasticity or elastic deformation is
exceeded and the metal is now
permanently deformed. Now it will
Figure 9 Stress Strain Diagram
not return to its original dimensions even when the load is removed. For this reason, the area of the
stress strain curve beyond the elastic limit is called the plastic range. It is this property that makes
metals so useful. When enough force is applied by rolling, pressing or hammer blows, metals can
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be formed, when hot or cold, into useful shapes. If the application of load is increased in the plastic
region a stage comes when the material fractures. Some of the important mechanical properties are
discussed below
1.3.1.2.1
Strength
Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is usually expressed as the ultimate
tensile
strength in pounds per square inch
1.3.1.2.2
Hardness
The ability of one material to penetrate another material without fracture of either is known as
hardness. The greater the hardness, the greater is the resistance to marking or deformation. A hard
material is also a strong material, but it is not very ductile. The opposite of hardness is softness.
1.3.1.2.3
Toughness
A material may be assumed to be tough if it has high tensile strength and the ability to deform
permanently without breaking. Toughness may be thought of as the opposite of failure through
deformation whereas a brittle material breaks without any warning. Copper, nodular iron and steel
are tough materials.
1.3.1.2.4
Shock (impact) resistance
Shock resistance may be defined as the ability of a material to withstand a maximum load applied
suddenly. The shock resistance of a material is often taken as an indication of its toughness.
1.3.1.2.5
Brittleness
Brittle materials fail without any warning through deformation, elongation, or a change of shape. It
may be said that a brittle material lacks plasticity and toughness. A piece of chalk is very brittle.
1.3.1.2.6
Ductility
Ductility is the ability of materials to be permanently deformed (stretched) by loading, and yet resist
fracture. When this happens, both elongation and reduction in area take place in the material.. Metals
Page 15

with high ductility may be stretched, formed, or drawn without tearing or cracking. Gold, silver,
copper and iron are metals with good ductility. A ductile metal is not necessarily a soft metal. A
metal may be ductile and yet possess hardness.
1.3.2
Types of Metals
Metals are divided into two general types, Ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous metals have iron as their
major element. Iron is the basis of all steels. Non-ferrous metals contain no iron in appreciable
amount. Following are the types of ferrous metals.
1.3.2.1
Iron
Cast iron is produced by resembling pig iron and scrap iron in a furnace. Some of the impurities in
the molten metal are removed by using various chemical agents called "flux". Cast iron has some
degree of corrosion resistance and has a low tensile strength. Many pump casings and machinery
housing are made from cast iron.
Wrought iron is a highly refined iron that has very low carbon content and contains uniformly
distributed particles of "slag". Wrought iron is considerably softer that cast iron. Like cast iron,
wrought iron is fairly resistant to corrosion and fatigue. Because of these characteristics, wrought
iron is used extensively for low pressure pipe and rivets.
1.3.2.2
Steel
Steel is one of the most important materials used in manufacturing and construction. It is an unusual
material because there are so many variations. There are over 10,000 different grades of steel that
have been developed for specific properties. Steel may be hard or soft, tough or brittle; they may rust
easily or not at all.
Plain steels that have small additions of sulfur and sometimes phosphorus are called" free cutting
steels". The plain steels are classified by their percentage of carbon.
Low-carbon steel contains less than 0.25 percent carbon. Low-carbon steel is usually referred to as
"mild steel". Theses steels can be easily cut and bent and do not have great tensile strength.
Medium-carbon steels contain 0.25-0.55 percent carbon. Medium carbon steels are stronger and
harder that mild carbon steels. As a result, they are harder to form. Parts made form medium-carbon
steels include gears, axles, drive shafts, levers and other parts that must be strong and durable.
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High-carbon steels have more than 0.55 percent carbon. They have the greatest hardness and
strength, but they are the most difficult steels to cut and form. High carbon steels are used to make
cutting tools, hand tools such as files and hammer and machine parts.
1.3.2.3
Alloy steel
When other elements are added to iron during the refining process, the resulting metal is called
"alloy steel". Alloy steels are further identified as "low-alloy steel" or "high-alloy steel" depending
on the amount of alloying material present.
The low-alloy nickel steels contain less than 5 percent nickel. The nickel is used to increase strength
and toughness. Nickel steels containing more that 5 percent nickel have increase resistance to
corrosion.
A great many steels are included in the group known as stainless steels. Most of these are chromium
steels or Chromium- nickel steels. Stainless steels are in general referred to as corrosion-resistance
steels. Stainless steels retain their strength at high temperatures and are easy to form. They are used
in highly corrosive environments and are very expensive.
1.3.3 Welding processes
Welding can be defined as the metallurgical method of joining, applied to the general problem of
construction and fabrication. It consists of joining two pieces of metal by establishing a metallurgical
atom-to-atom bond, as distinguished from a joint held together by friction or mechanical
interlocking. This metallurgical atom-to-atom bond is achieved by the application of heat and
sometimes pressure or both.
Different welding processes along with their abbreviations are listed below:
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAW), gas metal welding
(GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), submerged arc welding (SAW), resistance welding
(RW), stud welding (SW), electroslag welding (ESW), plasma arc welding (PAW), oxyfuel
(OFW), torch brazing (TB) and electron beam welding (EBW), etc.
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1.4 DISCONTINUITIES IN METALS AND WELDS
The term 'discontinuity' is used to describe any breakage in the normal physical structure of a
material. A discontinuity in a product may or may not be harmful to the safe operation of the
product. A discontinuity may grow into a defect due to the cyclic loading (fatigue) of the product or
due to the corrosive environment in which the product is working. A small discontinuity started by
corrosion, a slight scratch, or a defect that is inherent in the material, may develop into a crack from
the stress concentration that, under varying loads, propagates with time until there is no longer
sufficient solid material to carry the load. Sudden total failure by fracture then occurs. A
discontinuity is called a defect when it is of such size, shape and location that it creates a substantial
chance of failure of the product in service.
Defects may be classified as follows:
1.4.1
Inherent defects
These defects are usually formed when the metal is in a molten state. These can be further classified
into categories of (a) inherent wrought defects, and (b) inherent cast defects. Inherent wrought
defects are those defects which occur during the melting and solidification of the original ingot,
while the inherent cast defects are those defects which occur during melting, casting and
solidification of a cast article. Typical defects found in an ingot (Figure 10) are non-metallic
inclusions, porosity and pipe .
Figure 10 Typical defects in an ingot
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1.4.2
Processing defects
These are defects which occur during various manufacturing processes such as welding, forging,
rolling, machining and heat treatment, etc.
1. 4.2.1
Welding Defects
A variety of defects occur in welds. Some of these are discussed below:

1.4.2.1.1
Gas inclusions
Gas may develop during welding due to many factors like the quality of the parent metal, the
electrodes used and poor regulation of the arc current, etc. The gas may get entrapped and take
various forms.
i)
Gas pore
It is a small bubble of gas entrapped within the molten metal. It has a diameter usually less than 1.6
mm (1/16 inch). A group of gas pores is termed as porosity. The type of porosity within a weld is
usually designated by the amount and distribution of the pores. Some of the types are classified as
follows:
Uniformly scattered porosity: It is characterized by pores scattered uniformly throughout the
weld.
Cluster porosity: It is characterized by cluster of pores that are separated by porosity free areas.
Linear Porosity: It is characterized by pores that are linearly distributed and which generally
occurs in the root pass and is associated with lack of penetration.
ii)
Blow hole
It is similar to a gas pore except that it is a little larger in dimension.

1.4.2.1.2 Slag inclusions
Most weld inclusions contain slag that has been trapped in the deposited metal during solidification.
The slag may come from the electrode coating or flux employed. Slag inclusions are frequently
associated with lack of penetration, poor fusion, and oversize root faces, too narrow a groove and
faulty electrode manipulation.
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1.4.2.1..3
Lack of penetration
Frequently the root of a weld will not be adequately filled with weld metal and a void is left. In joints
requiring complete penetration this type of defect is generally not acceptable and requires complete
removal of the weld bead and rewelding.
1.4.2.1.4
Lack of fusion
This is due to the lack of union in a weld between the weld metal and parent metal or between parent
metal and parent metal or between weld metal and weld metal. Consequently the lack of fusion can
be of three types namely lack of side fusion, lack of root fusion and lack of inter-run fusion.
1.4.2.1.5
Tungsten inclusion
Tungsten inclusion is characteristic of the inert atmosphere welding methods. If the tungsten
electrode which supports the electric arc comes into contact with the weld metal, some tungsten
particles are trapped in the deposited metal. These may be in the form of small splinters or even as
pieces of the tungsten wire.
1.4.2.1.6
Crack
A crack is a discontinuity due to the fracture of the metal during or after solidification. Depending
upon the causes, cracks have been classified as under:
i)
Hot tear
This type of crack develops near solidification temperature when the metal is weak. The defect
occurs mainly at, or near, to a change of section and may not be continuous.
ii)
Stress crack
A well defined and approximately straight crack, formed due to large stresses after the metal has
become completely solid.
1.4.2.1.7
Root pass oxidation
Oxidation is the result of insufficient protection of the weld and heat affected zone(HAZ) from the
atmosphere. Severe oxidation will occur on stainless steels, for example, reducing corrosion
resistance if the joint is not purged with an inert gas.
1.4.2.1.8
Undercut
During welding of the final or cover pass, the exposed upper edges of the bevelled weld preparation
tend to melt and run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove. Undercutting occurs when
Page 20

insufficient filler metal is deposited to fill the resultant grooves at the edge of the weld bead. The
result is a groove that may be intermittent or continuous and parallel to the weld bead. Undercutting
may be caused by excessive welding current, incorrect arc length, high speed or incorrect electrode
manipulation, etc.
1.4.2.1.9
Excessive penetration
In welds, sometimes, molten metal runs through the root of the weld groove producing an excessive
reinforcement at the back side of the weld. In general this is not continuous but has an irregular shape
with characteristic hanging drops of the excess metal.
1.4.2.1.10
Electrode spatter
If improper electrodes or long arcs are used, droplets of molten metal are spattered about the weld
region. These drops stick to the metal surface near the weld seam.
1.4.2.1.11
Grinding marks
When weld reinforcements are not ground out smoothly, the resultant thickness varies above and
below that of the base metal.
1.4.3 Service defects
These are defects which occur due to various service conditions such as corrosion, stress, fatigue,
etc.
Page 21
PART-I
LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
Page 22

CHAPTER 2: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
1.0 GENERAL
Liquid penetrant testing, a nondestructive means of locating and determining the severity of
surface discontinuities in materials, is based upon capillarity. Capillarity, or capillary attraction, is
the action by which the surface of a liquid, where it is in contact with a solid, is elevated or
depressed. The materials, processes, and procedures used in liquid penetrant testing are designed
to facilitate capillarity and to make the results of such action visible and capable of interpretation.
2.0 PHYSICS
2.1 General
The phenomenon of capillary action is one of the most important forces in nature. The rate and
extent of the action associated with capillarity depends upon such factors
as forces of cohesion and adhesion, surface tension, and viscosity.
Capillarity can be observed when a plastic straw is inserted into a glass of
water. When the straw is inserted, the water molecules enter the straw and
begin to attract other nearby molecules, pulling them up the straw by
cohesion. This process continues as the water rises higher and higher. The
water continues to rise until the pull of surface tension is equalized.
Figure 11 Capillary Action
Cohesive forces prevent the water from falling back down the straw.
Capillary action as applied in nondestructive testing is somewhat more complex, since various
surface conditions hindering or assisting the action are encountered. Liquid penetrants in
nondestructive testing have low tension and high capillarity. Capillary
action is illustrated in Figure 11.
2.2 Application of Penetrant
In liquid penetrant testing, the liquid penetrant is applied to the surface
of the specimen, and sufficient time is allowed for penetration into
surface discontinuities. (See Figure 12.) If the discontinuity is small or
narrow, as in a crack or pinhole, capillarity assists the penetration. When
the opening is gross in nature, such as a tear, the liquid may be trapped
when poured over the specimen.
Figure 12 Penetration of Surface

Discontinuity
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2.3
Discontinuity Indications
After sufficient time has passed for the penetrant to enter the surface discontinuities, the excess
surface penetrant is removed. The removal .process clears the surface of the specimen but permits
the penetrant in the discontinuities to remain. Capillary action is again employed in the process. A
developer -which acts as a blotter is applied to the test surface. (See Figure 13). The blotting action
of the developer draws the penetrant from the discontinuity and the penetrant appears on the
surface of the specimen as an indication. The size of the indication, because of the diffusion of the
penetrant in the developer, is usually larger than the discontinuity. There are also penetrants that
provide sufficient dis continuity indication without the use of a developer; the developer is not
required.
Figure 13 Reversed Capillary Action
3.0 VISIBILITY OF INDICATIONS

The ultimate success of liquid penetrant testing depends upon the visibility of indications. To
ensure utmost visibility, the liquid penetrant contains either a colored dye easily seen in white
light, or a fluorescent dye visible under black (ultraviolet) light. The dyes are obtainable in a
variety of colors.
4.0 TEST PROCEDURE

The sequence of the test procedure, basically the same for all penetrant tests, can be broken into six
main steps. These steps are illustrated in Figure 14, where it is shown that:
1. The surface of the specimen is first cleaned and allowed to dry
2. Penetrant is applied to the test surface and allowed sufficient time to seep into openings
3. The penetrant remaining on the surface is removed without removing the penetrant from
openings
Page 24

4. Developer is applied to aid in drawing the penetrant back to the surface
5. The surface of the specimen is visually examined to locate penetrant indications that have
formed in the developer coating
6. The test surface is again cleaned to remove developer residue and any minute traces of
penetrant.
The main steps and additional sub steps required by the type of penetrant and process used are
detailed in later chapters.
Figure 14 Steps of Liquid Penetrant Testing
5.0 TEST PROCESSES

The penetrants used in liquid penetrant testing can be categorized by the type dye that they contain
and the processing required to remove them from test articles.
5.1. Types of Dye
Penetrants containing a visible color dye (usually red) are called visible dye, or color contrast,
penetrants while those penetrants containing a fluorescent dye are referred to as fluorescent
penetrants. Penetrants containing a combination of visible and fluorescent dyes are called dual
sensitivity penetrants.
Page 25

5.2 Processes
Processes employing penetrants that are self-emulsifying or removable with plain water are further
classified as water-washable processes. Processes where a separate emulsifier is used to make the
penetrant water washable are referred to as post-emulsified processes. And those processes in
which the penetrant is removed by a solvent are identified as solvent- removed processes. Figure
15 illustrates the processing sequence used with visible dye and fluorescent penetrants.
Figure 15 Visible Dye and Fluorescent Penetrant Processes

6.0 PROCESS SELECTION
Selection of the suitable penetrant type and process for a particular liquid penetrant test depends
upon
1.The sensitivity required
Page 26

2.The number of articles to be tested
3.Surface condition of the material under test
4.Configuration of the test specimen
5.Availability of water, electricity, compressed air, suitable testing area, etc.
7.0 CAPABILITIES OF TEST

Liquid penetrant testing is capable of locating discontinuities open to the surface in articles made
of any nonporous material. With penetrant tests, detectable discontinuities such as surface cracks,
porosity, and "through" leaks can be found. These may be caused by fatigue cracks, shrinkage
porosity, cold shuts, grinding and heat-treat cracks, seams, forging laps and bursts, as well as lack
of bond between joined metals. Penetrant testing is successfully used on metals such as aluminum,
magnesium, brass, copper, cast iron, stainless steel, and titanium. It also can be used to test other
materials, including ceramics, plastics,
molded rubber, powdered metal products, or glass. Since some plastics and rubber compositions
are adversely affected by oil, sample tests are accomplished prior to actual testing of these
materials to assure
that the penetrant will not damage the material. Penetrant materials used in testing nickel alloys,
certain stainless steels, and titanium must have a low sulfur and chlorine content. And materials
used to test liquid oxygen (LOX) system components must be LOX compatible.
8.0 Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing

Like all non-destructive inspection methods, liquid penetrant inspection has both advantages and
disadvantages. The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDE methods
are summarized below.
Primary Advantages
The method has high sensitivity to small surface discontinuities.
The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and non-metallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
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Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual representation
of the flaw.
Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials very portable.
Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
Primary Disadvantages
Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be inspected.
Precleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removed prior to
PT.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is required
Page 28

CHAPTER 3: EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
3.0 GENERAL
The specific equipment and materials used in any liquid penetrant test are determined by the
inherent requirements of the test procedure; the composition of the article under test; the size of the
article; the frequency of like tests; and the size and type of suspected discontinuities. This chapter
discusses the equipment and materials required to perform the various penetrant tests and the
required pre-cleaning and post-cleaning.
3.1 PRECLEANING AND POSTCLEANING EQUIPMENT
3.1.1. General
Proper cleaning is essential to liquid penetrant testing for two reasons:
1) If the test article is not clean and dry, penetrant testing is ineffective; and
2) If all traces of penetrant test materials are not removed after test, they may have a harmful
effect when
the article is placed in service.
All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy oxides must be removed to ensure that
defects are open to the surface of the part. If the parts have been machined, sanded, or blasted prior
to the penetrant inspection, it is possible that a thin layer of metal may have smeared across the
surface and closed off defects. It is even possible for metal smearing to occur as a result of cleaning
operations such as grit or vapor blasting. This layer of metal smearing must be removed before
inspection. Common coatings and contaminates that must be removed include: paint, dirt, flux,
scale, varnish, oil, etchant, smut, plating, grease, oxide, wax, decals, machining fluid, rust, and
residue from previous penetrant inspections. Some of these contaminants would obviously prevent
penetrant from entering defects, so it is clear they must be removed. A good cleaning procedure
will remove all contamination from the part and not leave any residue that may interfere with the
inspection process.
The cleaning processes commonly used with penetrant testing are discussed in the following
paragraphs. The equipment and material routinely used with these processes are all that are
necessary for the cleaning required by penetrant testing.
3.1.2. Detergent Cleaning
Immersion tanks and detergent solutions are a common means of accomplishing the cleaning
required by liquid penetrant tests. The detergents wet, penetrate, emulsify and saponify (change to
Page 29

soap) various soils. The only special equipment requirement imposed by penetrant test cleaning is
the need for suitable rinsing and drying facilities. When thoroughly rinsed and dried, detergent
cleaning leaves a test surface that is both physically and chemically clean.
3.1.3 Vapor Degreasing
Cleaning by vapor degreasing is particularly effective in the removal of oil, grease, and similar
organic contamination. However, there are restrictions as to its use before and after liquid
penetrant testing. Nickel alloys, certain stainless steels, and titanium have an affinity for specific
elements (e.g., sulfur or chlorine) and if exposed to them will become structurally damaged.
Degreasing must be limited to those materials that have been approved for this method of cleaning.
3.1.4. Steam Cleaning
Steam cleaning equipment is particularly adaptable to the cleaning of large unwieldy articles not
easily cleanable by immersion. No special equipment is required for steam cleaning of articles
destined for liquid penetrant testing.
3.1.5. Solvent Cleaning
Solvent cleaning may use tanks for immersion, or the solvent material may be used in a wipe-on
and wipe-off technique. Usually this cleaning process is used only when vapor degreasing,
detergent cleaning, and steam cleaning equipment are not available.
3.1.6. Ultrasonic Cleaning
Ultrasonic agitation is often combined with solvent or detergent cleaning to improve cleaning
efficiency and reduce cleaning time. The equipment is particularly useful in the cleaning of small
articles.
3.1.7. Rust and Surface Scale Removal
Any good commercially available acid or alkaline rust remover may be used for precleaning.
Required equipment and procedures are as specified in the manufacturer's directions.
3.1.8. Paint Removal
Dissolving type "hot tank" paint strippers and bond release or solvent paint strippers may be used
to remove paint in precleaning. Required equipment and procedures are as specified in the
manufacturer's directions.
3.1.9. Etching
Articles that have been ground or machined often require etching to prepare them for liquid
penetrant testing. This process uses an acid or an alkaline solution to open up grinding burrs and
Page 30

remove metal from surface discontinuities. If an acid is used for etching, an alkaline solution is
used as a neutralizing agent; if an alkali is used for etching, an acid is used as a neutralizing agent.
The etching and neutralizing processes use either tanks and immersion or wipe-on and wipe-off
equipment and materials.
10. Precleaning Processes To Be Avoided
Blast (shot, sand, grit, or pressure), liquid honing, emery cloth, wire brushes and metal scrapers
should not be employed with liquid penetrant testing. These processes tend to close discontinuities
by peening or cold working the surface. On occasion a wire brush may be helpful in removing rust,
surface scale, or paint but it is used only when no other means of removal will suffice.
3.2 STATIONARY PENETRANT TEST EQUIPMENT
3.2. 1. General
The stationary equipment used in liquid penetrant testing ranges from the simple to fully automatic
systems and varies in size, layout, and arrangement depending on the requirements of specific
tests. The size of the equipment used is largely dependent upon the size and types of articles to be
tested. The layout of the equipment, i.e., whether a "U," "L," or straight line, is determined by
the facilities available,
the production rate, and the required ease of handling. The number of
stations is dependent on the process used.

3.2.2. Stations
Depending on the type penetrant and processing employed (see Figures 16) the liquid penetrant
test facility requires certain stations. The required equipment components (stations) are combined
to suit the particular test process. In a typical testing facility for a post-emulsification process, the
following stations are required:
1. Pre cleaning Station (usually remote from penetrant test station).
2. Penetrant Station (tank).
3. Drain Station (used with penetrant tank)
4.
Emulsifier Station (tank).
5. Rinse Station (tank).

6. Developer Station (tank).
7. Dryer Station (usually an oven type).
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8. Inspection Station(enclosed booth or table with proper lighting
9. Post cleaning station (usually in remote area)
Figure 16 Typical Small - Sized Test Equipment Employing Fluorescent Post - Emuslsified
Penetrant and Dry Developer
3.2.3 Auxiliary Equipment
For the purpose of this handbook, auxiliary equipment is defined as the equipment located at
penetrant test stations (other than cleaning stations) required to perform penetrant testing. The
auxiliary equipment discussed may in some instances be "built-in" at one or more of the test
stations.
a. Pumps. Various pumps installed at the penetrant, emulsifier, rinse, and developer stations are
used to agitate the solutions, to pump drain-off material into the proper tank for reuse, and to
power hand-held sprayers and applicators.
b. Sprayers and Applicators Sprayers and applicators are frequently employed at the penetrant,
emulsifier, rinse, and developer stations. They decrease test time by permitting rapid and even
application of penetrant materials and water rinse. Both conventional and electrostatic sprayers are
used.
Page 32

c. Lights. White lights as well as black lights are installed as required to ensure adequate and
correct lighting at all stations. When fluorescent materials are used, black light is installed at both
the rinse and inspection stations.
d. Timers. One or more 60-minute timers with alarm are used to control penetrant, emulsifier,
developing, and drying cycles.
e. Thermostats and Thermometers. These items are required and used to control the temperature of
the drying oven and penetrant materials.
f.Exhaust Fans. Exhaust fans are used when testing is performed in closed areas. The fans facilitate
removal of fumes and dust.
g.Hydrometers. The hydrometers used in liquid penetrant testing are floating type instruments.
(See Figure 17.) They are used to measure the specific gravity of water-based wet developers.
Figure 17 Typical Hydrometer

3.3 Portable Penetrant Test Equipment
3.3.1. General
It is possible to perform penetrant tests on a limited basis without stationary equipment. When
testing is required at a location remote from stationary equipment, or when only a small portion of
a large specimen requires test, portable liquid penetrant kits are used. Both fluorescent and
visible dye penetrants are available in kits. The penetrant materials are usually dispensed from
pressurized spray cans or applied by brush.
3.3.2. Visible Dye Penetrant Kit
The visible dye penetrant test kit is light in weight and contains all the materials necessary for test.
(See Figure 18.) It consists of a metal box with at least the following
1. Solvent cleaner or penetrant remover.
2. Visible dye penetrant
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3. Non-aqueous wet developer
4. Wiping cloths and brushes
Figure 18 Typical Visible Dye Portable Kit
3.3.3. Fluorescent Penetrant Kit

The fluorescent penetrant kit combines portability with the high "seeability" associated with
fluorescent materials. The kit holds all the essential materials required for test, including a black
light. (See Figure 19.) The fluorescent kit consists of a metal box with at least the following:
1. Portable black light and transformer
2. Solvent cleaner or penetrant remover
3. Fluorescent penetrant
4.
Nonaqueous wet developer
5. Dry powder developer

6. Wiping cloths and brushes
7.
Hood to provide darkened area for
Figure 19 Typical Fluorescent Portable Kit
viewing indications.
3.4 BLACK LIGHT
Black light equipment is required in fluorescent penetrant testing, since it supplies light of the
correct wavelengths to cause fluorescent materials to fluoresce. The equipment usually consists of
a current regulating transformer, a mercury arc bulb, and a filter (see Figure 20). The transformer is
housed separately and the bulb and filter are contained in a reflector lamp unit. For correct test
Page 34

results the lamp should produce an intensity of
at least 800 microwatts per square centimeter
at the test surface. The deep red-purple filter is
designed to pass only those wavelengths of
light that will activate the fluorescent material.
It also filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Since dust, dirt, and oil greatly reduce the
intensity of the emitted light, the filter should
Figure 20 Typical Portable Black Light
be frequently cleaned. In use, the full intensity

of the lamp is not attained until the mercury arc is sufficiently heated. At least 5 minutes warm up
is required to reach the required arc temperature. Since switching the lamp on and off shortens bulb
life, once turned on the lamp is usually left on during the entire test or work period. If the black
light is switched off, it may take up to 10 minutes for the bulb to cool sufficiently to reestablish an
arc.
3.5 MATERIALS
3.5.1 General
The materials used in liquid penetrant testing include penetrants, emulsifiers, removers or
cleaners, and developers. They are furnished in either liquid or powder form. The powders except
those used in the dry state are mixed with a suitable liquid (usually water) prior to use. Most of the
materials are available in pressurized spray cans as well as in bulk quantities. Concentrations,
usage, and maintenance are in accordance with the manufacturer's directions. Figure 21 illustrates
the different material combinations and usages.
3.5.2 Precleaning and Postcleaning Materials
Except for LOX compatibility, and the chlorine-free requirement in the
precleaning and
postcleaning of nickel alloys, certain stainless steels, and titanium, no special cleaning materials
are required with liquid penetrant testing.
3.5.3. Water-Washable Penetrants
Water-washable penetrants are highly penetrating oily liquids containing an emulsifying agent that
renders the oily vehicle emulsifiable in water. The simplest to use but least sensitive of these
penetrants are the visible dye or color contrast penetrants. They contain a dye, usually a bright red
but sometimes a special color such as blue, that can be seen under ordinary white (visible) light.
Page 35

Greatest "seeability" is obtained with fluorescent penetrants that are viewed under black light. The
color of fluorescence is usually a brilliant yellowish green. For special applications, there are
fluorescent penetrants that glow red or blue. The dual sensitivity penetrants contain a combination
of visible and fluorescent dyes. The visible color is usually a bright red and the fluorescent color a
yellow to orange-red. They permit gross discontinuities to be detected under visible light and
questionable indications to be resolved under black light.
3.5.4. Post-Emulsification (Solvent Removable) Penetrants
Post-emulsification penetrants have similar formulations to those of water- washable penetrants
except they do not contain the emulsifying agent and consequently are not soluble in water. These
penetrants must be treated with a separate emulsifier before they can be removed by a water rinse
or wash. Or they can be removed using an approved solvent remover or cleaner.
Post-emulsification penetrants are available as either visible dye or fluorescent penetrants.
3.5.5. Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers when applied to a post-emulsification penetrant combine with the penetrant so as to
make the resultant mixture water washable. The emulsifier, usually dyed orange to contrast with
the penetrant, may be either lipophilic -an oil base, or hydrophilic -a detergent water base. The
oil-based emulsifiers are usually employed as "contact" emulsifiers, i.e., they begin emulsifying on
contact with the penetrant. Emulsification stops when water is applied. The hydrophilic or
water-based emulsifiers also can be used as contact emulsifiers; but more often, the emulsifier is
diluted with water and sprayed under pressure.
3.5.6. Solvent Removers (Cleaners)
Solvent removers or cleaners are used in conjunction with post- emulsification penetrants to
remove excess penetrant from test article surfaces. Example solvent removers include methylene
chloride, isopropyl alcohol, naphtha, mineral spirits (paint thinner) in addition to special- formula,
proprietary removers. In selecting a solvent remover, only those materials approved by the
penetrant manufacturer can be used.
3.5.7. Dry Developer
Dry developer is a fluffy chalk-like powder that is applied to dry test surfaces (after the removal of
excess penetrant) for the purpose of absorbing penetrant from discontinuities and enhancing the
resultant penetrant indications. Of the different developers available, dry developer is the most
adaptable to rough surfaces and automatic processing. It's also the easiest to remove. Sensitivity is
Page 36
Figure 21 Penetrant Material Combination and Usages

about the same as that of the water soluble developer described in the following paragraph.
3.5.8 Water-Based Wet Developers
Water-based wet developers function similarly to dry developer except they are applied prior to
drying the test specimen. Two types of developer are available. In one, the developer particles are
held in suspension in water and require continuous agitation to keep the particles in suspension. In
the other, the developer powder is dissolved in water, forming a solution; once mixed they remain
mixed. Of the two water-based wet developers, the water-soluble developer is the more sensitive.
Page 37

3.5.9. Non aqueous Wet Developer
Non aqueous wet developer is a suspension of developer particles in a rapid- drying solvent. It is
most often employed with solvent-removableprocessing, and like dry developer, is applied only to
dry surfaces. Of all the developers, the non aqueous wet developer is the most sensitive in
detecting fine discontinuities. The evaporation of the solvent carrier helps to draw- the penetrant
from discontinuities.
3.5.10. Special-Purpose Penetrant Materials
In addition to the conventional penetrants, emulsifiers, removers, and developers employed in
liquid penetrant testing there are low sulfur and chlorine materials for testing nickel alloys, certain
stainless steels, and titanium. Special-purpose inert materials are available for testing articles that
come in contact with liquid oxygen, rubber, or plastic. Food compatible materials are also
available. There are high temperature penetrants for testing hot welds, etc., and special penetrants
for testing at low temperatures. There are supersensitive penetrants for detecting extremely fine
discontinuities, and penetrants that provide sufficient contrast and sensitivity without a developer.
There are low-energy emulsifiers and inhibited-solvent removers to slow down emulsification and
the removal of excess penetrant. There are also wax and plastic film developers that absorb and fix
penetrant indications to provide permanent records. The selection and usage of these materials is
largely dependent on the particular process used and the controlling specifications or standards.
Page 38

CHAPTER 4: TECHNIQUES
4.0 GENERAL
The techniques discussed in this chapter are based on typical liquid penetrant testing procedures
used throughout industry. Included are techniques involving the use of visible dye, fluorescent,
and
dual
sensitivity
penetrants;
and
water-washable,
post-emulsified,
and
solvent-removableprocessing. Also included are discussions on the fixing and recording of

indications.
4.1 SURFACE PREPARATION
4.1.1. General
The effectiveness of liquid penetrant testing is based upon the ability of the penetrant to enter
surface discontinuities. The article to be tested must be clean and free from foreign matter. All
paint, carbon, oil, varnish, oxide, plating, water, dirt, and similar coatings must be removed prior to
the application of penetrant. The cleaning technique used is, in each case, determined by the
composition of the article under test and the type of soil to be removed. Any cleaning process that
leaves the surface of the article clean and dry, that does not harm the article, and that does not use
materials that are incompatible with the penetrant materials, is acceptable. Following the test,
postcleaning is employed to remove the residue of penetrant materials. Postcleaning is particularly
important when test articles are destined for use in an oxygen environment. Though many
specimens will receive further processing, such as etching or special cleaning prior to use, the
cleanliness of any specimen after completion of a penetrant test is the responsibility of test
personnel.
4.1.2. Detergent Cleaning
Detergent cleaning may be used to clean almost any specimen. Since the cleaners may be either
acid or alkaline in nature, however, precautions must be taken to ensure that the selected detergent
is noncorrosive to the specimen being cleaned. Detergent cleaning is most effective when it is a hot
process accomplished in a washing machine, though it may also be used with scrub, rinse, and
wipe techniques. After detergent cleaning, the specimen is carefully rinsed and dried. The drying
process should be of sufficient time duration that all moisture is driven from the discontinuities.
Page 39

4.1.3 Vapor Degreasing
Vapor degreasing is also an effective means of precleaning. The process not only thoroughly
cleans; it heats the article so that after cleaning no moisture remains in discontinuities. Vapor
degreasing is the preferred method for removing organic soils such as oil and grease and should be
used whenever practicable. The only precaution required in the use of the process is that caused by
the need of using only those degreasing materials that are not harmful to the specimen being cleaned.
4.1.4. Steam Cleaning
Steam cleaning is an excellent method of cleaning usually employed to clean large articles, or
portions of large articles, that cannot conveniently be vapor degreased or washed with detergents.
Routine steam cleaning procedures usually suffice for penetrant precleaning. As with any cleaning
process involving water, the specimen must be thoroughly dried after the cleaning process is
completed.
4.1.5. Ultrasonic Cleaning
Ultrasonic cleaning is often combined with a solvent or detergent bath to improve cleaning
efficiency and reduce cleaning time. The method works best with water and detergent cleaning
when contaminants to be removed are inorganic, and with solvents when contaminants are
organic. Following cleaning, it is recommended that test articles be heated to aid the evaporation of
cleaning fluids.
4.1.6. Rust and Surface Scale Removal
Rust removers (descaling solutions, either alkaline or acid), pickling solutions (acid), and
sometimes wire brushing are used to remove rust and surface scale. Wire brushing is accomplished
with a minimum of pressure to avoid closing surface discontinuities or filling them with smeared
metal. Descaling solutions are chosen so that they are noncorrosive to the article being cleaned.
Regardless of the method selected for rust and scale removal, after the process is completed the
specimen must be clean, dry, and so treated that surface discontinuities are not clogged, filled, or
contaminated.
4.1.7. Paint Removal
Any method of paint removal that does not harm the test article is satisfactory. Chemical means
such as solvent stripping and dissolving type hot- tank stripping are preferred since any
Page 40

mechanical removal process may adversely affect the surface of the specimen.
Any method of paint removal that does not harm the test article is satisfactory. Chemical means
such as solvent stripping and dissolving type hot- tank stripping are preferred since any
mechanical removal process may adversely affect the surface of the specimen.
4.1.8. Etching
Etching is normally required on soft metallic materials (such as aluminum and magnesium) and
materials that tend to smear (such as titanium), and which have been mechanically processed by
machining, grinding, or similar procedure. The etching is accomplished with either an acid or an
alkaline solution, which is then neutralized. After neutralization, the article must be water washed
and dried, or otherwise cleaned, to remove all traces of the etching and neutralizing agents.
4.2 APPLICATION OF PENETRANTS
4.2.1. General
Penetrants are applied by spraying, swabbing, brushing, or dipping (immersion). The area under
test is covered with penetrant and the penetrant is allowed to remain for a predetermined amount of
time called "dwell time." The means of application and the length of dwell are determined by the
test article, the type discontinuities to be detected, the penetrant used, and temperature. The
terminology used in penetrant application is listed in Table-1.
Table 1 Liquid Penetrant Application Technology
4.2.2. Spraying
Spraying of penetrant when accomplished at the penetrant tank of stationary equipment refers to
the use of a hose and nozzle through which penetrant is circulated by a low pressure pump -usually
Page 41

the same pump that agitates the penetrant solution in the tank. The penetrant is flowed on the
specimen so that all of the test area is covered. No particular precautions except those of
cleanliness and neatness need be observed in this flow-on process. Spraying also is used to define
the application of penetrant from pressurized spray cans. Again the penetrant is applied so that all
of the test area is covered, but personnel must make allowances for the pressure remaining in the
can and the distance the can is held from the specimen. Usually, pressurized spray cans are used in
areas where fans or blowers remove fumes, or in open areas where spot testing (testing a small area
of a large specimen) is taking place.
4.2.3. Swabbing or Brushing
Penetrants may be applied by swabbing with rags or cotton waste, or by brushing. Either method is
acceptable when spray or dip equipment is not available. Usually, swabbing or brushing is used
when testing a small, specific area of the specimen.
4.2.4. Immersion
The best procedure for applying penetrant is to immerse the test article or specimen into a tank of
penetrant. Small specimens are placed in an open wire basket for dipping; large specimens are
handled by hand or, if required, by cranes and suitable clamping devices. This method is
impractical when dealing with large articles or assemblies, and is wasteful when only small areas
of a large specimen are to be tested. It is, however, the most thorough, and certain, means of
applying penetrant and is used whenever possible.
4.2.5. Penetration (Dwell) Time
The period of time during which the penetrant is permitted to remain on the specimen is a vital part
of the test. This time, known as dwell time, is directly related to the size and shape of the
discontinuities anticipated, since the dimensions of the discontinuities determine the rapidity with
which penetration occurs. Tight crack like discontinuities may require in excess of 30 minutes for
penetration to an extent that an adequate indication can be expected. Gross discontinuities may be
suitably penetrated in 3 to 5 minutes. Dwell time in each instance is determined by the anticipated
discontinuities and the penetrant manufacturer's recommendations. Typical minimum penetration
times are shown in Table 1A.
a) Heating the test specimen accelerates penetration and shortens dwell time. The practice,
however, is generally not recommended since heating may cause evaporation of penetrant
Page 42

and thereby reduce sensitivity.
b) Ambient temperature and humidity also affect penetration time. Generally, the higher the
ambient temperature, the shorter the dwell time required. Too high a temperature or too
Iowa humidity, however, causes the penetrant to dry too rapidly and testing becomes
difficult if not impossible. For liquid penetrant testing to be reliable, the penetrant must
remain wet. This sometimes requires the rewetting of test surfaces. If the penetrant has
been allowed to dry, the test must be started over beginning with surface preparation.
4.4 REMOV AL OF PENETRANTS
4.4.1. General
Following application of the penetrant and elapse of sufficient time for penetration, the penetrant is
removed from the surface of the specimen. This operation is meant to remove the penetrant from
the surface without disturbing any penetrant that has entered a discontinuity. Complete removal of
the surface penetrant is effected to ensure against formation of non relevant indications.
4.4.2. Water-Washable Process
The penetrants employed in the water-washable process have their own built-in emulsifier. The
penetrant is soluble in water and removal is usually accomplished by a water rinse. Care is taken in
applying the rinse to ensure that the spray volume and force does not wash the penetrant from
discontinuities. Thirty to fifty pounds per square inch maximum pressure (205 to 345 kPa) is
considered a safe pressure for the water rinse. The rinse is applied through the use of an adjustable
spray nozzle held so that the spray reaches the surface plane of the specimen at an angle of 45
degrees.
4.4.3. Post-Emulsified Process
The penetrants employed in the post-emulsified process do not contain an emulsifying agent. The
penetrant is not soluble in water. Removal is in most instances a two-step process. The emulsifier,
usually lipophilic (an oil base), is applied as described in paragraph 4.3 and, after suitable dwell
time, the resultant penetrant-emulsifier mixture is removed by water rinse as described in
paragraph 4.4.2. Sometimes a hydrophilic (water base) emulsifier is diluted to the point that simple
contact with penetrant does not make the penetrant water washable. Application must be
accompanied by some form of mechanical agitation or scrubbing. Usually, the emulsifier is added
to the water rinse and sprayed under pressure. By controlling solution strength and the duration of
Page 43

Table 1A: TYPICAL MINIMUM PENETRATION TIMES
Page 44

spray, the amount of penetrant removed is controlled.
4.4.4. Solvent-Removable Process
Post-emulsification type penetrants are also employed in the solvent- removable process. The
penetrant remover is a solvent designated by the penetrant manufacturer. Prior to the use of the
solvent, excess penetrant is wiped off; the specimen is then cleaned with clean, lint-free towels
dampened with solvent. The solvent is never applied directly to the specimen since it might wash
out or dilute the penetrant in a discontinuity.
4.4.5. Visual Inspection
Excess surface penetrant can result in the formation of nonrelevant indications that could obscure
or hide true discontinuity indications. When fluorescent penetrants are used, it is necessary to
observe the specimen under black light during the penetrant removal operation to ensure complete
removal of excess penetrant. For visible dye penetrants, the absence of penetrant (red) traces on the
wiping materials ensures complete penetrant removal.
4.5 APPLICATION OF DEVELOPER

4.5. 1. General
As mentioned in previous chapters, some penetrants provide sufficient discontinuity indications
without a developer. They are self-developing. But generally, when maximum sensitivity is
desired, a developer is required. The developer assists in the detection of penetrant retained in
discontinuities by aiding in the capillary bleed-out process (the developer acts as a blotting agent),
and by accentuating the presence of penetrant in a discontinuity. Developer accentuates the
presence of a discontinuity because it causes the penetrant from the discontinuity to spread out
over a greater area. It also serves as a color contrast background for the visible dye used in the
visible dye processes and for the fluorescent material used in the fluorescent processes. Developer
is available in both dry and liquid forms and the selection of developer is in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendation for the type penetrant used. When a dry or non- aqueous wet
developer is used, the specimen must be completely dry before the developer is applied. When a
water-based wet developer is used, it is applied immediately after penetrant removal is
accomplished and prior to the drying operation.
4.5.2. Dry Developer
Dry developer, being a loose, fluffy talcose powder with high absorbent properties, is applied to a
Page 45

specimen by dusting, blowing, or dipping the specimen. The application is usually accomplished
in a booth with a blower or fan arrangement that removes loose powder from the atmosphere. No
preparation of the powder is necessary and the only requirement is that it be evenly distributed
over the test surface, which must be completely dry.
4.5.3. Non-aqueous Wet Developer
Non-aqueous wet developer is a suspension of absorptive white powder in a solvent vehicle. It is
usually applied by spraying from a pressurized spray can or other spraying device such as a paint
spray gun. When used in bulk form, care must be exercised to keep the powder thoroughly mixed
in the solvent. The developer is applied so as to form a thin white coating on the specimen without
soaking the test surface. When properly mixed and applied, non-aqueous wet developer is the most
sensitive of all the developers in detecting fine discontinuities.
4.5.4. Water-Based Wet Developer
Water-based wet developer may be either a suspension of absorptive white powder in water, or a
water-soluble absorptive white powder mixed with water. The suspension type requires mild
agitation prior to and during use to keep the powder particles in suspension; the water-soluble
developer does not. The water-soluble powder, once mixed with the water, remains in solution.
After excess penetrant is removed from the specimen, and while it is still wet, wet developer is
applied by either dip (immersion), flow-on, or spray techniques. These fast and effective methods
of application, combined with the time saved by applying developer to the wet specimen, make
water-based wet developer well suited for use in rapid, production"' line testing. Wet developer is
applied so as to form a smooth, even coating, and particular care is taken to avoid concentrations of
developer in dished or hollowed areas of the specimen. Such concentrations of developer mask
penetrant indications and are to be avoided.
4.6 DRYING
When dry or non-aqueous wet developer is used, the specimen is dried after removal of excess
penetrant and prior to application of the developer. When water-based wet developer is used, the
specimen is dried after the developer has been applied. Any means of drying that does not interfere
with the test process by overheating, or by contamination of materials, is acceptable, but controlled
drying at even regulated temperatures is preferred. A thermostat controlled dryer with a
temperature range up to 2250F (1070C) is usually employed in stationary test installations.
Page 46

Required drying time is determined by the size and shape of the specimen, and by the nature of its
suspected discontinuities. It should be of sufficient duration to dry the surface of the specimen
without affecting the penetrant in the discontinuities.
4.7 PENETRANT TESTING PROCESSES

4.7.1. General
The different processes employed in liquid penetrant testing are identified by the method of
penetrant removal used (water-washable, post-emulsified, or solvent-removed) and the type of dye
(visible dye (color contrast), fluorescent, or dual sensitivity). The basic steps involved are
illustrated in Figure 22 while step-by-step procedures are contained in the following paragraph.
Table 2 lists the preferred processes for various penetrant test problems.
Figure 22 Water Washable and Solvent RemovableProcesses
4.7.2. Water-Washable Fluorescent Penetrant Test

The characteristic advantages and disadvantages of water-washable fluorescent penetrant tests are
listed in Table 3.
a. Penetrant Application.
Either immersion, flow-on, spray, or brushing technique is used to
apply the penetrant to the precleaned, dry specimen. The penetrant is applied evenly over the entire
test area.
Page 47

b. Dwell Time. The penetrant is left on the specimen for the required length of dwell time. A
broad guide to correct dwell time is contained in Table 4-2 but the specimen size, composition, and
discontinuities, and the temperature of the specimen and the test area all affect required dwell time.
Table 2 Process Selection Guide
Page 48

Table 3 Characteristics of Water-Washable Fluorescent Penetrant Tests
c. Penetrant Removal. Excess penetrant (all penetrant except that in discontinuities) is washed
from the specimen after dwell time has elapsed. Water at 60 to 1100F (16 to 430C) and a pressure
not exceeding 50 psi (345 kPa) is applied from a spray nozzle. The nozzle is held so that the water
strikes the surface of the specimen at an angle of approximately 45 degrees. Care is taken to avoid
over-washing, which causes washout of penetrant from discontinuities. The wash process is
accomplished under black light so that the operator can observe when the excess penetrant is
completely removed.
d. Drying. Upon completion of the wash process the specimen is dried prior to the application of
either dry or non-aqueous wet developer. If water-based wet developer is used, it is applied to the
still damp specimen immediately after the penetrant removal wash. Drying is best accomplished in
a thermostat- controlled oven at a temperature between 150 and 2250F (66 to 1070C). Drying time
is determined by the size and composition of the specimen, and visual observation usually fixes the
length of the drying cycle. Excessive heat or too long a drying time tends to bake the penetrant out
of discontinuities.
e. Developer Application. When the drying process is complete the specimen is ready for the
application of either dry or non- aqueous wet developer. When water-based wet developer is used,
it is applied to the wet specimen immediately after excess penetrant is removed.
(i) Dry developer is applied to the specimen by brushing with a soft brush, by use of a powder gun,
or by dipping the specimen in a tank of the developer, and removing excess powder with a low
Page 49

pressure air flow.
(ii) Non aqueous wet developer is applied by spraying. It is applied sparingly so that a thin coating
covers all of the specimen test area. When using non aqueous wet developer the specimen is to be
cool enough to prevent too rapid evaporation of the developer vehicle.
(iii) Water-based wet developer is applied to the specimen as it comes from the wash cycle, either
by immersion or flow-on. The developer is applied so as to form a smooth even coating over the
entire test area. After the developer is applied, the specimen is dried as described in paragraph
4.7.2.d.
f. Inspection. After sufficient time has passed for developer action to bring the penetrant from
discontinuities as indications, the specimen is ready for inspection under black light. The
interpretation of various indications discovered during inspection is discussed in Chapter 5. The
efficiency of the inspection operation is controlled by the variables of the human eye. These
variables are further complicated by the average person's lack of understanding of eye fatigue and
of the time required for the iris of the eye to dilate to a point of maximum vision in the darkness of
the black light inspection booth. For maximum visual efficiency the operator must:
(i) Let eyes become accustomed to the darkness by entering the darkened area (booth) at least 5
minutes prior to examining the specimen under the black light.
(ii) Avoid looking directly into the black light source since the eyeball contains a fluid that
fluoresces if black light shines directly into the eye.
4.3. Post-Emulsified Fluorescent Penetrant Test
The characteristic advantages and disadvantages of post-emulsified fluorescent penetrant tests are
listed in Table 4-5. This process is identical with that of the water-washable fluorescent penetrant
test except for the inclusion of an emulsification step after the completion of penetrant dwell time
and before penetrant removal.
Table 4 Characteristics of Post-Emulsified Fluorescent Penetrant Tests
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a. Penetrant Application. See paragraph 4.7.2.a.
b. Dwell Time. See paragraph 4.7.2.b.
c. Emulsifier Application. After the elapse of sufficient dwell time, emulsifier is applied to the
penetrant coated specimen. Immersion, flow-on, or spray technique is used to apply the emulsifier
in an even coating. The particular technique employed is determined by the number and size of the
specimens under test.
d. Emulsifier Dwell Time. The length of time the emulsifier is left to dwell before commencing the
penetrant removal cycle is determined by the emulsifier used and the type discontinuities
suspected. Detection of shallow, wide dents, machine marks, and nicks requires a minimum
emulsification time. Detection of fine, light cracks requires emulsification time of sufficient
duration that superficial discontinuities are washed clean during the penetrant removal, but the
time is not to be so long that the penetrant in the cracks is affected. One to 3 minutes emulsification
dwell time is usually required, though rough surfaced articles may require 5 minutes or more.
Actual time must be determined by experiment
e. Penetrant Removal. See paragraph 4.7.2.c.
f. Drying. See paragraph 4.7.2.d.
g. Developer Application. See paragraph 4.7.2.e.
h. Inspection. See paragraph 4.7.2.f.
4.4. Solvent-RemovableFluorescent Penetrant Test

The characteristic advantages and disadvantages of solvent-removablefluorescent penetrant tests
are listed in Table 5.
Table 5 Characteristics of Solvent -RemovableFluorescent Penetrant Tests
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a. Penetrant Application. Solvent-removablepenetrant may be applied by brush-on technique but
is more often applied by use of a spray gun or pressurized spray can. With any application process,
correct application covers the test surface with an even coat of penetrant. When a spray gun or
pressurized can is used, the gun or can is held approximately 12 inches (30 cm) from the specimen
and moved slowly from side to side until the specimen is evenly coated.
b.
Dwell Time. See paragraph 4.7.2.b.
c.
Penetrant Removal. Excess penetrant is removed from the specimen, after suitable dwell time
has elapsed, by wiping with absorbent, lint-free towels. After the bulk of the excess penetrant is
wiped off, clean, lint-free towels are moistened with the companion solvent of the penetrant
(solvent specified by the penetrant manufacturer) and the specimen is wiped clean. Solvent is
never applied directly to the specimen. The removal process is accomplished under black light so
the operator can observe that all excess penetrant is removed.
d. Developer Application Usually only dry or nonaqueous wet developer is used with solvent
removablepenetrants. A thin coating of developer is either dusted or Sprayed on the test area of the
specimen.
e. Inpection See paragraph 4.7.2.f
4.5. Visible Dye Penetrant Tests
The characteristic advantages and disadvantages of visible dye penetrants are the same as those
listed in Tables 4-4, 4-5, and 4-6 for their fluorescent counterparts, except that visible dye
penetrants are less sensitive, not as brilliantly visible, and do not require the use of black light.
a. Water Washable Visible Dye Penetrant Test Procedures for use of water-washable visible dye
penetrants are identical with those listed in paragraphs 4.7.2.a through f, except there is no
black light requirement.
b. Post Emulsified Visible Dye Penetrant Test. Procedures for use of post-emulsified visible dye
penetrants are identical with I those listed in paragraphs 4.7.3.a through h, except there is no black
light requirement.
c. Solvent RemovableVisible Dye Penetrant Test. Procedures for use of solvent removablevisible
dye penetrants are identic al with those listed in paragraphs 4.7.4.a through e, except that there is
no black light requirement.
6.Dual sensitivity penetrant test procedures are identical to those listed in paragraphs 4.7.2.a
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through f, except that indications can be viewed under visible light as well as black light. The
advantage in using a dual sensitivity penetrant is that it provides two different levels of sensitivity
in one test. Gross discontinuities can be located under visible light, and examinations for fine
cracks, porosity, and penetrant residue carried out under black light.
4.8 OXYGEN COMPATIBLE PENETRANTS
There is no basic difference in the techniques used with liquid and gaseous oxygen compatible
penetrant materials and those used with other penetrant materials, except for the special
precautions required to avoid contamination of the test materials.
4.9 LEAK-THROUGH TECHNIQUE
Frequently, articles are so designed that the penetrant solution may be poured into them and the
outer surface examined for evidence of leak- through. Use of liquid penetrant in this manner
detects leaks only, and little or no knowledge concerning other quality characteristics of the
specimen is obtained. The leak-through technique is well suited for finding leaks in such articles as
tanks, piping, tubing, and hollow castings. Figure 23 illustrates the liquid penetrant leak-through
test as used on a large plate section.
Figure 23 Leak Through Test
Liquid penetrant testing increasingly involves the fixing and recording of indications for use in test
reports and inspection records. Toward this end, both black-and-white and color film are used,
with the self-developing films providing the ultimate in convenience. In addition to photographs,
Page 53

there are special wax and plastic film developers that absorb and fix penetrant indications to
provide permanent records. Indications are sometimes fixed using a "strippable" lacquer. Several
coats of lacquer are applied over the indication and allowed to dry. The coating is then lifted,
bringing the indication with it. Another method consists 'of spraying the indication with a "fixer,"
and when dry, lifting the indication with a piece of transparent tape. The tape, with the indication,
is then transferred to the appropriate test document. In the recording of indications, however, it
must be remembered that time is of the essence. Delays will cause indications to become blurred
and distorted through the continued bleeding of penetrant. As a result, indications will not be
representative of the discontinuities from which they came. The fixing and recording of
indications should be accomplished as soon as possible following the required development time.
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CHAPTER 5: INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESUL TS
5.0 GENERAL
The terms "interpretation" and "evaluation" are often confused by testing personnel. Actually, the
terms refer to two entirely different steps in the testing process. To interpret an indication means to
decide what condition caused it. It may be a crack, porosity, lack of bond, or merely penetrant
remaining on the surface due to some nonrelevant cause. Evaluation follows interpretation. If a
discontinuity exists, its effect on the usefulness of the article requires evaluation, i.e., the article is
either accepted as is reworked, or scrapped. The success and reliability of the interpretation and
evaluation of liquid penetrant test indications depend upon the thoroughness of the process. The
liquid penetrant test is not a method by which a specimen is processed through a machine that
separates the good article from the bad. Testing personnel are required to carefully process each
specimen, interpret indications, evaluate the seriousness of discontinuities, and determine
disposition.
5.1 INDICATIONS
5.1.1 General
Since penetrant can only indicate surface discontinuities, an indication is caused by a discontinuity
in the surface, or by penetrant remaining on the surface from some nonrelevant cause. Proper
interpretation, however, requires familiarity with the manufacturing processes, the types of
discontinuities likely to occur, and their appearance. It requires a knowledge of how different
materials fail and where. It requires the careful control of development time. The effects of these
variables are discussed in the following paragraphs.
5.1.2 Development Time
Proper development time is very important in the interpretation of indications. This is the time
allowed between the application of developer and the actual viewing of indications. If too little
time is allowed, indications may not have time to develop. Too much time will cause indications to
become blurred or distorted. The correct time depends on the developer used. With water-based
(aqueous) developers, the time in the drying oven is usually sufficient. With a dry or non-aqueous
wet developer, the accepted arm is 7 to 30 minutes. (A "rule of thumb" is to use a time equal to
one- half the penetration dwell time used.)
5.1.3. False Indications
The most common source of false indications is poor washing of water- washable and
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post-emulsified penetrants. The use of black light during the washing process, when using
fluorescent penetrant, is very important. The operator can easily tell whether a good rinse is
obtained or whether patches of fluorescence remain on the specimen. With penetrants requiring
solvent removal, the removal process is much more likely to be thorough. To guard against
confusion resulting from fluorescent or color spots other than true indications, care is taken so that
no outside contamination occurs. Typical sources of contamination are:
a. Penetrant on hands of operator.
b. Contamination of wet or dry developer.
c. Penetrant rubbing off of an indication on one specimen to a clean portion of the surface of
another specimen.
d. Penetrant spots on the inspection table.
(i) To avoid contamination, its causes are eliminated or guarded against. Process tanks and
inspection areas are kept clean; only lint-free wiping cloths or rags are used; and specimens
are kept free of fingerprints and tool marks.
(ii) Figure 24 illustrates some of the more common types of false indications, caused by
certain handling or cleaning processes.
5.1.4. Nonrelevant Indications
Outside the realm of truly false indications
there is a category of nonrelevant
indications, which testing personnel can
recognize. These are true indications in the
sense that they are caused by surface
discontinuities, but the discontinuities are
there by design and are in no way a true
discontinuity. Most of such nonrelevant
indications are easy to recognize since they
are related directly to some feature of the
assembly that accounts for their presence.
Figure 24 Typical False Indications
Nonrelevant indications include those that appear on articles that are press-fitted, keyed, splined,
riveted, or spot welded together and those appearing on castings as a result of loosely adherent
scale or a rough surface due to burned-in sand. Such nonrelevant indications, however, must be
Page 56

carefully examined since they may interfere with correct interpretation.
5.1.5 True Indications
True indications are those caused by a discontinuity. The interpretation of an indication as true
is a matter of observing the indication, eliminating the possibility of it being a fa1se indication,
and then further determining that it is not a nonrelevant indication. Any true indication
immediately becomes subject to evaluation as to its cause (type of discontinuity) and the effect
of the indicated discontinuity on the service life of the specimen. There are no hard and fast
rules that lay down sure methods of determining whether an indication is true. Such definite
appraisals require knowledge of the fabrication processes used in creating the article or, in the
case of a used article, knowledge of its operational use and the stresses to which it has been
subjected.
5.2 CATEGORIES OF TRUE INDICATIONS
5.2.1. General
Discontinuity indications vary widely in appearance but for each indication two interpretive
questions must be answered: i) what type of discontinuity caused the indication, and ii) what is the
extent of the discontinuity as evidenced by the extent of the indication. Each indication also
requires an answer to the evaluation question: what effect will the indicated discontinuity have on
the service life of the article. The answers to the interpretive questions are obtained by observing
the indication and identifying the discontinuity from the characteristic appearance of the
indication. The answer to the evaluation question is based on certain knowledge of the
seriousness of the discontinuity and complete understanding of the ultimate use of the article.
True indications logically fall into five categories: continuous line; intermittent line; rounded;
small dots; and diffused or weak. Figure 25 illustrates typical true indications.
Figure 25 Typical True Indications
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5.2.2. Continuous Line
Continuous line indications are caused by cracks, cold shuts, forging laps, scratches, or die
marks. Cracks usually appear as jagged lines; cold shuts as smooth, narrow, straight lines; and
forging laps as smooth, wavy lines. Scratches and die marks appear in a variety of linear
patterns but are readily recognizable when all penetrant traces are removed, since the bottom of
the discontinuity is usually visible.
5.2.3. Intermittent Line
The same discontinuities that cause continuous line indications may, under different
circumstances, cause intermittent line indications. When an article is worked by grinding,
peening, forging, machining, etc., portions of the discontinuities in the surface of the article
may be closed by the, metal working process. When this occurs, the discontinuities will appear
as intermittent lines.
5.2.4. Round
Round indications usually are caused by porosity. The porosity may be the result of gas holes,
pin holes, or the generally porous makeup of the article. Deep cracks may also appear as round
indications since they trap a large amount of penetrant that spreads when the developer is
applied. Any round indication that appears singly in an isolated position usually indicates a
discontinuity of depth that may or may not be round.
5.2.5. Small Dots
Small dot indications result from discontinuities caused by pin holes, by the porous nature of
the article, or by excessively coarse grains being used in producing a casting. They may also be
the result of cast alloy microshrinkage.
5.2.6. Diffused or Weak
Diffused or weak indications are particularly difficult to interpret. Weak indications appearing
over a large area are always suspect and when they appear the article is to be thoroughly
cleaned and retested. Other weak or diffused indications may be caused by surface porosity but
more often are the result of insufficient cleaning.
5.3 DISCONTINUITY DEPTH DETERMINATION
The vividness of a visible dye indication or the brilliance of a fluorescent indication can
sometimes be used as a measure of depth. The greater the depth of a discontinuity the more
penetrant it holds and the larger and brighter the indication. Shallow discontinuities entrap
Page 58

only small amounts of penetrant and appear as fine line indications of relatively low brilliance.
When evaluation requires more accurate knowledge of the depth of a discontinuity it is often
obtained by removing the surface indication and reapplying developer. The subsequent amount
and rate of penetrant bleed- out is proportionate to the depth of the discontinuity.
5.4 TYPICAL INDICATIONS
Figure 26 Visible dye indications of weldent shrink

cracks
Figure 28 Visible dye indication of Lamination
Figure 27 Fluorescent indications of racks in Ceramic

rod
Page 59
Figure 29 Non Relevant Fluorescent indications due to

rough surface and poor wash
Figure 30 Fluorescent streaks and patches due to

incomplete wash
5.5 Preserving of Records

Inspection today increasingly involves the recording of indications for test reports and inspection
records.
Photographs provide excellent permanent records. In addition to photographs there are special
waxes and plastic film developers that absorb and fix penetrant penetrant indications to provide
permanent records. Or the recording of indications can be done with a strippable lacquer.
Several coats of lacquer are applied over the indication and allowed to dry. The coating is then
lifted, bringing the indication with it.
Another method sometimes used is to spray the indication with a fixer and when dry, lift the
indication with a piece of transparent tape. The tape with the indication is then transferred to the
appropriate test document.
But whatever the method used to record indications time is of the essence. Delays will cause
indications to become blurred or distorted through the continued bleeding of penetrant. They will
not be representative of the discontinuities from which they came.
Page 60

Chapter 6 CODES, STANDARDS, PROCEDURES AND SAFETY (PT)
6.1 GENERAL
The NDT personnel must be well conversant with different inspection terminologies. Some of the
terminologies used in the NDT are explained below
6.1.1 Codes and specifications
Codes and specifications are similar types of standards that use the verbs "shall" or "will" to
indicate the mandatory use of certain materials or actions or both. Codes differ from specifications
in that their use is mandated with the force of law by governmental jurisdiction. The use of
specifications becomes mandatory only when they are referenced by codes or contractual
documents. A prime example of codes is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code which is a set
of standards that assure the safe design, construction and testing of boilers and pressure vessels.
6. 1.2 Guides and recommended practices
Guides and recommended practices are standards that are offered primarily as aids to the user.
They use verbs such as "should" and "may" because their use is usually optional. However, if these
documents are referenced by codes or contractual agreements, their use may become mandatory. If
the codes or agreements contain non mandatory sections or appendices, the use of referenced
guides and recommended practices by them, are at the user's discretion.
6. 1.3 Procedure
In non destructive testing, a procedure is an orderly sequence of rules that describe how a specific
technique shall be applied.
6. 1.4 Method and Technique
A technique is a specific way of utilizing a particular non destructive testing method. Each
technique is identified by at least one particular important variable from another technique within
the method (Example - RT method: X-Ray/Gamma Ray Techniques).
6. 1.5 Examination and testing
Examination and testing are those quality control functions which are carried out, during the
fabrication of an industrial product, by a qualified person who is the employee of the manufacturer.
6. 1.6 Inspection
Inspections are the quality control functions which are carried out during the fabrication of an
industrial product, by an "authorized inspector".
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6. 1.7 Authorized inspector
An authorized inspector is a person who is not the employee of the fabricator of an industrial
product but who is properly qualified and has the authority to verify to his satisfaction that all
examinations specified in the constructional code of the product have been made to the
requirements of the referencing section of the construction code.
6. 1.8 Report
A report of a non destructive examination or testing is a document which will include all the
necessary information required to:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
take decision on the acceptance of the defects revealed by the examination

facilitate repairs of non acceptable defects, and
permit the examination or testing to be repeated.
6. 1.9 Records
Records are documents which will give, at any time in future, the following information about a non
destructive testing or examination:
(i)
the procedure used for carrying out the examination,
(ii)
the data recording and data analyzing techniques used, and
(iii)
the results of the examination.
6.2
International and national standardizing bodies
Some of the organizations whose standards are commonly used in NDT internationally are:
a)
ASME
American Society for Mechanical Engineers.
b)
ASTM
American Society for Testing of Materials.
c)
IIW
International Institute of Welding.
d)
ISO
International Organization for Standardization.
e)
DIN
German Standardizing Body.
f)
BSI
British Standards Institution.
g)
JIS
Japanese Industrial Standards.
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6.3 Standards applicable to liquid penetrant testing
6.3.1 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
(i) ASTM A 462. Procedure for liquid penetrant inspection of steel forgings.
(ii) ASTM E 165. Standard recommended practice for liquid penetrant inspection method.
(iii) ASTM E 270. Definition of terms relating to liquid penetrant inspection.
6.3. 2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Code
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers set up a committee in 1911 to formulate standard
rules for the construction of steam boiler and other pressure vessels. This committee is now called
the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee.
The committee's function is to establish rules of safety governing the design, fabrication and
inspection during construction of boilers and unfired pressure vessels; and to interpret these rules
when questions arise regarding their intent. The committee has published the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code (BPV code) as an American Standard. The first code was published in 1914
and revised and updated editions have been issued at regular intervals since. The ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code contains the following sections:
Section I: Power boilers
This section includes rules and general requirements for all methods of construction for power,
electric and miniature boilers and high temperature water boilers used in stationary service. This
section also includes power boilers used in locomotives, portable and traction service.
Section II: Materials specifications
Part A; Ferrous materials.
Part B; Non ferrous materials.
Part C; Welding rods, electrodes and filler metals.
Section III: Rules for construction of nuclear power components
This section provides requirements for the materials design, fabrication, examination, testing,
inspection, installation, certification, stamping and overpressure protection of nuclear power plant
items such as vessels, concrete reactor vessels and concrete containments, storage tanks, piping
systems, pumps, valves, core support structures and component supports for use in, or containment
of, portions of the nuclear power system of any power plant.
Section V: Non-destructive examination
This section contains requirements and methods for non-destructive examination which are
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referenced and required by other code sections. This section also includes manufacturer's
examination responsibilities, duties of authourized inspectors and requirements for qualification of
personnel, inspection, and examination. Examination methods included in this section are
intended to detect surface and internal discontinuities in material, welds and fabricated parts and
components. boilers Article 1 (Appendix B) serves as an introduction and covers general
requirements such as manufacturers examination responsibility, duties of the authorized inspector,
written procedures, inspection, examination and qualification of personnel. The balance of section
V is organized in two sub-sections, A and B, Appendix A (glossary of terms), Appendix B (SI
units) and an index.
Subsection A (Articles 2 to 10) defines the specific NDE methods required by the ASME code.
Subsection B (Articles 21 to 27) contains the basic standards, procedures and recommended
practice documents of each of the NDE techniques as adopted from the American Society for
Testing of Materials (ASTM). Article 24 is related to Penetrant Testing.
Section VIII: Pressure vessels

This section is divided into two divisions. Division 1 covers the minimum safety requirements
applicable to the construction, design, and fabrication of pressure vessels under either internal or
external pressure for operation at pressure exceeding 15 psig and to vessels having inside
diameters exceeding six inches. Pressure vessels made according to the rules of Division 2 require
closer inspection of the required fabrication details, material inspection, welding procedures and
details, material inspection, welding procedures and welding and more non-destructive
examination, as the safety factor used for these vessels is less than the safety factor used for vessels
fabricated according to the rules of Division 1.
6.3.3
Qualification and certification of NDT Personnel
Some of the well known international standards for qualification and certification of NDT
personnel are the following:
((13) ISO/DIS/9712 Non Destructive Testing- Qualification and Certification of personnel.
(14) BS EN 473-93 General principles for qualification and certification of NDT personnel.
(15) SNT-TC-1A Recommended practice for Qualification and Certification of NDT
personnel. This document was developed by the American Society for Non-destructive Testing
(ASNT).
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6.4 SAFETY
Liquid penetrant testing uses a variety of materials that have distressing and often hazardous
characteristics. Except for water, the liquids uswd are usually flammable and some , upon contact
, can cause skin irritation. The developing powders used are non toxic but in confined spaces, can
become a health hazard. The black lights used with fluorescent penetrants are in the ultraviolet
spectrum of light rays that can cause physiological damage (sunburn etc.). All of these hazards
can be avoided or minimized by observing the precautionary measures mentioned in the following
paragraphs.
6.4.1 Problems of industrial safety in the use of chemical and inflammable products
The safety considerations are to be realized and practised while making use of the chemicals and
inflammable products at the time of precleaning and removal of excess penetrant.
Vapour degreasing, solvent cleaning, acid and alkaline are the few among the precleaning methods
where special care should be exercised to combat the harmful effects of such chemicals.
Personnel using solvent cleaning methods should be aware of the hazards of fire (with flammable
solvents) and toxicity (with chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents, ketones, and alcohols), the flash
points and permissible toxicity concentrations and should ensure operation in a well-ventilated
atmosphere.
6.4.2 Applicable safety standards
The organic base solvents used as cleaning of test parts and removal of excess penetrant are
hazardous for their flammability and toxic effects. The organizations such as US Department of
Health Education and Welfare, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
have laid down the flash points and toxicity values as standards of common cleaning solvents for
safe use during inspection by liquid penetrant testing method.
6.4.3 Safety conditions required for the use of UV light
When an operator is making use of black light source for inspection purposes, he should be sure of
the following.
(a) The filter glass is in place and is not cracked or damaged such that white light is emitted.
(b) Gloves and the otherwise necessary safety clothing may be worn.
(c) After prolonged running of the lamp, housing gets very hot and can cause burning. Do not
touch this lamp housing with unprotected flesh.
(d) Do not, under any circumstances, shine the ultraviolet light onto the eyes. Direct viewing of the
Page 65

lamp may, with certain people, cause an irritation of the eyes known as fluorescence of the retina.
This is a temporary condition and can be overcome by wearing sodium glasses.
(f) When using kerosene based inks with the hood in place, always have the ventilation fan
operating.
6.4.4 Hazard instructions for PT operator
The user should be introduced to the possible hazards of the testing materials by
manufacturer/supplier. He should get the following information:
Handling of the testing materials.
Safety clothes.
Disposal of the testing materials.
Working with liquids which evaporate quickly or are toxic.
Safety clothing
Safety clothing must be worn in the work area where penetrant testing is being conducted, just as
they are anywhere products are being sprayed or chemicals handled. This avoids the penetrant
material coming into contact with any part of the body. Most of the chemical testing materials
remove the natural oils from the skin or have other negative medical effects, such as anaesthetic
vapours.
Face protection: Safety goggles or face shield.
Hand protection: Gloves, skin-protection cream.
Body protection: Work over-all and /or apron.
Foot protection: Safety shoes.
If chemical contact occurs with eyes or skin, the instructions of the manufacturer must be
followed. If no such instructions are available, the follow procedure should be followed:
Chemical contact with the skin:
Remove the clothes.
Wash with soap and plenty of water.
Dry the skin.
Rub in skin protection cream.
Get medical attention if there is a problem.
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Contact with the eyes:
Wash off with soap and plenty of water.
Get medical attention
Page 67

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Figure 1 Various Optical Aids used in Visual Inspection

Hand magnifying glass (magnification usually 2-3X).

Illuminated magnifier, field of view more restricted than D (magnification 5-10X).

Borescope or intrascope with built-in illumination (magnification 2-3X).

The applications of visual testing include:

Checking of the surface condition of the test specimen.

Checking of alignment of matting surfaces.

Checking of shape of the component.

Checking for evidence of leaking.

Checking for inner surface defects.

1.3.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

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Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye penetrant.

Solvent removable fluorescent dye penetrant.

Water washable fluorescent dye penetrant.

Post emulsifiable visible dye penetrant.

Solvent removable visible dye penetrant.

Water washable visible dye penetrant.

1.3.3 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

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These techniques can be grouped into the following two categories:

Figure 4 Yoke Magnetization (left) ; Longitudinal Magnetization (right)

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Figure 5 Basic Principle of Radiographic Testing

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Figure 6 Basic Principle of Ultrasonic Testing (Pulse echo technique)

Ultrasonic testing method is:

Mostly used for detection of flaws in materials

Widely used for thickness measurement

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Used for the evaluation of processing variables on materials

Eddy Current Testing (ET)

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For the detection of defects in tubings

For sorting of materials

For measuring thin coatings and

For measuring case depths

Leak Testing (LT)

Sound of escaping gas

(Electron capture gauge)

Radioactive gas (Krypton-85)

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Total Hours in NDT

Liquid Penetrant Testing

Magnetic Particle Testing

Setting up the equipment.

Carrying out the tests and recording the results obtained.

Classifying and reporting on the results in terms of written criteria.

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1.3.1 Properties of Materials

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Figure 9 Stress Strain Diagram

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Shock (impact) resistance

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Figure 10 Typical defects in an ingot

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