Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
References
1. Adam M., Baraboi A., Electronic de putere, Editura VENUS, Iai, 2005.
2. Baraboi A., Ciutea I., Adam M., Hnatiuc E., Tehnici moderne n comutaia de putere.
Editura A 92, Iai, 1996.
3. Eremia M., Tehnici noi n transportul energiei electrice. Aplicaii ale electronicii de putere.
Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1997.
4. Hingorani N. G., Gyugyi L., Understanding FACTS. Concepts and Technology of Flexible
AC Transmission Systems. IEEE Press, New York, 2000.
5. Ionescu F., Six J. P., Floricu D., Delarue Ph., Niu Smaranda, Bogu C., Electronic de
putere. Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1998.
6. Rashid M. H., Power Electronics Circuits, Devices, and Applications, Pearson Prentice
Hall, USA, 2004.
7. Sguier G., Bausire R., Labrique F., lectronique de puissance. Dunod, Paris, 2004.
FACTS Devices
1. Generalities
It is found that most of power transmission network in the world are more and more solicited.
This is due to the increase of the consumption request of electrical power and also to the
economical, political and ecological difficulties that appears on the build of news transmission line
or/and power plants. Thus, in Fig.1.1 are given the development aspects of power transmission
networks.
3
2
Fig.1.1 The evolution of transmission networks trends: 1power transmitted per km /HV line; 2-lines construction of HV;
3-the amount of power transmitted
FACTS Devices
feedback is possible because of the progresses reached in the filed of power electronics,
microelectronics and microprocessors.
Flexible transmission systems based on power electronic equipment with high speed response
provides the following possibilities for increasing efficiency in the AC transmission:
- power control and thus the possibility to prescribe the power circulations (transits) on
electrical lines of looped network (to avoid power flows in loop);
- safe loading of transmission lines at levels close to thermal limits;
- the exit prevention of operation, in cascade of the installations by limiting the effects of
incidents;
- increasing the transmission capacity in the controlled systems so that the power reserve,
which is typically 18% may be reduced to 15% or less;
- attenuation of oscillations in power systems which can damage the equipment and limit
transmission capacity.
Into a loop power network the distribution of real power between the various power plants
and the circulations to consumption centers are made by physical laws and not always economic.
The reactive power influences, at its turn, the distribution of real power by changing the voltage
levels, because the transmission lines are producing or consuming of reactive power in according
with their degree of charge.
For the control the real and reactive power flows into the AC network there are, at present, the
following possibilities:
- phase shifter transformer (rotating);
- series compensator with coils and capacitors;
- controllers for the output voltage of generators;
- shunt compensator (transverse).
The performances obtained in high power converters for DC transmission have led to the
realization of devices capable to control the real and/or reactive power flows into the AC networks.
These devices grouped under the concept FACTS, include: static shunt compensator
(transverse) with electronic switching, thyristor controlled series compensator, phase shifter
transformer with electronic control in load, sub-synchronous oscillations damper. There are
concerns, currently, for realization these devices with static converters in forced switching,
achieving so-called "advanced FACTS devices".
The IEEE Working Group with 14 Study Committee of CIGRE proposed the following
definition of the concept FACTS, this represents:
FACTS Devices
FACTS Devices
A
Surplus
generation area
P
Z1=X
P1=2P/3
Z2=2X
P2=P/3
~
a)
A
Surplus
generation area
P
B
HVAC line
HVDC line
b)
P
A
Surplus
generation area
B
HVAC line with variable
impedance
c)
Fig.2.1 Power flow in parallel paths
Power flow can be controlled using FACTS devices and when looped transmission networks.
Whether the looped network, Fig.2.2 in which the generators from areas A and B send power
to consumption center C through a network composed from three lines. Suppose that the electrical
lines AB, BC and AC have rated powers of 1000 MW, 1250 MW and 2000 MW, respectively,
emergency powers of two times higher than rated powers for a period of time long enough to allow
a redistribution of power flows in case of loss of one of these lines. If one of the generators is
generating 2000 MW and the other 1000 MW, to the consumer center will be supplied 3000 MW.
For the impedances given, the three lines will carry 600 MW, 1600 MW, and 1400 MW, Fig.2.2a.
This situation leads to overload the line BC (loaded with 1600 MW for a steady state load of
1250 MW) and therefore will be need to decrease the power generated at B and to increase at A, in
order to ensure the necessary power of consumer, without overloading the line BC.
FACTS Devices
6
P1=1400MW
2000 MW
10
P2=600 MW
10
3000 MW
P3=1600MW
a)
1000 MW
-5
P1=1750MW
2000 MW
A
10
3000 MW
P2=250 MW
10
P3=1250MW
b)
1000 MW
P1=1750MW
2000 MW
A
10
3000 MW
P2=250 MW
10
P3=1250MW
7
c)
1000 MW
Fig.2.2 Power flow in a looped network: a) looped network diagram; b) looped network equipped with series
capacitor on the line AC; c) looped network equipped with reactor on line BC
FACTS Devices
In Figure 2.3 is an example that shows the need to control the power flow on electrical lines
of a power system made of two areas, in which one of line is disconnected. Area 1 having surplus of
generation power, power flows through the five lines are from zone 1 to zone 2, the lines are all
loaded below the thermal admissible limit, Fig.2.3a. If the line 1 is disconnected, for various
reasons, it is found that line 2 will be loaded above the thermal admissible limit, Fig.2.3b.
This leads to disconnect the line 2 of protection circuits that will upload lines 3, 4, 5 above the
thermal admissible limit, Fig.2.3c. Lines 3, 4 and 5 will be disconnected and thus power system
loses his stability, Fig.2.3d.
If the power system is equipped with FACTS devices when overloading of the line 2,
Fig.2.3b, is distributed on the lines 3, 4 and 5, Fig.2.3e. Thus, using FACTS controllers, all
FACTS Devices
connected lines will be loaded up to the thermal admissible limit and power system remains in
operation, Fig.2.3f.
Area 1
Electrical lines
Area 2
1
2
3
4
5
Power flows
Thermal limit
Electrical lines
1
2
3
4
5
Power flows
Thermal limit
Area 2
FACTS Devices
Area 1
Area 2
Electrical lines
1
2
3
4
5
Power flows
Thermal limit
Area 1
Electrical lines
Area 2
1
2
3
4
5
Thermal limit
FACTS Devices
10
Area 2
Area 1
Electrical lines
1
2
3
4
5
Power flows
Thermal limit
Area 2
Area 1
Electrical lines
1
2
3
4
5
Power flows
Thermal limit
f) lines 2, ... 5 remain connected and are loaded up to the thermal limit; power system remains in operation
Fig.2.3 Necessity of power flows control
FACTS Devices
11
(3.1)
where: U and I are phase voltage and line current, in complex, and r0, l0, g0 and c0 are the
resistance, inductance, conductance and capacity per unit length of the line.
I
X
B
A
Ub
~ Ua
Ua
Ub
jXI
In case of a lossless transmission line which connects two synchronous sources A and B
(Fig.3.1) the expression the active power transmitted is:
P
U a U b
sin ,
Z 0 sin L
(3.2)
where: Ua, Ub are the effective (rms) voltages at the ends of the line, - phase angle (the angle of
transmission or power angle) between the two voltages, Z0-the characteristic impedance
( Z 0 l0 c0 ), L Ll , where Ll is the transmission line length and -the propagation constant on
the line ( l0 c0 ).
For short lengths, sin L L , and it can be considered:
U a U b
sin ,
X
(3.3)
If the voltages at the ends of the line are kept equal and constant U a U b U 0 , it will be
obtained:
P
U 02
sin P0 sin ,
X
(3.4)
FACTS Devices
12
where P0 is the natural power (around 500 MW for a line of 400 kV with a characteristic impedance
Z0= 300 ).
Reactive power exchanged between the sources and line, under the same conditions, is:
Q
U 02
(1 cos ).
X
(3.5)
The theoretical possibilities for adjusting the power flow, according to equation (3.3) are:
- changing of the RMS voltages Ua and Ub (in reality they can be modified only in reduced
limits);
- changing of the reactance X of the transmission line;
- changing the transmission angle, .
In Fig.3.2 is shown the variation of active and reactive power depending on the transmission
angle , it is observing that the active power is maximum for =900.
The stable part of the characteristic P() corresponds to the values = 00... 900, in practice
its operating, for reasons of stability of the generators, with a coefficient of static stability KS
between 1.15 ... 1.20 and an angle between 350... 400.
P
2P 0
Q
P
P0
30
60
90
180
[]
Fig.3.2 Evolution of active and reactive power
depending on the transmission angle
120
150
P0
,
P
(3.6)
where: P0 is the maximum power, and P the power produced by the generator.
The operating points from the characteristic P () which satisfy the condition:
P
0,
(3.7)
FACTS Devices
13
G1
P0
1
A H
Pa
G2
X1
X1
Pm
90
180 [0 ]
FACTS Devices
14
to the point C, in which there is eliminated the fault and it is passing on the after damage
characteristic 3, in the point E.
The angle, , increases up to the point C, in which occurs the elimination of fault and it is
passing on the characteristic of after damage 3, in the point E. In this situation, the active power
which is produced by the generator is greater than the mechanical power and thus the rotor starts to
hold back. However, the angle value does not begin to decrease, but it continues to grow up to the
point F, due to the rotor inertia.
The kinetic energy accumulated by rotor in the period of acceleration (from B to C) is
released in the form of active power debited by the generator in the period of braking (from E to F).
Then, because the operating point F is not stable, it moves to the stable point H, on the
characteristic of after failure, 3.
The dynamic regime ended in a stable operating point is called stable regime from the
dynamic point of view. It is observed that the dynamic stability of the system is ensured only if the
point F remains on the left limit point M.
At the lowest overcome of the point M, the system stability is lost, because the angle
continues to grow and so the generator "detaches", so it is no longer in synchronism.
The condition that the system to be stable dynamically can be expressed with the help of
areas formed by the characteristics and the line of constant power. The areas bounded by points
ABCD, and DEFG are proportional to the kinetic energy stored by rotor in the period of
acceleration respectively with the kinetic energy released in the braking period by the rotor.
The system is dynamically stable if the maximum braking area A1 (bounded by the points
DEM) is larger than the acceleration area A2 (bounded by the points ABCD):
A1 A2 .
(4.1)
The condition (4.1) is used in the calculation of the dynamic stability, in order to determine
the limit angle c to which the line with fault can be disconnected without loss the stability. Then, it
is calculated the time interval in which the angle increases from a to c and it is properly choose the
operation time of protection which control the disconnection of the line with fault.