AC-CORROSION DETECTION ON ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE PROBES CONNECTED

TO A NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINE

N. Kioupis, K. Maroulis
Public Gas Corporation of Greece S.A.

ABSTRACT
The results from a field investigation of ac-corrosion detection on ER (Electrical Resistance) -probes,
connected to the polyethylene-coated gas transmission pipeline of Greece, are presented and
analyzed.
The most worrying outcome from this investigation is that ac-corrosion can grow very rapidly even
at ac voltage level considered to be too low. These results show the determining factor of the accurrent density.
Interesting data taken from ER-probes connected at another site of a different pipe section pointed to
ac-corrosion related to loss of cathodic protection as well as corrosion from telluric currents.
Recommendations for further work and remedial measures are proposed.
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the problem of the so-called ac-corrosion, i.e. metal loss caused by alternating current at
coating defects of modern pipelines is recognized as a major safety risk and serious threat for the
integrity of pipeline infrastructure. The ac voltage is induced on the pipelines mostly by the High
Voltage (HV) ac power lines that are in proximity. The ac-electrified railways can be an additional
induction source.
However, the ac-corrosion mechanism and the conditions related to it are still not completely
understood. Thus, the ac-corrosion prevention and control is a great challenge for the corrosion
engineers, designers and operators of cathodic protection systems and pipeline owners around the
world. During the last two decades, intensive research for ac-corrosion has been conducted leading to
a breakthrough in cathodic protection criteria and measurement techniques.
In this context, a promising diagnostic tool for ac-corrosion detection and evaluation is the
Electrical-Resistance probes (ER-probes) with dedicated data logger and software. Such probes are
buried and connected to the pipeline in order to record the fingerprints of the corrosion condition
of simulated coating defects.

The problem of ac-interference on pipelines has been intensified due to the crowding of various
energy transmission corridors and transport routes as their space availability is continuously limited
due to the increasing development as well as for economic and environmental reasons. Especially in
areas with uneven soil terrain, like those frequently experienced in Greek territory, the energy
corridors availability is very limited. Thus alternative pipeline routes that could avoid the close
parallelisms with HV power lines can highly increase the complexity and the cost of pipeline
construction, making the selection of those routes practically impossible. In addition, even a
parallelism between a long pipeline and a power line up to a distance of 1000 m [1] (or up to a
distance of 3000 m according to stricter estimations), is to be taken into account for the evaluation of
induced ac voltage effect studies (proximity studies).
Besides, the modern pipelines externally coated with materials of highly insulating properties (e.g.
PE, PP etc) seem to be more sensitive to ac-corrosion, overvoltage effects and stray current
influence. A brief explanation for this higher corrosion and overvoltage effects susceptibility follows.
On the one hand, a well-coated pipeline is a less effective means of grounding the ac-voltage / surges
since it is better isolated from its surroundings by the plastic coating and on the other hand there is a
serious corrosion risk on the tiny coating defects because of the higher ac/dc current density, as the
metal surface area exposed to the corrosive environment is considerably lower in comparison to
coating faults on pipes with porous coatings (e.g. bitumen etc.).
Hence, in the case of well-insulated pipelines special conditions have emerged that impose an
emphasis to be given on specific anti-corrosion protection methods and surge/lightning protection.
Those methods cannot be effective unless the particular conditions of the well-insulated pipelines are
taken into account for surge protection and pipeline grounding measures.
Although grounding measures are usually taken into effect for minimizing the drawbacks of acinterference on pipelines they are scarcely effective for the anti-corrosion protection because all
similar methods used to be focused on the electrical safety risks in terms of the safe touch voltage
when an individual comes in contact with the ac-interfered structure. The long-term ac voltage
considered safe is usually between 15 and 65 V depending on the various national regulations but
these orders of ac voltage magnitudes are not low enough to control the ac-corrosion risk.
The attempts for new guidelines and criteria to be applied on the standards for cathodic protection by
taking into account the ac-corrosion effects, has resulted in specification CEN TS 15280 [2] that
replaces the ac-corrosion annex of the standard EN 12954 [3]. In spite of what was the general belief
on the cathodic protection (cp) effect on ac-corrosion, there is increasing evidence supporting that
the high cp-levels rather rise the ac-corrosion rate than reducing it [4]. This makes the situation very
complex in the case of dc-stray currents where recent reports have revealed a rather synergistic effect
of the ac and dc stray currents [5]. Moreover, in case of low or no cp, the ac-corrosion rate can be
accelerated, as evidenced in the present study.
Another secondary effect of the ac-interference, that has been rather overlooked, is that especially
during relatively high ac-levels (generally >10V), the dc-potential - at specific areas of the pipelineslowly shifts towards anodic direction (as well as to the cathodic direction at other areas of the line
and vice-versa). This effect can also lead to rapid corrosion rates at coating defects of the pipeline.
Specifically in areas with aggressive soil, such as clay, the low frequency anodic excursions of cp
potential can lead to extreme corrosion rates [6].
As the well-coated pipelines are more vulnerable to stray currents (ac/dc) and telluric disturbance the
time-stamped recordings and remote monitoring of cp potentials and currents becomes more and
more important for the efficient management of anti-corrosion protection of such structures. In this
context, the Electrical Resistance probes with data logging and quick presentation of time-stamped
results are one of the most effective means for evaluation of the stray currents impact on pipeline
corrosion.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The data from two case studies are presented and analysed, i.e. case study no.1 regarding ER-probes
with tag no. 110 and 124 as well as case study no.2 regarding ER-probes no. 35 and 36.
The pipeline and the CP system case study no.1
The pipeline examined in the case study no.1 is a 45km section of the natural gas transmission main
line of Greece, constructed in the time interval between 1993 and 1995 and buried at a depth of 1 to
2m in the soil. The main line is extended in a south-north direction from progressive distance 0
(south) to 512 km (north) at the Greek Bulgarian border.
The pipe steel (API 5L X-60) is 762mm (30in.) in outside diameter with wall thicknesses ranging
from 9.52mm to 15.6mm.
It is coated with three-layer extruded polyethylene (factory applied) and heat-shrinkable
polyethylene-compatible sleeves wrapped around every girth weld (field applied). Valves are coated
with a coal tar polyurethane coating.
The pipeline under examination, 45km in length, is electrically separated from the rest line through
buried monolithic isolating joints at both ends (at chainage 2.3km and 47.3km), which are protected
from lightning breakdown through spark gaps. The ground plan of the pipeline can be designed as a
crooked or curved line without branches.
Long-term ac-interference on this pipeline is induced by the electromagnetic field generated mostly
from eight 150kV and two 400kV electric power transmission lines.
Impressed current cathodic protection is provided by means of one Transformer/Rectifier (T/R) unit
in potential control mode (set at on-potential around -1,5V). The groundbed comprised magnetite
(Fe3O4) anodes. The T/R unit is equipped with a special low-pass ac-filter preventing ac voltage of
the pipeline from interfering with T/R unit operation.
Previous CP investigations disclosed a disturbance from a cathodic protection system of a foreign
pipeline. However the interference is not considered severe enough to heighten corrosion rates at a
significant level, although more work has to be done to verify it. The reasons for this notion is that
one cannot expect a lot of interference from the foreign pipe CP system because measures had
already been implemented at crossings with this pipe (i.e. the foreign pipeline was wrapped with
insulating PVC at the crossing areas) and the closest anode from the foreign CP system may be at
least 150 m away from the gas pipeline. This closest foreign pipe anode is near the T/R location
(40,1 km) and causes some cathodic interference in this area of the gas pipe though.
There is no supporting evidence that this pipeline is strongly affected by telluric currents. Electric
trains are not present in the proximity area of this pipe section.
The pipeline and the CP system case study no.2
The pipeline section in the case study no.2 is also a part of the Greek gas main line with the same
pipe and cp technical specifications as those aforementioned for case study no.1.
However this pipe section is longer, extending from 83,3 km up to 377 km (294 km approx. long).
The pipeline in this area is affected both by telluric currents and ac-interference induced mainly by
twelve 150 kV and five 400 kV power lines.
The cathodic protection current was fed by one T/R located at position 198,3km. During the time of
tests, the T/R unit was operating in galvanostatic mode, supplying total cp current of 100 mA.
The overvoltage earthing system case study no.1
Since construction of the pipeline, grounding wires made of hot-dipped galvanized steel had been
installed at selected locations in parallel to the pipeline at a minimum distance 0.2m from it (Figure
1). The pipeline section under study is equipped with 45 CP test posts, including 18 test posts, named
KG, positioned at its 18 earthing installations.
The external diameter of the earthing wires was minimum 12mm with 70m zinc layer thickness
corresponding to 500g/m2. The length of the grounding electrode was ranging from 30m to 220m

depending on the location. More details are given in [7]. In addition, the pipe at valve stations is
grounded through spark gaps.
AVACF

AC subjected
pipeline

measuring post

1.00 m

terminal board of test post

buried pipe

cable to earthing wire

earthing wire
0.2 m (min)

earthing
(a)

(b)

Figure 1 : (a) Diagram of AVACF and earth wire connections at the CP test post and (b) Earthing
wire installation detail (cross-section)
AVACF
In this pipeline section (case study no.1) due to the problems of the high ac-interference and the
consequent disturbances in the CP system operation that have been analysed and reported previously
[7], a number of specifically designed and manufactured ac conducting dc decoupling devices
(named AVACF) were installed at the 18 places of grounding installations of the pipeline. Those
devices were capable of diminishing the ac voltages at least by one order of magnitude. For instance,
most of the time the ac voltage used to be within the range 10-25 V and was reduced to less than 3 V,
as a result of continuous draining of the ac-currents to earth through these devices [8].
The basic technical features of the AVACF devices are the following [8]:
Max. steady state (long-term) AC voltage:
30Vrms
Max. steady state DC voltage:
15V
Max. steady state AC discharge current:
10A
Steady state AC discharge current at 30VAC
upon tested in a circuit with a 20 Ohm resistor in series:
1,5A
Steady state DC leakage current at 15VDC
upon tested in a circuit with a 20 Ohm resistor in series:
10 A
Protection from overcurrent by means of a
slow acting anti-surge high breaking capacity fuse:
HBC 16A(T)
Overall capacitance:
4700 F
Surge protection is effected by pre-existing overvoltage arresters with anti-parallel thyristor
circuitry
Operation temperature range:
-20OC to +800C
Waterproof and corrosion-resistant housing
Some advantages of AVACF are summarised below:

Extremely high DC blocking capability (DC leakage current in the order of few microamperes)
so that DC flow to/from earth to be totally prevented. Consequently, the cathodic protection
function, line current and DC potential measurements are almost unaffected
No increase of DC leakage current with increase of DC voltage
No requirement for external power source (battery or AC mains)
Limited on-off CP potential recordings falsification from the AVACF capacitance discharging
effect
Execution of on-off potential measurements without having to disconnect AVACF from the
protected pipe
Continuous ac conduction (at any low ac voltage)
Suitable dimensions to fit inside the existing measuring post housing
Easy installation and maintenance.

The weak point of AVACF was its fuse, which was frequently blown by surges, thus a frequent
inspection plan was necessary in order to check and replace the fuses.
For this reason an improved dc-decoupling device without fuse has already been prepared.
The overvoltage earthing system case study no.2.
The earthing arrangement is the same with that aforementioned in case study no.1 except that no
AVACF or any other overvoltage arrester is connected. The KG test posts with the corresponding
earthing wires are amounted to 25 spread at various sites along the pipe route. The pipe at valve
stations is also grounded through spark gaps.
Brief description of ER technique and experimental methodology
The technology for verification of CP effectiveness is based on a specialized ER-concept. The
coupon is formed as a part of an ER (Electrical Resistance) probe (Figure 2) consisting of a metal
plate divided into two parts, one part being exposed to the soil (coupon part), the other part
(reference part) being physically shielded to effectively avoid corrosion (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Picture of ER-probe

Figure 3. Configuration of the coupon and reference element of ER-probe

The actual thickness of the coupon can de verified by measuring the electrical resistance throughout
time of the coupon since the electrical resistance is a function of the plate dimensions. Comparing
with simultaneous measurements of the electrical resistance of the reference will provide temperature
compensated thickness values. Coupon element thickness at time t Ic(t) is then quantified by a
mathematical algorithm, for instance through:
(1)
where (t=0) refers to initial probe conditions.
RC and RR are resistance values of coupon and reference part of the plate.

Figure 4. Illustration of the ER circuitry.

In Figure 4, the basic ER-circuitry is illustrated. Excitation current is passed through the elements,
and amplifiers (A1 and A2) pick up the voltages generated across the elements and scale this
properly into a measure of the element resistances, RC and RR.
The slope of a plot of the thickness versus time will provide a measure of corrosion rate. Using the
special data logging unit, time stamped corrosion rate and electrical properties are acquired for
diagnostic purposes.
An ER coupon is used for measurements of corrosion rate at the position where the coupon is placed.
For verification of cathodic protection efficiency of buried structures for instance pipeline the
coupon is electrically connected to the structure and placed in the soil adjacent hereto (Figure 5). The
coupon acts as an artificial coating defect and the corrosion rate in this is used to assess the risk of
corrosion of the structure when exposed through a coating defect to the chemical and electrical
environment in which the coupon is placed.
The use of ER coupons is particularly useful for assessment of the risk of corrosion due to AC or DC
interference (AC-influenced corrosion corrosion due to DC stray current).

Figure 5. Datalogger system with ER coupon used for field investigations

ER-probes are well integrated and commonly accepted tools for monitoring internal corrosion in
process plants. The ER concept has been employed as an alternative to corrosion measurements by
weight loss determination on exposed coupons. The drawbacks of weight loss measurements is
primarily that the coupon has to de withdrawn from the environment, brought to the laboratory for
cleaning and weighing procedures which are costly and time-consuming. The ER concept is on-line
and does not require excavation of the coupon for corrosion evaluation.
Therefore, the ER concept is cost effective and provides a measure of the logical monitoring
parameter that is corrosion - on top of the traditional electrical measurements made on coupons for
CP verification.
At this point, some problems encountered with the conventional polarization probes are underlined.
One of the main disadvantages of conventional probes is that the measurements obtained are usually
instantaneous (taken in sporadic moments of time), thus the information acquired is limited. Usually
there is no information on the corrosion status of the metal probe unless it is excavated and
inspected, practically a difficult process that is rarely implemented and on top of that little info is
collected even in that case. Besides, a lot of the polarization probes can drive to misleading results
because they are usually prone to failure (e.g. leak of the electrode solution that preferentially
corrodes the metal sample and falsifies the environment adjacent to the metal or contamination of the
reference electrode solution from the soil etc.). Eventually, especially the measurements of ac/dc
current to the probe usually require very accurate measurement equipment, suitable measurement
techniques and skilled technicians; otherwise the measurement outcome is frequently in error. Of
course, the ER-probes and data logging methodology avoids all above trouble.
By means of the ER-probe data logger, with a selectable sampling rate (in this case every or 1h
was chosen), measurements of the ac voltage, the ac current density, the coupon and reference
element electrical resistances and calculated thicknesses are obtained. Besides, the spread resistance
of the coupon is calculated by Ohms Law through the following equation:
(2)
The differentiation of the coupon thickness loss with time gives time-stamped corrosion rates. The
momentary/transient corrosion rates are calculated from the trend of 16 measurements whereas the
average corrosion rates are calculated from the trend based on 96 measurements.

For the interested reader, more details on the ER-technology concept and equipment can be found in
the literature [9-11].
Assisting data logging equipment
The recording of ac and dc voltage was performed using a cathodic protection datalogger with
512Kbyte data capacity at 30V ac range (input resistance: 1MP) and 3V dc range (input resistance:
2MP, attenuation at 50Hz: 60dB) respectively. This recorder is a two-channel data logger with a
built-in ac-filter allowing simultaneous recording of dc and ac voltage. The ac-filter of the data
logger prevented the dc voltage recordings from being falsified by ac interference. This data logger
facilitated the acquisition of mainly dc potential data since the ER data logger could not take dc data.
Location of ER-probes case study no.1
Two ER- probes, with tag numbers 110 and 124 respectively, having surface area 0,4 cm2 each and
initial thickness 100m, of the type illustrated in Figure 2 were buried at a depth of approx. 1 meter
in this corrosive soil mentioned above. Both probes were near each other at distance 1 m between
them but at almost the same distance from the pipe. They were placed close to the gas pipeline, at
position 2,5km where the crossing with an oil pipeline is situated (see map Figure 6). The gas
pipeline burial at that point was around 1,5m. The ER-probes were periodically both connected to or
disconnected from the cathodically protected gas pipeline. The corrosion history and the various
corrosion rates estimated from the ER-probes data are shown in Tables 1 & 2. It is obvious that both
probes simultaneously were subject to either the effect of combined cathodic protection and acinterference (denoted CP + AC) or to natural corrosion (denoted NC) as long as being unaffected
from the combined CP+AC influence when disconnected from the pipe.
The environment chosen for the ER-probes installation, which it is in a region located approx. 30 km
west of Athens is a swampy (and probably saline) soil close to the sea. Particularly, the place of ERprobes installation is at a distance approx. 400m away from the sea. The bulk soil pH was measured
by means of pH-paper strip at several soil and mud water samples collected from the environment
near the probes. The bulk soil pH was around 8. The bulk soil resistivity was in the order of 2,3
Ohm-m.
Some soil samples were collected but their soil chemical analysis is pending.
The particular place for the ER-probes installation was selected because high ac current densities had
been measured in a conventional polarization probe located nearby (chainage 2,3km). That probe
comprised a reference electrode of the type zinc/zinc sulphate combined with a naked metal plate of
1cm2 surface area at its bottom.
Location of ER-probes case study no.2
The ER-probes with tag numbers 35 and 36, each having surface area 0,4cm2 and initial thickness
100 m, are buried at position 304,4 km of the main pipeline (see map Figure 6). They are placed
close each other and are both connected to the nearby pipeline. Apart from the ac interference,
telluric currents also affect the pipeline in this area. The pipeline section where the ER-probes of tag
no. 35 and 36 are connected is electrically isolated and far away from the pipeline section where the
ER-probes tag no. 110 and 124 are connected. Of course, there is no electrical correlation between
the pipe sections of the two case studies.
RESULTS
Corrosion history case study no. 1
The corrosion history of ER-probes no. 110 and 124 is illustrated in Tables 1&2. In these tables, both
total corrosion rates and ac corrosion rates are depicted since the periods of ac-corrosion (CP+AC)
alternate with periods of natural corrosion (NC) when the probe is left disconnected from the pipe.
Nevertheless, there is a firm basis to assume that the NC periods contribute negligibly to corrosion.
In order to assess the contribution of NC to the total corrosion behaviour of the specimens we
monitored the thickness of the ER-probe during a 4 days period of NC (from 12 until 16/1/2006),
followed after a period of corrosion attack on the probes. We were astonished to find that even the

slightest corrosion could hardly be detected. The same became also obvious when the fuse of the ERprobe data logger was blown (on 4/1/2006, 14:00) thus leaving the coupon disconnected from the
pipe for 6 days. During this 6 days period of supposed NC, no corrosion was detected too. It seems
that the oxide film on the metal surface produced from the ac-corrosion activity, exhibits a protective
role in terms of natural corrosion. This seems reasonable according to the alkalization theory of accorrosion because in the absence of CP the pH values on the metal surface drop from the very high
values during ac-corrosion process to lower pH values at open-circuit potential (OCP) thus favoring
immunity as a result of the passivity offered from the oxide film. On the contrary, both ac-corrosion
and strong cathodic polarization lead to higher pH values favoring the breakdown of passivity
[5,12]see Pourbaix diagram (Figure 7). That the oxide film produced from ac-corrosion can be
passive in the OCP state is supported from the visual examination of the corrosion products seen
after retrieval of the probes. The coupons were covered with a black powder/film assumed to be
mostly magnetite ( Fe3O4 ), the known passive ferrous oxide that is believed to be the main corrosion
product arising from ac-corrosion [13].
In the following, the terms shown in Table 1 & 2 and in Figures 8 and 9 are explained.
The cumulative ac-corrosion rates Uac-corr cum, are calculated by dividing the metal thickness loss
by the time from the start of the experiment (18/11/2005) during which the ER-probes had been
experiencing CP+AC only, whereas the cumulative total corrosion rates Utot-corr cum are calculated
by dividing the metal thickness loss by the total time from the beginning of the experiment, during
which the ER-probes had been experiencing corrosion during both time periods of CP+AC and NC.
Uac-corr cum (m/yr) = [100 m tf (m)] / TCP+AC

(3)

Utot-corr cum (m/yr) = [100 m tf (m)] / ( TCP+AC +TNC)

(4)

tf denotes the final thickness of the metal probe, while TCP+AC , TNC denote the time from the start of
experiment that the probe is subject to CP+AC and NC respectively.
The corresponding corrosion rates per time period for ac and total corrosion respectively are defined
as follows:
Uac-corr per (m/yr) = [ti (m) tf (m)] / tCP+AC

(5)

Utot-corr per (m/yr) = [ti tf (m)] / ( tCP+AC +tNC)

(6)

ti denotes the initial thickness of the metal probe at the beginning of every time period, while tCP+AC ,
tNC denote the duration of each time period that the probe is subject to CP+AC or NC respectively.
From the data illustrated in Tables 1&2 and Figures 8&9, at least three distinctive long time phases
of corrosion can be defined.
The first phase data are related to the recordings during the very first 7 days of corrosion (1825/11/2005). After the initiation of a high-speed corrosion with rather no incubation period,
retardation in the process occurs. Unfortunately no recording is available after the first 7 days
(25/11/2005 5/12/2005).
Then after a period of NC (5-22/12/2005), the second phase follows. During this phase, incubation
time (few days duration) can be discriminated, after which the ac-corrosion is promoted during times
of high ac-current density and ac voltage peaks. Then, after the ER-probe data logger fuse is blown
(on 4/1/2006), there follows a 6 days period of no corrosion when the coupon is disconnected from
the pipe (NC).
The third period (10/1/2006-20/1/2006) is characterized by the extremely high corrosion rates that
lead to perforation of the coupons. Unfortunately no ER-probe recording is available during this
period except for a period of NC when no corrosion is detected.

The results in Figure 10 show that the corrosion begins with high velocity. However, after the first 7
days, it seems to tend to a plateau indicating a retardation of corrosion speed. This retardation of the
corrosion process can be correlated to the reduction of the average ac voltage (and subsequently the
ac current density too).
The absence of long incubation period is noteworthy too. A likely explanation may be that in this
initial state no corrosion products and high thickness oxide films are present since the incubation
period might be associated with the oxide film present that seems to play a role in the initial
corrosion steps in terms of the time to reach critical high pH enough for ac-corrosion to occur.
The corrosion retardation is also in accordance with the corrosion rates depicted in Figures 8&9
where a slow-down of the average corrosion rates in the mid period can be noticed. It is noteworthy
that, after some time, the corrosion rate is suddenly and dramatically accelerated, as clearly shown in
Figures 8&9. This is in contrast to previous reports that had suggested a decrease in ac-corrosion rate
with time [14]. It is remarkable that during the final time period, both metal specimens of ER-probes
suffer perforation within only 1 day of ac-corrosion duration. Severe metal losses appear i.e. 46,9 m
and 18,9 m metal thickness of the probe tag no. 124 and the probe tag.no. 110 respectively, both
vanish within one day. During this period, the corrosion reaches extreme rates maybe higher than 17
mm/yr!! (Figures 8&9). A possible explanation for this behaviour of the specimens may be a sudden
150mV shift of dc potential to the negative direction (Figure 11) although such a rapid acceleration
of corrosion is surprising.
Unfortunately there was no ac voltage recording during the same period, but we assume that the ac
voltage did not reach much higher values than usual. Of course the increase in corrosion rate by a
combined effect of higher ac voltage and by surplus of cathodic polarisation cannot be ruled out.
Note: The negative potential shift was caused by an unknown event, which simultaneously tripped the fuse of the ERprobe data logger, created a cathodic shift of the gas pipe potential and an anodic shift of the secondary oil pipe
potential. These potential values remained in the same order of magnitude during the period that followed the causing
event (see Figure 11 ).

Analysis of ER-probes data from the second phase corrosion period case study no. 1
The corrosion process (recorded during the second phase) is marked by sharp bursts of
momentary/transient corrosion rates, which coincide with ac-current density and ac voltage peaks
(Figures 12&13 ). The maximum values of the momentary corrosion rates present a broad dispersion.
Broadly dispersed and different transient corrosion rates exist at the two ER-probes indicating that
the corrosion process is very sensitive to the local soil conditions. However the qualitative features of
the corrosion behaviour of both coupons are the same. In the long run though, it seems that both
probes tend to corrode in a like manner.
The data in Figure 14 illustrate the threshold of ac voltage and ac current density above which the
corrosion is triggered. The corrosion rates data agree with the safety limit of 100 A/m2 for ac current
density. In this example, this ac current density limit corresponds to a safe ac voltage of only 0,5-0,6
Volt. Such a safe ac voltage is much lower than the 4 Volt limit according to specifications [2]
proving that merely the ac voltage is not to be relied upon for ac corrosion risk evaluation. So it is
rather risky to define a safe ac voltage without data from such special corrosion rate recordings.
The particular ac-corrosion process analysed hereto, is also characterized by the small spread
resistance and the lowering of the spread resistance of the coupon upon ac voltage increase. A
tendency to reach a plateau of very low spread resistance at high ac voltage is evident (Figure 15 ).
This behavior of the spread resistance seems to be in accordance to the alkalization mechanism of accorrosion. The rise of ac voltage may increase local pH at the coupon/soil interface therefore
catalysing iron dissolution.
Another interesting observation was that the relation of the transient corrosion rates taken at the
peaks of 16-measurements average obeyed a rather linear relationship with the logarithm of the

10

corresponding peaks of the ac current density (Figure 16). The explanation for that is rather vague
for the moment. It might be related to the alkalization theory or it could be explained by another
approach as outlined hereafter.
The authors wish to express some initial thoughts about an alternative perspective of ac-corrosion
mechanism relating it to the electronic properties of the oxides formations on the metal surface,
taking into account the amorphous semiconductor theory and ac rectification by the amorphous
ferrous oxide films. This approach might also account for the slow drifts of dc potential associated
with high ac voltage on the pipeline. The amorphous semiconductor theory approach had been found
helpful for the anticorrosion properties of oxide films in connection with corrosion inhibitors effects
in aluminum alloys corrosion [15]. Regarding future work, a hint is given at the anticorrosion
properties of the amorphous oxide films on the metal surface.
Results from case study no. 2
In the following, some interesting results are presented from recordings on two ER-probes of total
surface area 0,8 cm2 (0,4 cm2 each) buried at the position 304.4 km of the main pipeline.
1. AC corrosion related to CP loss
From these results, the importance of cathodic protection potential monitoring and control is
established. The rectifier being in galvanostatic mode, for an unknown reason - maybe an accidental
contact of the pipe with a foreign grounded structure - the on cp potential dropped to low levels
(around -0,74V) for a two weeks period (Figure 17). At the same time the corrosion rates recorded at
ER-probes installed in the pipeline (at 304,4 km) increased rapidly whereas the transient corrosion
rates were fluctuating in accordance to the ac voltage fluctuations during the same period (Figure
17). The escalation of the momentary corrosion rate at every ac voltage peak, suggests that it is very
likely this corrosion process, which is initiated by the absence of adequate cathodic protection, is
related to ac-interference. It is remarkable that the ac-current density is more or less constant and
well below the threshold of 100 A/m2 (Figure 17). It is also noteworthy that during the period of
normal cathodic protection, no corrosion is detected despite the relatively negative cp-level (median
on-potential -1,34 V with slow negative deviations up to -1,89 V).
In this case, the ac-current density hardly plays a significant role in the corrosion process while the
corrosion behaviour of the coupon is characterized by the increase of spread resistance Rs with the ac
voltage (Figure 18). The same trend of the spread resistance with the ac voltage is observed
independent of whether corrosion occurs or not.
This tendency for the spread resistance is supposed to be related to soil constituents (e.g. earth
alkaline cations such as calcium), which by the action of ac voltage can promote the formation of
resistive deposits on the metal surface [9,16].
Consequently, compared to the status recorded in the case study no.1., a completely different
behavior of the ER-coupons is evident in the case study no.2.
The above results suggest that at least two diversified ac-corrosion mechanisms exist.
The first mechanism is pertinent to the fall of spread resistance upon ac voltage increase and it seems
to be related to very conductive and aggressive soils. It is possible that the ac-corrosion can rise
dramatically even at low ac voltage level whereas the ac-current density has significant impact on
corrosion rates, being also very sensitive to small variations of the ac voltage due to minimal spread
resistance. With this ac-corrosion mechanism, the CP surplus (cathodic shifting of CP potential) is
believed to give rise to severe corrosion rates.
The second mechanism is characterized by the elevation of the spread resistance when ac voltage is
increased as well as the ac-corrosion triggering by loss of CP. The ac-current density is rather stable
and insensitive to ac voltage variations. However, it seems that ac-corrosion can be activated when
CP is lost (by anodic shifting of CP potential) even when the ac current density is well below
100A/m2.

11

2. Telluric currents corrosion

Another interesting case, observed at the same coupons at the same place, is this briefly described in
the following. By the use of the same ER-probe technique we could detect corrosion emanating from
telluric activity that was completely differentiated from and independent of ac-corrosion (Figure 19 ).
Note that at the same place (304,4 km) where the ER-probe was buried, although a sudden increase
of the ac-voltage from 2 to 12 V was recorded, it was not accompanied with ac-corrosion.
Nevertheless, the brief period of higher corrosion rate (during the late hours of 12/6/2006 and the
first morning hours of 13/6/2006) coincides with an increase of telluric activity indicated by the Kp
index which is a number - ranging from 0 to 9 - indicating telluric activity intensity [17].
The above results show the complexity of the problem implying the cathodic protection engineer
should be particularly cautious that every case should be treated separately. The electrical parameters
of the interference, the cathodic protection status and the soil physical and chemical properties can
have a significant impact on the corrosion behaviour at coating defects of pipelines.
Further actions Remedial measures
The remedial measures suggested for the efficient control of the ac-corrosion process might be a
series of actions such as those briefly outlined below:
CIPS, DCVG, and similar surveys that help find and repair coating defects in aggressive soils
Repair of coating defects with new methods and materials that prevent the metal from coming
into contact with corrosive constituents of the environment
Installation of additional grounding sites
Improvement of the spread resistance of the grounding electrodes
Installation of more effective ac conducting dc decoupling elements
Closest monitoring of the cathodic protection operation (by special data loggers, CP remote
monitoring systems etc.)
ER-probe corrosion monitoring at longer durations
Proximity effect studies (i.e. ac-voltage interference theoretical calculations) based on more
accurate models [18,19]
Efforts to comply with the rules of CEN/TS 15280
Chemical analysis of aggressive soils as well as corrosion products analysis
Intelligent pigging
Bell-hole excavations for inspection of the pipeline with NDT techniques, pit depth gage etc.
Lab experiments that can render light to the mechanism of ac-corrosion
Application of Pipeline Integrity Management (PIM) and External Corrosion Defect
Assessment (ECDA) guidelines [20].
The main countermeasure to combat ac-corrosion is the ac (voltage) - mitigation through effective
ac-conducting dc-decoupling devices. Regarding such devices, particular attention must be given on
the ac-conduction at any value of low ac voltage in combination with negligible dc current leak
otherwise may be ineffective in terms of both ac-corrosion control and undisturbed function of
cathodic protection.
As a next research step, the role of the soil constituents in ac-corrosion a well as the mechanism of
the influence of the ac voltage on spread resistance are recommended as topics of further
investigation.
CONCLUSIONS
The present case studies exhibit results taken from ER-probes recordings in the cathodic protection
system of the Greek gas transmission main pipeline. In the case study no.1 a severe ac-corrosion case
is disclosed. The results indicate the important role of the ac current density in aggressive soils. The
ac-corrosion can grow rapidly even at ac voltage levels on the pipeline that are considered low
(around 1 Volt). Under these circumstances, the ac-corrosion mechanism is characterized by the
tendency of the spread resistance to decrease upon ac voltage increasing.

12

Interesting results obtained from ER-probes connected at another place in a different pipe section
(case study no.2) pointed to a different ac-corrosion, which is related to loss of cathodic protection.
Those data imply a distinctive ac-corrosion mechanism, which is marked by the elevation of spread
resistance upon ac voltage increasing in spite of the aforementioned ac-corrosion mechanism.
The ER-probe technique is sensitive enough to detect even small corrosion caused by telluric
currents and differentiate it from ac-corrosion.
Eventually, the ER-probes technique can be an invaluable tool for the evaluation of the effectiveness
of the ac-mitigation measures. Besides it is a promising diagnostic tool that helps locate areas of the
pipeline prone to ac-corrosion that deserve special attention. Critical ac voltage and cp levels for accorrosion to occur can be identified from analogous evaluations and the remedial measures can be
directed properly.
Generally, an integrated corrosion risk evaluation and several inspections, anti-corrosion and
rehabilitation actions have to be taken for a successful outcome in the fight against pipeline
corrosion. The routine CP inspection plans have to be modified by adopting new technologies (e.g.
for CP remote monitoring, corrosion monitoring and ac-mitigation) and by applying the
contemporary guidelines of pipelines integrity management.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the cooperation and advice from Dr. Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
(Metricorr), Mr. Henrik Rosenberg (BALSLEV Consulting Engineers A/S) and the professors of
National Technical University of Athens, Mr. G. Batis and Mrs. N. Kouloumbi.
REFERENCES
1.W.von Baeckmann, W. Schwenk, W. Prinz (Eds.), Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion
Protection:Theory and Practice of Electrochemical Protection Processes, Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston TX, 1997.
2. Technical Specification prCEN/TS 15280
Evaluation of a.c. corrosion likelihood of buried pipelinesApplication to cathodically
protected pipelines, July 2005.
3. EN 12954 Cathodic Protection of Buried or Immersed Metallic Structures - General
Principles and Applications for Pipelines. CEN Brussels 2001.
4. L.V.Nielsen, P.Cohn, B.Baumgarten, Investigating AC and DC stray current
corrosion, CeoCor 2005.
5. L.V.Nielsen, B.Baumgarten, P.Cohn, H.Rosenberg, A field study of line currents and
corrosion rate measurements in a pipeline critically interfered with AC and DC stray
currents, CeoCor 2006.
6. N.Birbilis, L.J.Holloway, M.Forsyth, Technical Note: Simulated Transient Loss of
Cathodic Protection for Buried Pipelines, Corrosion NACE, Vol. 61, No.5, 2005, pp.498501.
7. N.Kouloumbi, G. Batis, N. Kioupis, P. Asteridis, Study of the effect of AC-interference
on the cathodic protection of a Gas Pipeline , ACMM, Vol. 49, No. 5, 2002, pp. 335-345.

13

8. =. Kioupis, N. Kouloumbi, G. Batis, P. Asteridis Study of the AC- Interference and

AC-mitigation on the cathodic protection of a Gas pipeline, CeoCor 2003.
9. L.V.Nielsen, K.V.Nielsen, B.Baumgarten, H.Breuning-Madsen, P.Cohn, H.Rosenberg,
AC-induced corrosion in pipelines: Detection, characterisation and mitigation, NACE
2004 paper No. 04211.
10. L.V.Nielsen, K.V.Nielsen, Differential ER-technology for measuring degree of
accumulated corrosion as well as instant corrosion rate, NACE 2003 paper No. 03443.
11. L.V.Nielsen, F. Galsgaard, Sensor technology for on-line monitoring of AC-induced
corrosion along pipelines, NACE 2005 paper No. 05375.
12. L.V.Nielsen, P.Cohn, On-site measurements of AC induced corrosion - Effect of AC
and DC parameters, CeoCor 2004.
13. CeoCor Booklet, AC Corrosion on Cathodically Protected Pipelines - Guidelines for
risk assessment and mitigation measures, APCE, 2001.
14. R.A. Gummow, R.G. Wakelin, S.M. Segall, AC Corrosion A challenge to Pipeline
Integrity, MP, Vol. 38, No.2, 1999, pp. 24-30.
15. L.Kobotiatis, N.Kioupis, P.G.Koutsoukos, Electronic Properties of Passive Films
grown on Al 7075 in solutions containing oxalate and chromate, Corrosion NACE, Vol.
53, No.7, 1997, pp.562-571.
16. F.Stalder et al., AC corrosion on cathodically protected pipelines, CeoCor 2000.
17. BALSLEV Report no.4460500G302, Stray Current Investigation Project for the
Natural Gas Pipeline, 2005.
18. G. C. Christoforidis, D.P. Labridis, P.S. Dokopoulos, N. Kioupis AC- interference on
a Gas Pipeline caused by nearby power lines in a complex right-of-way Comparison
between measurements and calculations, CeoCor 2004.
19. G. Lucca, L. Di Biase, M. Moro, A.C. Corrosion on buried pipelines: a probabilistic
approach, CeoCor 2003.
20. ASME B31.8S-2001 Managing System Integrity of Gas Pipelines.

14

Figure 6. Map of the Greek Natural Gas Transmission System where the regions of the ER-probes of
both case studies are shown.

Figure 7 . Potential-pH (Pourbaix) diagram of iron in water showing the region of ac-corrosion risk.

15

PROBE 110
TIME PERIOD
from
until
from
until
from
until
from
until
from
until
from
until

18/11/2005
25/11/2005
25/11/2005
22/12/05
22/12/05
10/01/06
10/01/06
12/01/06
12/01/06
16/01/06
16/01/06
20/01/06

(m)

Final
Thickness
(m)

CP + AC
Duration
(days)

NC
Duration
(days)

total corrosion rate

per time period
(m/yr)

ac corrosion rate
per time period
(m/yr)

cumulative total
corrosion rate
(m/yr)

cumulative ac
corrosion rate
(m/yr)

100

93

365

365

365

365

93

89

10

17

54

146

118

236

89

65,7

14

425

607

232

404

65,7

18,9

8541

8541

529

897

18,9

18,9

493

897

18,9

1725

6899

570

1074

Initial
Thickness

Table 1. Corrosion history of ER-probe no. 110

PROBE 124
TIME PERIOD
from
until
from
until
from
until
from
until
from
until
from
until

18/11/2005
25/11/2005
25/11/2005
22/12/05
22/12/05
10/01/06
10/01/06
12/01/06
14/01/06
16/01/06
18/01/06
20/01/06

(m)

Final
Thickness
(m)

CP + AC
Duration
(days)

NC
Duration
(days)

total corrosion rate

per time period
(m/yr)

ac corrosion rate
per time period
(m/yr)

cumulative total
corrosion rate
(m/yr)

cumulative ac
corrosion rate
(m/yr)

100

87,5

652

652

652

652

87,5

81,5

10

17

81

219

199

397

81,5

71,5

14

183

261

193

336

71,5

46,9

4490

4490

346

587

46,9

46,9

323

587

46,9

4280

17119

570

1074

Initial
Thickness

Table 2. Corrosion history of ER-probe no. 124

16

CORROSION RATE PER TIME PERIOD

PROBE 110
PROBE 124

18000

17119 17119

16000

CORROSION RATE (m/yr)

14000

PENETRATION

12000
10000
8541
8000
6000
4490
4000
2000
365

652

146

607

219

261

0
7 days

10 days

14 days

2 days

1 day

18/11/05-5/12/05

25/11/05-5/12/05

22/12/05-4/1/06

10/1/06-12/1/06

16/1/06-17/1/06

TIME PERIODS WITH AC CORROSION INFLUENCE

Figure 8. AC-Corrosion rates per time period (ER-probes no.110 and no.124)
CUMULATIVE AC CORROSION

PROBE 110
PROBE 124

1200
1074 1074
1000

CORROSION RATE (m/yr)

897

897

PENETRATION

800
652
600

400

397

365

587

587

33 days

33 days

404
336

236
200

0
7 days

17 days

31 days

34 days

CUMULATIVE TIME WITH AC CORROSION INFLUENCE

Figure 9. Cumulative AC-Corrosion rates (ER-probes no.110 and no.124)

17

Probe-Tag: 110
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 18/11/2005

Corrosion Rate

2000

Trend based on 96 measurements

Trend based on 16 measurements

1800
1600
1400

Vcorr - m/yr

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
16/11/05

20/11/05
Date

24/11/05

AC Voltage - V

AC Voltage
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
16/11/05

AC voltage

20/11/05

Date

Probe-Tag: 124
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 18/11/2005

24/11/05

Ff

Corrosion Rate

4500

Trend based on 96 measurements

Trend based on 16 measurements

4000
3500
3000

Vcorr - m/yr

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
16/11/05

20/11/05
Date

24/11/05

Figure 10. Corrosion rates and ac voltage during initial phase (ER-probes no.110 and no.124)

18

Figure 11. Recording of the sudden dc potential shifts of gas and oil pipeline on 4/1/2006 14:00
(blue line: gas pipe, red line: oil pipe)

19

Probe-Tag: 110
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 22/12/2005

Corrosion Rate
Trend based on 96 meas urements
Trend based on 16 meas urements

9000
8000
7000

Vcorr - mym/yr

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
18/12/2005

22/12/2005

26/12/2005

30/12/2005

3/1/2006

7/1/2006

Date

Probe-Tag: 124
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 22/12/2005
9000

Corrosion Rate
Trend bas ed on 96 meas urements
Trend bas ed on 16 meas urements

8000
7000

Vcorr - mym/yr

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
18/12/2005

22/12/2005

26/12/2005
30/12/2005
Date

3/1/2006

7/1/2006

Figure 12. Corrosion rates during the second phase (ER-probes no.110 and no.124)

20

Probe-Tag: 110
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 22/12/2005

AC Voltage

1,8

AC voltage

1,6
1,4

AC Voltage - V

1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0

18/12/2005

22/12/2005

AC current - A/m2

Probe-Tag: 110
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 22/12/2005
1000

26/12/2005
30/12/2005
Date

3/1/2006

7/1/2006

AC current density

100

10

1
18/12/2005

22/12/2005

Probe-Tag: 110
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 22/12/2005

26/12/2005
30/12/2005
Date

3/1/2006

7/1/2006

Spread resistance
(Leakage resistance)

10
Spread resistance

Spread Resistance
- Ohm.m2

0,1

0,01

0,001

18/12/2005

22/12/2005

26/12/2005
30/12/2005
Date

3/1/2006

7/1/2006

Figure 13. AC parameters and spread resistance of the coupons during the same period of corrosion
depicted in Fig.12.

21

Correlation between ac voltage and ac current density

2
1,8
1,6
y = 0,0041x + 0,2224
2
R = 0,9427

AC VOLTAGE (V)

1,4

y = 0,0022x + 0,3192
2
R = 0,9746

1,2

PROBE 110
1

PROBE 124

0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

AC CURRENT DENSITY (+/m2)

Figure 14. The ac voltage vs. ac current density on ER-probes no. 110 and no. 124 (the slope of each
line is indicative of the average spread resistance also note the safe upper limit of the ac current
density)
Rs vs. ac voltage- probe 110
0,03

0,025

Rs (Ohm m2)

0,02

0,015

0,01

0,005

0
0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

ac voltage (V)

Figure 15. Reduction of spread resistance with ac voltage

22

1,2

1,4

1,6

MOMENTARY CORROSION RATE vs. AC CURRENT DENSITY

9000

8000

CORROSION RATE (m/y)

7000

y = 8861.7Ln(x) - 49348
R2 = 0.9992

6000

5000

PROBE 110
PROBE 124

4000

3000

y = 2594.7Ln(x) - 13017
2
R = 0.9549

2000

1000

0
10

100

1000

AC CURRENT DENSITY (A/m2)

Figure 16. Linear relationship of momentary corrosion rates with the ac current density (logarithmic
scale)

23

Probe-Tag: 35
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 16/6/2005

Corrosion Rate

3000
Trend based on 96 measurements
Trend based on 16 measurements
2500

Vcorr - mym/yr

2000

1500

1000

500

0
13/6/05

17/6/05

21/6/05

25/6/05

29/6/05

3/7/05

7/7/05

11/7/05

Date

Probe-Tag: 35
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 16/6/2005
8

AC Voltage
AC voltage

AC Voltage - V

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
13/6/05

17/6/05

21/6/05

25/6/05
29/6/05
Date

Probe-Tag: 35
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 16/6/2005
1000

3/7/05

7/7/05

11/7/05

AC current density

AC current densityA/m2

AC current

100

10

1
13/6/05

17/6/05

21/6/05

25/6/05

29/6/05
Date

3/7/05

7/7/05

11/7/05

Figure 17. AC-corrosion related to CP loss (ER-probe no.35). Corrosion rate and ac parameters at
the coupon(304.4km); AC voltage(blue line) and DC potential(red line) at T/R site 198,3km.

24

Rs vs. ac voltage - probe 35

0,25

Rs (Ohm m2)

0,2

0,15

0,1

0,05

0
0

8
ac voltage (V)

Figure 18. Elevation of spread resistance with ac voltage

25

10

12

14

Probe-Tag: 35
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 10/6/2005

Corrosion Rate

450

Trend based on 96 measurements

Trend based on 16 measurements

400
350

Vcorr - mym/yr

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
9/6/05

13/6/05
Date

17/6/05

Probe-Tag: 35
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 10/6/2005
14

AC Voltage
AC voltage

12
AC Voltage - V

10
8
6
4
2
0
9/6/05

13/6/05

Probe-Tag: 35
Probe Type:
Probe serial No.:
Test initiated: 10/6/2005
1.000

17/6/05

Date

AC current density

AC current - A/m2

AC current
100

10

1
9/6/05

13/6/05
Date

17/6/05

Figure 19. Telluric currents corrosion (ER-probe no.35). Corrosion rate and ac parameters at the
coupon (304.4km); Telluric intensity Kp index.

26