Toolkit PDF

AQM Toolbook
Part 2:
Toolkit
Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit
Table of Contents
Tool 1: Factors Influencing Urban Air Quality .......................................................... 3
Tool 2: Urban Air Quality Profile ............................................................................ 6
Tool 3: Air Quality related Activity Sectors .............................................................13
Tool 4: Overview of Air Pollutants ........................................................................16
Tool 5: Mapping Air Quality Issues .......................................................................26
Tool 6: World Health Organizations (WHO) and National Air Quality Guidelines............31
Tool 7: Health and Other Adverse Effects of Common Air Pollutants ...........................39
Tool 8: Estimating the Health Effects of PM10 ........................................................42
Tool 9: Estimating the Health Effects of Lead .........................................................52
Tool 10: Estimating the Health Effects of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) ..................................57
Tool 11: Estimating the Health Effects of Ozone (O3) ..............................................61
Tool 12: Measuring City Air Quality ......................................................................66
Tool 13: Calculating Air Pollution Near Roads Using CAR-International Model...............73
Tool 14: Using IMMIS LUFT and CALINE Models to Assess Air Quality Pollution due to
Traffic .............................................................................................................80
Tool 15: Rapid Inventory Assessment Technique (RIAS): A Decision Support Tool for
Selecting Options to Address Traffic Related Air Pollution..........................................85
Tool 16: Calculating Air Pollution near Industrial Activities........................................93
Tool 17: Decision Support System for Industrial Pollution Control (DSS/IPC) ...............97
Tool 18: Assessing Indoor Air Pollution..................................................................98
Tool 19: Preparing an Emissions Inventory .......................................................... 105
Tool 20: Management Strategies for Air Pollution due to Transport .......................... 108
Tool 21: Management Strategies for Air Pollution Due to Industries.......................... 121
Tool 22: Management Strategies for Indoor Air Pollution ........................................ 130
Tool 23: Managing Air Pollution from Natural Sources............................................ 134
Tool 24: Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost Effective Analysis ...................................... 136
Tool 25: Indicators for Air Quality Management Capabilities.................................... 139
Tool 26: Some Environmental Management Principles............................................ 143
Tool 27: Environmental Management Instruments ................................................ 149
Tool 28: Some Technical Concepts and Terms Explained ........................................ 150
Tool 29: Where to Find Further Information on Air Quality Management ................... 157
Tool 30: Software ........................................................................................... 162
Conversion Table
163
Tool 1: Factors Influencing Urban Air Quality

A great number of factors can influence the air quality of your urban settlement. This tool
depicts the most relevant factors:
a. geographical setting;
b. climatological and meteorological factors;
c. city planning and design; and
d. human activities in urban areas
(a) Geographical Setting

Each settlement has its unique geographical location. They can be located in mountainous
areas, in flat plains, along rivers, in deserts, or at the coast. For example, settlements
which are surrounded by mountains or hills show different air qualities than settlements
at the coast. Hills deflect the flow of contaminated air, either vertically or horizontally.
The extent of this deflection depends on vertical atmospheric stability. Wind carrying
pollutants may flow up and down the valley. Air movement may be affected by the depths
of valleys. On the other hand, coastal areas have less or even no geographical barriers
limiting the dispersion of pollutants. The air is often cleaner compared to settlements
inland. Mexico City is a good example of georgraphical barriers to air pollution dispersion,
whereas Los Angeles experiences climatological barriers. London and Chicago are
examples of relatively good ventilation.
(b) Climatological and Meteorological Factors

Settlements are located in different climatic zones. Air pollutants behave differently in
tropical climate than in dry or cool climates. The dispersion of air pollutants is influenced
by the micro-climate and meteorological factors such as wind speed, wind direction and
turbulence, as well as temperature, precipitation and humidity. Higher wind speed near
air pollutant discharge points leads to rapid discharge and dilution of these pollutants.
Low wind speeds cause higher concentrations of pollutants.
Air pollution problems may reach alarming levels when climatic conditions prevent the
effective dispersion of pollutants. This refers to places where the temperature increases
with height (negative lapse rate or temperature inversion). Such a situation inhibits
turbulence and allows less mixing since air near the ground is denser than that above
ground. Hence, vertical dispersion is inhibited. This usually occurs in countries with a
cold, temperate climate.
In conditions where temperature decreases with height, the atmosphere is unstable. Due
to the vertical mixing of the air, pollutants are rapidly dispersed.
(c) City Planning and Design

The structure of a settlement and its physical development greatly influences the quality
of the air. The following list names some factors which have an impact on the transport
and dispersion of pollutants:
urban sprawl - increases demand for commuting and generation of traffic;
dense central business districts - high rise buildings cause street canyon effects;
congested low income settlements - mixed uses and activities;
industrial areas - pollution emitting factories;
inner city highways and other transport infrastructure - with individual cars and
freight transport;
inner city forests, green areas and urban agriculture - absorbing the greenhouse
gas CO2 (and, in turn, releasing oxygen) and filtering particles and dust.
(d) Human Activities in Urban Areas

Most air pollution within urban settlements is caused by human activities. This includes
mobility behaviour, industrial development, production and use of energy (for processing,
heating and cooking), waste management and activities which produce dust. Depending
on the wealth of a society, their life style, and/or their environmental awareness the
intensity of air polluting activities differ.
For example, poor settlements are often confronted with indoor air pollution due to
inappropriate cooking and or heating devices. Also the inappropriate disposal and burning
of waste contributes to bad air. Cities in emerging economies usually struggle with
pollution from heavy industries. In developed economies, traffic is the major contributer
to air pollution.
Factors Influencing Urban Air Quality

1 Urban air quality is determined by
many
factors.
Consider
the
following:
(a)
Geographical Situation - Is
the city situated: along the coast, on
hills or mountains, surrounded by
hills or mountains?
(b)
Climatic Situation - Is there a
lot of wind or very little, high
temperature, dry or humid?
(c)
City Planning and Design - Is
there a congested city centre, high
rise buildings, a wide spread city,
many trees and green areas?
(d)
Human Activities in the Urban
Areas - Is there waste burning or
the use of wood or coal for cooking
and/or heating?
2 Urban air quality can be benchmarked against existing national or international (for
example provided by WHO) guidelines and standards. Such guidelines serve as a basis for
protecting public health from the adverse effects of air pollution and for eliminating or
reducing air contaminants known to be hazardous to human health and shown to have
adverse effects on soil, water, vegetation and animals.
3 However, it is not only the technical parameters that we need to take into account. Air
quality management also contains subjective factors. Citizens may have distinct
perceptions regarding their ambient environment and seek to resolve their perceived air
quality problems. Municipal administrations are challenged to respond to these

subjective perceptions. Both the technical assessment and the analysis of the subjective
perceptions are important in identifying areas that require improved management.
4 It is important to distinguish between city-wide air quality problems (like temperature
inversion which worsens smog in the city) from the so-called hot spots that are areaspecific problems (like a factory causing health problems within the immediate
neighbourhood).
5 Once the air situation in the city is well understood, from both the technical and social
points of view, planning and management towards solutions can begin. When using the
Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) approach, stakeholders in the city are to
be actively involved in the entire process from problem identification to finding
strategies and implementing solutions. The city plays a coordinating and facilitating role
in this process.
Tool 2: City Air Quality Profile

This tool will help you to understand the purpose and the structure of an Air Quality
Profile (AQP) and will provide you with guidance to develop such a profile for your local
authority.
Nature and Role of the Air Quality Profile (AQP)

The key objectives of the first phase of the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) process
are to identify and clarify environmental issues, to identify key stakeholders, and to
prioritize the issues to be addressed through the environmental planning and
management process. A city meets these objectives through city consultations and the
formation of multi-sectoral working groups for the identified priority issues. The
preparation of an environmental profile of the city is very instrumental in achieving these
key objectives. Air quality is a typical environmental issue, particularly in larger cities in
Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and increasingly in Africa. Preparing a dedicated Air
Quality Profile is useful for dealing with the complex issues of air pollution.
The Air Quality Profile has several purposes:
To provide an overview of the citys development activities and their interaction

with air as an environmental resource (this includes activity trends and resource
interactions).
To identify stakeholders who contribute to or are affected by air pollution.
To assist the establishment of issue specific working groups who will in turn
identify the critical air quality issues in their city.
To provide city managers with the necessary background information for strategy
formulation
(this
includes
factors
influencing
policy
formulation
and
implementation).
Structure of the Air Quality Profile

An Air Quality Profile is organized in four main parts:
1.
an introductory part,
2.
the citys development sectors,
3.
air as a resource, and
4.
the urban management systems.
The urban air quality management systems include the individuals, sectors, groups or
organizations involved in development activities that interact with air as a resource.
The volume of a typical profile depends on the size and complexity of the urban setting.
In order to make it accessible to technicians as well as decision makers, it should not be
textbook length. A good profile is well illustrated (photos, maps, charts) to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the issues. Technical details can be further elaborated in
separate annexes or in proposition papers.
Annotated outline of an Air Quality Profile

Before you start
This outline helps you to develop your own Air Quality Profile. Before you start, you have
to be clear about the sources (and resources) which are involved in writing such a
document. Municipal council staff are often too overloaded with work or do not have the
expertise in working with cross-sectoral topics. You may want to engage (a) reliable
resource person(s) who has(ve) knowledge about the environmental planning and
management process.
You will also have to clarify the accessibility of relevant sources of information. An AQP is
more a rapid assessment exercise than a lengthy research project. Such a profile should
be finalized within a few weeks. Hence, you will have to balance the accuracy of
information against the purpose of initiating a participatory planning process. Much of the
scientific data can be enhanced during the working group process later.
This all costs money and you will have to budget an equivalent of two to six person
months time for realizing such a profile (depending on the complexity of the issues).
If all these aspects have been clarified, you can start your Air Quality Profile.
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
The summary gives a concise overview of the content of the document. It will allow toplevel decision makers to quickly assess the content of the document without going into
technical details.
First Chapter: City Introduction

This chapter describes the general characteristics of the urban setting, emphasizing the
relevance to the issue of air quality management. Maps, graphics and photos can well
illustrate this part.
1.1 Physical Features

Geographical Features:
Each urban settlement has its particular geographical characteristics. This section
includes information on the altitude of the city, the presence of hills and valleys, plains,
lakes, oceans, mountains, deserts, etc. along with their position and proximity to the city.
The vegetation cover of the city (including forest areas, parks, trees and landscaped
areas) should be indicated as well. These features are important because they affect the
air quality situation of a city.
Climatological and Meteorological Aspects:
This section includes the climatological and meteorological factors of the city, such as
wind speed and direction, as well as turbulence. Including information on precipitation
and humidity is relevant because they influence the dispersion of air pollutants. This type
of information needs to be sufficiently detailed for smaller geographical areas in order to
be able to assess the micro-climatic dynamics within a settlement. Refer to the box below
for brief examples.
Quito, Ecuador:
The city is located in a narrow valley between two mountain ridges which only allow air
flow in north-south directions. Frequent inversion conditions cause high concentrations of
pollutants in the air. Due to the geomorphology, the city expansion concentrates in the
north and in the south. Increasing high rise buildings at the edges of the city block the air
circulation which aggravates the air condition in the city centre.
Chennai, India:
The Southern Indian City of Chennai is located in a coastal area with relatively high wind
speeds. Therefore, the dispersion conditions are good and the city-wide concentrations of
air pollutants are generally lower than other Indian cities with comparable polluting
activities. However, this does not mean that there is no air pollution in Chennai. High
pollution originates from large amounts of pollutive activities, such as vehicular traffic.
City Planning and Design:
City planning and design is also a very important factor that influences the citys air
quality. This section gives an overview of the characteristics of settlements, such as the
nature of buildings (e.g. skyscrapers, proximity of structures to one another, and spread
of buildings with respect to the area of the city), land use designation, (e.g. industrial,
residential, commercial, open spaces, road, and rail networks) and green areas. All these
features are best shown in maps.
1.2 Social Aspects and Population Characteristics

This section is very relevant for air quality management. Assessing the health impacts of
air pollutants requires a good understanding of the population dynamics, segregation and
vulnerability. Gender issues need to be addressed in particular since air pollution affects
the genders in different ways. Most of the information might be readily available from the
environmental profile.
1.3 Economic Setting

Describing the economic dynamics of a city is important for modeling future pressure on
the resource air. Environmental planning and management in a highly dynamic city - with
increasing industrialization (for example in many Asian countries), is very different for
economies in transition (from heavy industry to consumer goods or information
technologies) or cities with declining industries (for example CIS countries). Such
discrepancies exist particularly within countries.
Second Chapter: The Development Setting: Activity Sectors

The second chapter focuses on the activity sectors (i.e. agriculture, mining,
manufacturing, trade, transport, housing, etc) affecting air as an environmental resource.
This section should describe the activity sectors, quantifying each one and giving a clear
overview of their use of air (e.g. most of the sectors use the ambient as a discharge sink
for waste while others use air as a direct input in their activities).
This chapter may be divided into the following sections:
2.1 Characteristics of the Citys Activity Sectors

This section describes the different activity sectors that are relevant to the citys air
situation, explaining the socio-economic aspects of each. This involves identifying and
clarifying those activity sectors affecting the citys air quality. Conducting an inventory of
activities that have the potential to pollute can do this identification and clarification.
TOOL 3 summarizes the information needed to identify the main polluting categories. If
possible, collect information on the types of activity sectors, the number of activity
sectors, and the underlying factors determining air pollution.
2.2 The Use of Air as an Environmental Resource by Each of the Activity

Sectors
This section focuses on those activity sectors that use clean air as a recipient of their
emissions, i.e. the polluters. A very rough assessment giving the contribution of the
different activity sectors to air pollution can be done. TOOL 3 gives some insights into
this. For a better and more reliable analysis, one has to know the exact emissions
produced by the different activity sectors. Emissions per activity sector and per air
pollutant will identify the main polluters. This will allow you to target and prioritize the
major polluters and to justify the establishment of certain strategies and schemes. If the
city has done emission assessments, the results can be directly incorporated in the Air
Quality Profile.
Third Chapter: The Environment Setting: Air as an Environment

Resource
3.1 The Spatial Impacts of Polluting Activities
This section identifies which locations within the city are polluted most, the types of
pollutants (such as sulfur dioxide, dust, ozone etc.), and the responsible activity sectors.
3.2 Competing Interests between the Activity Sectors

This section shows the competing interests between the activity sectors emitting air
pollutants and the activity sectors adversely affected by air pollution with focus on the
latter. It will assist you in compiling a list of the competing interests (interests of the
polluters and the interests of the adversely affected stakeholders). This list of competing
interests should include:
The Most Affected Stakeholders
such as people living in polluted areas; the tourism sector; vulnerable parts of the
population; the urban farming, etc.
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The Responsible Polluting Activity Sectors and the Underlying Reasons
such as industries without pollution control equipment; traffic; heating; waste

burning; etc.
Using an Environmental Management Information System (EMIS) helps you to easily
identify such competing interests. Analyzing and overlaying environmental sensitivities
and economic suitability maps identifies and priorities the hot spots (i.e. areas with the
highest competing interests). For example, maps showing residential areas and sensitive
buildings and monuments could be overlaid by maps showing pollution sources (see TOOL
5).
Identifying the adverse effects on stakeholders clarifies the real social costs of air
pollution. The visible impact of urban air pollution on health, welfare and, socio-economic
development is a concrete measure for stakeholders and the public. Usually, information
on the concentration of air pollutants is very abstract and needs to be mainstreamed.
Relating it directly to heath issues makes it much more explanatory. This section includes
information on:
1. The Direct Adverse Human Health Risks and Effects
Cities should make an overview of the population density and vulnerable activity sectors
(such as street traders and traffic policemen). Concentrate on highly polluted (poor air
quality) areas. This step will determine how many people are exposed to high
concentrations of air pollutants. If high concentrations occur in isolated industrial sites,
the situation is not as problematic as a densely populated site with high concentrations.
TOOL 7 will help you with this step by showing which health effects result from specific
pollutants.
2. The Activity Sectors Affected by Polluted Urban Agricultural Products
In many developing countries, citizens depend on agricultural activities within the cities
for their food supply. Urban air pollutants can poison this food considerably. The main air
pollutants affecting crops are heavy and toxic molecules. The heavy characters of these
pollutants imply that they do not remain in air but get into the soil via atmospheric
deposition. The pollutants poison the soil, and subsequently, the agricultural products
grown. Main examples of such air pollutants are heavy metals, especially lead and
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). TOOL 4 gives more explanation on this.
3. The Activity Sectors Affected by Damaged Buildings (especially Cultural Historical
Sites)
Air pollution corrodes stonework, dirties and discolors buildings. A well-known example
includes the serious erosion of the Taj Mahal in India or the Acropolis in Greece, caused
by the acidic properties of air pollutants. The main air pollutants that affect buildings are
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and dust (Suspended Particulate Matter). Sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide corrode stonework. Dust dirties and discolors structures.
It is useful for cities to make an overview of sensitive historic sites, and map the
information in accordance with the EMIS tool. Information to be mapped are sensitive
(cultural/historic) buildings, especially in areas where relevant pollutants (NO2, SO2 and
SPM) exceed the WHO guidelines. This will directly provide information about the most
problematic areas within the city for cultural/historical sites. This will also help you to
identify which activity sectors are adversely affected by damage to buildings and
monuments.
4. Impact on Other Socio-Economic Developments
This part refers to the adverse effects of air pollution on other socio-economic
developments, not mentioned in the earlier paragraphs. The cities economies undergo a
continuous change. City authorities are keen to attracting investors for generating jobs
and welfare. However, cities that are known for being highly polluted are less attractive
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for investors to establish new industries in, such as high technologies, car manufacturing
and service industries than clean cities.
3.3 Specific Management Arrangements to Deal with Environmental Conflicts

This section lists organizations that have been established to address specific air pollution
related problems. Examples include action groups of residents living near a factory that
pollutes the air or committees organized to protect buildings damaged by acid rain.
Fourth Chapter: Air Quality Management

4.1 Stakeholders
This section describes those persons, groups, and organizations playing important roles in
urban development and air quality management. It gives an overview of the roles and
responsibilities of each stakeholder group. In order to extensively and objectively identify
stakeholders and to avoid the omission of relevant and important stakeholders, the
following classification is useful:
a) Those who are adversely affected by air pollution, and the way they are organized;
b) Those who effect air pollution, such as industrialists, motoring clubs, etc.;
c) Those who have information in the field of air quality management; and
d) Those who control the instruments to address air pollution (i.e. policy makers, the
media, and the polluting activity sectors that have the resources to reduce their
emissions by adopting waste minimization and pollution prevention measures).
Do not discuss the stakeholders general activities and roles but specifically focus only on
those that are directly relevant to urban air quality issues. These activities and roles can
be discussed in relation to the three-staged EPM process described in the Handbook,
which is
1. Information and technical expertise
2. Decision making, policy formulation and coordination, and
3. Implementation - institutionalization
4.2 Urban Air Quality Management Structure

This section outlines the citys air quality management and organization structures and
systems. Care should be taken to discuss in detail only those relevant government
structures/departments dealing with air quality management issues since the overall citywide management system is already supposed to be covered by the citys Environmental
Profile. It should give an overview of the responsibilities of the different departments and
their relationships. Moreover, this section should be able to discuss the relevant roles of
these structures in relation to the three stages of the EPM process.
What next?
12
The Urban Air Quality Profile will be used as the key document for organizing consultative
processes, establishing focused working groups on particular air quality issues and set the
consultative process itself in motion. The document will be freely available to all
stakeholders who participate actively in environmental planning and management.
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Tool 3: Air Quality related Activity Sectors

This tool provides you with an overview of typical activities which contribute to air
pollution. It helps you to better structure your air quality profile - particularly in analysing
the development settings which influence urban air quality.
The tool is structured along the main activity sectors in which people in urban areas are
involved. Each activity sector contains various types of activities with various factors
which influence the air pollution. Some of the polluting emissions can be quantified,
others are better assessed through qualitative indicators.
Activity Sector
Type of activity
Factors Influencing Urban Air

Pollution (and indicators)*
Mining
Open formal/informal mining pits;
Type of mining (i.e. water blasting

will minimize dust versus blasting);
Type of mining equipment (i.e. use
of heavy diesel fueled equipment will
lead to high exposure to
carcinogenic exhausts);
Types of minerals under exploitation
(such as sand, limestone, coal,
uranium);
Industrial mining;
Quantity of minerals under

exploitation;
Toxicity of emissions;
Agriculture
Commercial, large scale agriculture

outside of the urbanised area;
Deforestation;
Small scale peri-urban agriculture;
Intensity of farming;
Soil composition;
Type of fertilising;
Inner-urban backyard gardens and

horticulture;
Industry
Heavy industry, such as steel, cement,

refineries;
Concentration of industries (number

of factories);
Light industry, such as manufacturing,

food;
High-tech industries;
Size of industry (in production

capacities, such as tons of steel;
megawatts);
Power plants;
Industrial emission data
Incinerators
Stack heights (in meters);

Current pollution control equipment;
Cleaner production activities and
environmental awareness;
Traffic
Road traffic;
Rail traffic;
Water traffic;
Air traffic;
Density of traffic (# of vehicles on

the road);
Age of vehicle fleet (years);
Density of transport infrastructure
(by type in km/ sqkm);
Modal split;
Average annual growth rate of all
Activity Sector
Type of activity
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Factors Influencing Urban Air

Pollution (and indicators)*
vehicles and per type of vehicle;
Degree of use of catalysts and
particle filters (% of vehicles);
Extent of coverage of inspection and
maintenance for in-use vehicles;
Type and amount of fuel (diesel;
petrol/gasoline or LPG) (tons/year);
Fuel quality (sulfur and lead
contents);
Traffic data (number of trips and/or
kilometres made per transport
mode);
General traffic emissions;
Housing
Formal households (middle/high

income);
Informal households (low income);
Type of heating;
Type of fuels used for heating (coal,
oil, gas, biofuels);
Quality of fuels (sulfur, particulates);
Type of stoves used for cooking;
Type of fuels used for cooking;
Ventilation of houses / kitchens
(degree of indoor pollution);
Urban services
Waste management;
Sewerage treatment;
Sophistication of waste collection,

processing and depositing;
Degree (and reasons) of informal
waste burning in residential areas;
Composition of waste;
Type of sewerage treatment (and
other liquid wastes);
Human
activities
influencing
dust emissions
from natural
sources**
Identify unpaved roads and

unmanaged open areas due to
deforestation, uncontrolled land use,
etc.
Look also at natural factors

influencing dust emissions, such as
high wind speed, a dry climate
and/or desert in the neighborhood
Identify present construction practices
Are measures being taken to reduce

the production of dust (e.g. use of
nets to surround or cover the
construction site, watering of the
area, etc.)
Assess the extent of the problem
(number of unmanaged open places,
unpaved roads)
Assess the extent of construction
going on in the city
*These are factors in addition to geography and climate, as discussed in Tool 1.
15
** Deforestation in Ibadan resulted in open areas. This, in return, led to increased

concentrations of dust in the city. If natural dust emission is the primary contributor to
the total urban air pollution, it will be most effective to focus on unpaved roads and open
areas (by planting trees and turfing).
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Tool 4: Overview of Air Pollutants

The most common air pollutants in the urban environment include:
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2);
Oxides of Nitrogen (Nox), i.e. Nitrogen Oxide, (NO) and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2);
Carbon Monoxide (CO);
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs);
Ozone (O3);
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM), also called Particulates; and
Lead (Pb).
Combustion of fossil fuels in stationary sources usually leads to the production of SO2,
NOx, and Particulates. Domestic fuel use, mainly coal and wood, represents a significant
source of the air pollution in cities, particularly cities in developing countries. Petrolfuelled motor vehicles are responsible for the emissions of NOx, CO, and Pb (where
leaded petrol is still used), whereas diesel- fueled engines lead to significant emissions of
SO2, NOx, and Particulates. VOCs are emitted from various anthropogenic sources
including road traffic, production and the use of organic chemicals (e.g. solvents),
transport and the use of crude oil, the use and distribution of natural gas, and from waste
disposal sites and waste water treatment.
Ozone is a secondary pollutant. It is not emitted directly from combustion sources but
forms in the lower atmosphere from NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the
presence of sunlight. Ozone is the main constituent of photochemical smog.
Apart from these traditional air pollutants, there is an increasing number of other toxic
and carcinogenic chemicals being detected in the urban atmosphere. These include
certain heavy metals like beryllium (Be), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg); trace organics
like benzene (C6H6), polychlorodibenzo-dioxins and -furans, formaldehyde, vinyl chloride
(VCl) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); radionuclides like radon; and fibres
like asbestos. These chemicals are emitted from various sources including waste
incinerators, sewage treatment plants, industrial manufacturing processes, solvent use,
building materials, and motor vehicles. Although the absolute concentration of these
chemical pollutants is usually low in the atmosphere, the toxicity or carcinogenic effects
or a combination of the two can be dangerously high for humans.
Concentrations of such chemicals in the air affect human health. Health effects vary with
the intensity and the duration of exposure and with the health status of the exposed
person. Certain sectors of the population like the elderly, children, and those already
suffering from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, are usually at greater risk.
Air pollutants usually affect the respiratory and cardiovascular system. SO2 and SPM
bring about increased mortality, morbidity, and impaired pulmonary function. NO2 and
O3 also affect the respiratory system with acute exposures causing inflammatory and
permeability responses, decreased lung function, and increases airway reactivity. O3
causes headaches and eye and nose irritation. Due to its high affinity for haemoglobin,
resulting in blood oxygen displacement, CO can lead to cardiovascular and
neurobehavioral effects. Very high levels of CO exposure also cause death. Lead (Pb)
inhibits the synthesis of haemoglobin in the red blood cells in bone marrow, impairs
kidney and liver function, and causes neurological damage.
Apart from having human health impacts, air pollution also adversely affects the natural
environment. The atmospheric reactions of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen lead to their
17
corresponding acidic transformation (into sulfuric acid and nitric acid). This leads to the
acidification of soil and freshwater and adverse effects on the terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. NO2 and O3 are phytotoxic (toxic to plants). O3 is associated with crop
losses and forest damage. SO2 and O3 are also associated with damages to buildings,
materials, and works of art.
Sulfur Dioxide, SO2
Sulfur dioxide (or Sulphur dioxide) has the chemical formula SO2. The gas can
cause upper respiratory irritation such as nasal irritation is frequently described as
smelling of burning sulfur.
It is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. In particular, lowquality coal and petroleum contain sulfur compounds, and generate sulfur dioxide
when burned: the gas reacts with water and atmospheric oxygen to form sulfuric
acid (H2SO3) and thus acid rain (source: Wikipedia).
Description:
Colourless heavy gas
Pungent and irritating smell
Reacts on the surface with a variety of airborne solid particles.
Readily soluble in water and can be oxidized within airborne water droplets. Upon
reaction with water, it forms sulfuric acid (H2SO4) which reacts with organic
matter, metals, and materials.
Sources:
Combustion of fossil fuels: Coal burning accounts for 50% of annual global SO2
emissions, making it the largest source, with oil burning as second at 25 30%.
Oil refineries
Power houses
Metallurgical operations: smelting of non ferrous ores of copper, lead, nickel, and
zinc
Manufacture of sulfuric acid
Conversion of wood pulp to paper
Refuse incineration
Element sulfur production
Domestic fuel burning
Natural sources include volcanoes
Effects:
Human Health Effects
Increased breathing rate and feeling of air starvation
Suffocation
Aggravation of asthma and chronic bronchitis
Impairment of pulmonary functions
Respiratory irritation
Sensory irritation
Irritation of the throat and eyes
Decline in children lung function
Increased mortality
Environmental Effects
Concentrations of 50 100 g/m3 affect some plant species with various tree
species exhibiting effects at concentrations of less than 50 g/m3.
Contributes to the formation of acid rain which may cause extensive damage to
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO and NO2 Nox)

The chemical compound nitric oxide is a gas with chemical formula NO. It is an
important signaling molecule in the body of mammals including humans, one of the
few gaseous signaling molecules known. It is also a toxic air pollutant produced by
automobile engines and power plants.
Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are serious air polluters. They should
not be confused with the 'laughing gas' nitrous oxide (N2O).
The nitric oxide molecule is a free radical which makes it very reactive and unstable.
In air, it quickly reacts with oxygen to form the poisonous nitrogen dioxide.
At high temperatures molecular nitrogen and oxygen can combine to form nitric
oxide. A major natural source is lightning. Human activity has drastically increased
the production of nitric oxide in combustion chambers. One purpose of catalytic
converters in cars is to partially reverse this reaction.
Nitric oxide in the air may later convert to nitric acid which has been implicated in
acid rain. Furthermore, both NO and NO2 participate in the ozone layer depletion.
Description:
Oxides of nitrogen are Nitrogen Oxide (NO) and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2). Mostly
anthropogenic (man-made), NO2 is derived from NO. Since this transformation
occurs rapidly, NO2 is regarded as more important in terms of human effect.
Consequently most data on health risks, ambient concentrations, and standards and
guidelines are usually expressed in terms of NO2 rather than NOx.
NO is colourless gas and is slightly soluble in water
NO2 is a reddish brown gas. It is a strong oxidant and is soluble in water. It reacts
with water to form HNO3, a powerful oxidant capable of reacting with almost all
metals and many organic compounds. NO2 is also involved in the formation of Ozone
(O3) in the atmosphere.
Sources:
Natural emission sources:
Bacterial action, volcanic action, and lightning. These sources far outweigh those
generated by mans activities but since they are distributed over the entire surface of
the earth, their background atmospheric concentrations are very small.
Anthropogenic emissions sources:
Combustion of wood and refuse
Non-combustion processes fertilizer industry, manufacture of nitric acid (HNO3),
welding processes, explosives industry
Indoor sources - tobacco smoking, use of gas fired appliances, and oil stoves
Effects:
Respiratory irritation, headache, pulmonary emphysema, impairment of lung
defences, oedema of lungs, lachrymatory effect, loss of appetite, corrosion of teeth
Vulnerable groups: young children, asthmatics, individuals with chronic bronchitis
and emphysema or other chronic respiratory diseases. Persons with liver cirrhosis or
other liver, hormonal, and blood disorders or persons on certain types of drug
therapies may also be more sensitive to NO2.
Increased acidic deposition contributes to the formation of acid rain (see box 3.1)
18
Particulates (SPM and PM10)

The smaller the particle, the farther into the lungs it will be deposited and therefore
the more serious the health effects.
Description:
Complex mixture of organic substances, present in the atmosphere both as solid
particles and liquid droplets. They include fumes, smoke, dust and aerosols.
Coarse particles have aerodynamic diameter greater than 2.5 um and contain earth
crystal materials and fugitive dust mostly from roads and industries. Fine particles
have an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 um and contain secondary aerosols,
combustion particles and re-condensed organic metallic vapours, and acid
components.
May be referred to by the following terminologies:
Reflecting measuring methods: total suspended particulate (TSP)
Site of deposition in humans: inhalable, thoracic particles
Physical characteristics: PM10, which refers to particles with aerodynamic diameter
of less than 10 microns
Origin:
Primary particulates are those emitted directly into the atmosphere.
Secondary particulates are those formed by reactions involving other pollutants.
Sources:
Burning of wood, coal, oil and gaseous fuels
Fly-ash emissions from power plants, smelting and mining activities, asbestos
factories, metallurgical industries, ceramic industries, glass industries, cement
industries, etc.
Vehicular traffic
Forest fires
Burning of coal refuse, agricultural refuse, municipal solid waste, etc
Also formed by the transformation of gaseous emissions like oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen and volatile organic compounds
Cigarette smoke
Natural sources include volcanic eruptions, wind and dust storms, salt sprays, etc.
Effects:
Human Health Effects:
Fine particles of less than 3 microns in size can penetrate the nose and throat, reach
the lungs, and cause breathing problems and irritation of the lung capillaries.
Particulates cause, respiratory morbidity, deficiencies in pulmonary functions
including decreased lung function (especially in children) and lung cancer with the
consequence of increased mortality.
Pulmonary fibrosis among asbestos mine workers, black lung disease among coal
miners, and emphysema among the urban population.
Environmental Effects:
Accelerate the corrosion of metals
Cause damage to paints and sculptures and soil exposed surfaces. The extent of
damage depends on the physical and chemical properties of the particulates
Potential to modify the climate through the formation of clouds and snow
19
Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Description:
Colorless, odorless, tasteless, toxic gas
Slightly lighter than air and slightly soluble in water
Extremely dangerous because it has a greater affinity for hemoglobin than that of
oxygen
Sources:
Incomplete combustion of fuels, automobile exhausts, jet engines, blast furnaces,
mines, waste incinerators
Tobacco smoking is a significant indoor source
Effects:
The health effects of CO result principally from its ability to attack haemoglobin and
displace oxygen thus forming carboxy-haemoglobin (COHb). This reduces the oxygen
carrying capacity of the blood because the normal function of haemoglobin is to
transport O2 from the lungs to all the body tissues.
Consequences include:
Impaired learning ability
Reduced vigilance
Decreased manual dexterity
Impaired performance of complex tasks
Disturbed sleep activity
Toxicity and blood poisoning
Local myocardial ischemia (in which part of heart muscle is deprived of O2)
Aggravation of angina pectoris
Myocardial infarction (heart attack including those leading to sudden death)
Reduced capacity for exercise and physical work
Enhanced development of arteriosclerosis and coronary artery disease.
Elevated COHb levels reduce the availability of O2 to the central nervous system
(CNS) including the brain. This can cause stroke involving unconsciousness,
convulsion, brain swelling and protrusions, death to part of the brain or death to the
individual, depending on the duration of O2 deficiency. Repeated episodes of this
deficit can damage the blood brain barrier and possibly cause structural damage
resulting in reduced ability of the CNS to transmit information. High risk groups
include individuals with existing cardiovascular or chronic respiratory problems, the
elderly, young children, and fetuses.
Exposure to very high levels for a period of time (115mg/m3 for 3 35 days) can
harm plants
20
Lead (Pb)
Leaded petrol, responsible for the vast majority of airborne lead, is not used in most
countries worldwide. Check your national regulations regarding fuel quality.
Description:
Bluish or silver-gray soft metal.
Two of its most important components in terms of air pollution are tetraethyl lead
(TEL, found in leaded gasoline) and tetramethyl lead. These two are used as anti
knock additives in petrol.
Sources:
Vehicle emissions
Car batteries
Production of metals like lead, copper, nickel, zinc, cadmium, iron, and steel
Thermal power plants and other coal combustion plants
Mining, cement production, refuse incineration, wood combustion, and lead-based
paints
Secondary lead smelters (especially cottage/informal industries)
Zinc and silver smelters
Dust and soil in and around industrial sites may contain toxic metals such as lead.
Effects:
Liver and kidney damage
Gastro-intestinal damage
Mental retardation in children
Abnormalities in fertility and pregnancy
Children are the most vulnerable group to lead poisoning. They are most sensitive to
lead poisoning, which leads to behavioural problems, lower IQs, and decreased
ability to concentrate.
Lead is generally toxic to both plants and animals.
Lead in dust and soil does not deteriorate. Long-distance atmospheric transport of
lead particles has been well documented.
21
22
Ozone (O3) and Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)

Description:
O3:
Molecular oxygen with 3 atoms
Pale blue gas that is fairly soluble in water, unstable, and has a sweetish odor
Strong oxidant thus making it very reactive and capable of combining with many
organic compounds in cells and tissues as well as rubber and other materials.
Considered a secondary pollutant because it is formed in the atmosphere by the
reaction of other pollutants
Tropospheric (ground-based) ozone is harmful to human health and plant life,
whereas stratospheric ozone ('the ozone layer' 20-25 km above the surface of the
earth) protects against harmful ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation.
PAN
Oxidizing agent formed by the reaction of organic compounds (e.g. aldehydes) with
OH radicals, followed by the addition of O2 and NO2
Sources:
O3
Formed in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) by the action of sunlight on nitrogen
dioxide (NO2)
Some ozone in the troposphere (10 15%) is transported from the stratosphere
where it is formed by action of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on O2 photochemical
reaction
PAN
Formed through photochemical reactions in the atmosphere
Effects:
Irritation of lungs, eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory tract
Accumulation of fluids in lungs
Damage to lung capillaries
Decreased pulmonary functions in young adults and children
Increased incidence of asthmatic attacks and respiratory symptoms in asthmatics
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Description:
Comprised of a wide range of individual substances including hydrocarbons (alkanes,
alkenes, and aromatics), halocarbons (e.g. trichloroethylene), and oxygenates
(alcohols, aldehydes, and hetons). They are all organic compounds and are volatile
enough to exist as vapour in the atmosphere.
Sources:
Vary greatly for individual compounds
Hydrocarbons arise substantially from gasoline evaporation and incomplete
combustion. They also arise from the leakage of natural gas from distribution
systems.
Oxygenates arise from vehicle exhaust and are also formed in atmospheric chemical
reactions
Hydrocarbons, oxygenates, and halocarbons are released to the atmosphere through
the evaporation of solvents used e.g. in paints or industrial decreasing processes
Effects:
A number of VOCs are proven or suspected to cause cancer
Contributes to the formation of secondary pollutants and to the depletion of
stratospheric ozone
Contributes indirectly to the formation of atmospheric acidity
Ethylene, a major VOC component, is a plant hormone and can seriously inhibit the
growth of plants
23
Polycyclic (or Polynuclear) Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)

Description:
Large group of inorganic compounds with two or more benzene rings. About 500 of
these compounds including their derivatives have been detected in the air. The best
known and most measured is benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)
Sources:
Formed as a result of pyrolytic (thermal degradation) process, especially the
incomplete combustion of inorganic matter
Major sources include coke production, coal fired heating, motor vehicles, and to a
lesser extent oil - fired power generation
Effects:
Substantial skin exposure to PAH causes skin cancer
Inhalation induces lung cancer
BaP is a carcinogen causing lung cancer
Effects on Animals:
PAH are toxic to animals, especially small mammals
24
25
Box 3.1 Acid Rain

Rain tends to be naturally acidic with a PH of 5.6 to 5.7. This is due to the reaction of
atmospheric CO2 with water to produce carbonic acid. Other atmospheric substances from
volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and other natural phenomenon also contribute to the natural
acidification of rain. This natural level of acidity is sufficient enough to dissolve minerals into
the earths crust and make them available to plant and animal life and not acidic enough to
inflict any damage.
Formation: The contribution of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from
anthropogenic sources disturbs the acid balance of rain and converts the natural and mildly
acidic rain into precipitation with far reaching environmental consequences. The reactions of
SO2 and NOx in the atmosphere yield H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) and HNO3 (nitric acid) droplets.
These acids are formed in a series of photochemical and chemical reactions and are catalysed
by other substances present in the atmosphere. The acidic droplets are partly neutralized by
bases (salts) such as particulate lime and ammonia (NH3). These salts and the remaining
H2SO4 and HNO3 droplets along with hydrochloric acid (HCl) released into the atmosphere by
man-made and natural activities give rise to acidic precipitation, popularly known as acid rain.
Acid rain comprises of more H2SO4 than HNO3.
Occurrence: Acid rainfall may occur at a place far away from pollution sources (up to 1000
km) Events of acid rain in Sweden and Canada have been traced to large SOx emissions from
densely populated areas of the United Kingdom and United States, respectively.
Damage: Acid rain is a manifest of major consequences of air pollution because of the large
amounts of SOx and NOx. It may cause extensive damage to materials and ecosystems.
Following are some of the damages caused by acid rain:
Damage to buildings, structural material, and valuable ancient sculptures carved from marble,
limestone, sandstone etc.
Damage to crops and forests, leaching of nutrients from leaves, and alteration of seed
germination characteristics. Damage to young growing plant tissues and the process of
photosynthesis, hence hindering the development of plants and threatening their very
survival.
Acidification of soils with consequent effects on microbial and soil fauna and nitrogen fixation
Alterations of soil chemistry leading to reduced forest productivity Potential effects on aquatic
systems such as acidification, decreased alkalinity, and mobilization of metals like aluminium
Other biological effects on aquatic biota such as altered species composition among plankton,
vegetation, and invertebrates; decline in productivity of fish and amphibians; skeletal
deformity; and increased fish mortality
Corrosive damage to steel, zinc, oil-based paints and automobile coatings
Possible effects on human: lungs, skin, and hair may be affected; acidification of drinking
water reservoirs and concurrent increases in heavy metals may exceed public health limits.
26
Tool 5: Mapping Air Quality Issues

Maps are important information carriers
Information can be presented in text, in tables and in graphical ways. Displaying
information on maps is a particularly effective way to relate environmental issues to a
picture of the real world. Thematic maps can well illustrate air quality issues in a
settlement. People often understand interrelationships between environmental resources
and development activities better if they are visualised on maps. Maps should accompany
textual descriptions of air quality issues in the Air Profile - where relevant and where
appropriate.
Discussing strategies and action plans usually requires a good understanding on the
spatial context of a certain environmental issue. Questions can cover situations such as:
What is the general air quality situation of the city?
Where are sources of pollution?
Where are pollution affected settlements?
What would happen if pollution would be reduced in one area?
Mapping Air Quality Issues and the EMIS

The UNHABITAT/UNEP Sustainable Cities Programme has developed a methodology to
illustrate environmental issues on maps. In a systematic step by step approach, this
Environmental Management Information System (EMIS) relates urban development
information to detailed maps.
EMIS is supporting the overall Environmental Planning and Management process by
providing appropriate tools for gathering information, analysing it and disseminating it
effectively on printed maps or on the Internet. EMIS makes use of state of the art
technology, such as relational databases, geographical information systems and web
publishing. But the EMIS is also designed in a way that it can be applied without requiring
high-end technology.
Outputs of an EMIS can be used for developing strategic action plans for particular
environmental issues. It can also be used for establishing masterplan like urban
development frameworks.
Air quality management as a particularly important environmental issues can be fully
integrated in such an environmental management information system.
More than 40 cities around the world are applying the EMIS concept.
How to develop maps on air quality management

Before you start developing maps related to air quality management, please consult the
EMIS Handbook and Toolkit for establishing a logical sequence of steps (Handbook on
Building an Environmental Management Information System, Volume 7 of the Sustainable
Cities Programmes sourcebook series).
In a first step, you should investigate about any available information related to air
quality management. Air quality management related institutions often may have spatial
information on the issue. Utilising existing information will allow you to generate new and
genuine information.
Data Collection
27
Before you start collecting air quality data, make sure that you have a reliable and up-todate basic map of your municipal area. Such maps can be obtained in hard copy or in
digital format from official mapping / survey institutions. Before you purchase such base
maps, make sure that you have the appropriate technical equipment and the necessary
human capacities to utilise such maps.
There are different types of data which you then can collect for creating thematic air
quality maps:
climatical data;
air quality data from monitoring stations;
data from pollution sources, such as industries, waste management, traffic;
social data, such as health, well-being or mortality;
All this information can be plotted onto maps. Such maps will give an overview of the
impact of emissions in the different areas of the city.
There are many ways of analysing and interpreting such maps. Some are very specialized
and quite complicated to look at. Members of issue specific working groups, however,
usually prefer clear, simple and significant maps.
Thematic Maps
It is advisable that you clearly separate factual information from policy related
information. For example, plotting the results from monitoring stations, such as the PM10
concentration on a map shows objectively verifiable facts. But relating these figures to
certain standards and labelling certain areas as highly polluted makes a map political decision makers may like this or may not like this information to be shown to the public.
Firstly, we concentrate on factual data. For air quality issues, factual data include for
example the location of the monitoring stations, the traffic flow, the congested areas (in
terms of both people and traffic), or the location of industries. Maps showing the amount
of lead or NOx in different areas of the city are thematic maps.
28
Box 5.1 Mapping industrial sources: The case of Dar es Salaam

A working group on air pollution of the Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project conducted an
assessment of industrial emissions. The map shows that about 95% of the industrial emissions in
Dar es Salaam come from a cement factory emitting over 100,000 tons of SPM a year. As the
cement factory is about 15 km from town, it does not directly affect the high density residential
areas. However, the city is rapidly growing towards the direction in which the cement factory is
located. The city administration will have to find suitable strategies to avoid conflicts between the
development of new residential areas and their exposure to unhealthy pollution.
A simplified map of Dar es Salaam Illustrating the Location of Dust Emitting Factories
Suitability and Sensitivity Maps

Policy information is based on the assessment and interpretation of factual information.
Translated into maps, policy data can be used to prepare the Suitability and Sensitivity
Maps. A typical Sensitivity Map will indicate the air situation of different parts of the city,
in terms of good, moderate, and bad air quality. Overlaying different types of
suitability/sensitivity maps will show the concentration of sensitive areas in a city
(hotspots). Such hotspots carry a high level of conditions and rules in terms of
development activities. Such an analysis can also be expressed in monetary terms which
would allow decision makers to make a choice in investing in air quality measures.
Examples of Air Quality Maps:

1.
Industrial Emission Map:
Industrial emissions can have a great impact on surrounding areas. For an evaluation of
the aerial distribution of industrial emissions you can easily prepare a map. First you
must calculate or estimate the distance the emission will be transported. Once you know
how far the emission will be distributed, you can then show the impact near the factories
following the yearly wind patterns. This can be done through the following steps:
1.1
Prepare a map showing the location of factories as points;
1.2
Calculate distance for distribution of certain pollutants (refer to TOOL 12 & 13
modelling techniques);
29
1.3
Use a buffering tool for visualising the potential coverage of a certain pollutant in a
certain concentration;
1.4
Adjust the buffers according to the main wind directions;
1.5
Classify the information according to standards, rules and conditions (which will
result in, for example, good, medium or bad air quality zones);
1.6
Overlay this map on a land use map and you will be able to determine the
residential areas which are affected by certain pollutants.
Data required for these steps include:
Location of factories
Types and quantities of chemicals emitted;
Height of chimneys;
Dispersion distances of certain pollutants; and
Wind directions.
2.
Traffic Pollution Maps:
Vehicular emissions have a great impact on adjoining housing areas. The higher the
number of cars passing by, and with congestion at peak hours, the higher the impacts on
the surroundings. The following are the steps to map the traffic flow of the city:
2.1
Take the street map layer of your municipal area;
2.2
Link traffic counting data to the streets (for example width of street line could
indicate the number of vehicles and the colour of the street line could indicate the level of
pollution of the vehicles);
2.3
Create buffers along the streets according to the expected dispersion of vehicular
pollutants;
2.4
Adjust the buffers according to the street physiognomy (street canyons with
limited dispersion, or low housing estates with extensive dispersion of pollutants);
2.5
Classify the information according to standards, rules and conditions (which will
result in for example good, medium or bad air quality zones);
2.6
Overlay this map on a landuse map and you will be able to determine the
residential areas which are affected by certain pollutants.
Data required:
Traffic count data;
Vehicular emission data;
Dispersion distances of certain pollutants;
Physiognomy of streets of particular interest.
Similar maps can be prepared for emissions from waste and domestic pollution.
3.
City wide Air Quality Map:
Overlaying the above maps will show the levels of environmental pressure citywide. For
example, some residential areas might be affected by traffic pollution, industrial pollution
as well as severe indoor pollution. Other areas might receive none of such pollutants. The
steps to create this map include interpretation of factual data found in Thematic Maps,
evaluation of the findings, drawing conclusions about conditions in specific areas, and
applying rules and regulations based on these conditions. The most crucial point at this
30
step is to link the areas of the maps to the rules and regulations decided on by the
working groups. This can be verified by the results from air quality monitoring stations.
Utilising a GIS which is well operated and maintained has the flexibility to include new
emission sources or new (and maybe more accurate) information which can easily be
integrated in such a city-wide Air Quality Map.
Figure 3.1 Air Quality in Shenyang: Map shows aggregated pollution levels derived from
monitoring stations
4.
Mapping the Impacts of Emissions According to Different Land Use Types:
To evaluate the impact of air pollution on development activities, the city-wide Air Quality
Map can be used for overlays with existing and planned land-uses. Severely affected
areas can be prioritized for implementing remedy actions. In order to do that, a ranking
technique needs to be applied (see EMIS Handbook). Such a map then will be related to
large-scale cadastral maps for effective works and improvements.
31
Tool 6: World Health Organizations (WHO) and National Air

Quality Guidelines
The setting up of air quality guidelines and standards is the basis for controlling and
managing urban air quality. Many countries as well as the World Health Organization
(WHO) have established air quality guidelines*. These guidelines and standards are set to
protect public health and the environment against hazards. Health problems and other
adverse effects occur when pollution levels exceed guidelines. Annual mean guidelines
and standards are designed to protect the population from regular exposure to high levels
of pollution. If the mean daily concentrations are kept low, long-term chronic effects on
human health are minimized.
Standards and guidelines often distinguish between short-term and long-term exposure
(see TOOL 7). When abnormally high levels of pollution persist for short periods, acute
effects may result. Short-term guidelines and standards place limits on pollutant
concentrations ranging between 10 minutes to 24 hours.
Air quality guidelines are not standards in themselves. Governments, in the context of
prevailing exposure levels and environmental, social, economic, and cultural conditions,
must adopt them. Therefore, it is necessary to establish to what extent WHO standards
are similar or different from the standards applied at national and local levels of countries
and cities.
Table 6.1 presents the main air quality guidelines* of the World Health Organization
(WHO) as well as some national guidelines. A more comprehensive database containing
WHO and country specific guidelines is available in the CD-ROM format as part of WHOs
Air Management Information System (AMIS). (Please refer to TOOL 7 for guidance on
how to order the CD-ROM). AMIS was produced through the contribution of the GEMS Air
Programme by UNEP and WHO and is part of WHOs Healthy City Project.
The guidelines serve to protecting public health from the adverse effects of air pollution
and to eliminate or reduce air contaminants known to be hazardous to human health and
well-being. The standards also take into account the adverse effects on soils, water,
crops, vegetation, human made materials, animals, wildlife, weather, and visibility.
The guidelines represent the current best scientific judgment. Periodic reviews and
revisions will be needed as new health data becomes available.
Additional information on guidelines is given in the following:
A speech text of WHO on air quality guidelines (included in the WHO CD ROM Healthy
Cities Air Management)
Explains the criteria used to establish guidelines
Chapter 3 of the WHOs The Air Guide
Gives a comprehensive overview of WHO guidelines
Air Quality Guidelines for Europe, WHO regional publication Series No. 23
Lists guidelines of different European countries
32
Example:
In summer 2004, the levels of ground-level ozone were high in southern Europe with
widespread exceedances of the information threshold value (180 g/m3), as laid down in the
ozone directive (2002/3/EC). The exceedances of the information threshold were similar to
earlier years, except for summer 2003, when there was a record number of exceedances. Also
the directive's long-term objective to protect human health, 120 g/m3 of ozone
concentration over 8 hours, was extensively exceeded in the EU and other European countries.
The target value to protect human health was also exceeded in southern and part of central
Europe. The highest levels were reported from Italy and Spain, with a maximum ozone level of
417 g/m3.
Air pollution by ozone in Europe in summer 2004 (Technical report No 3/2005), published at
EEA (European Environment Agency) OPOCE (Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities).
33
Table 6.1 Air Quality Standards and Guidelines (in g/m3) 1

Standard
Annual Mean 2
Annual Mean
98
Percentage 3
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
8
Hours
Averaging Time
60 90
230
150 230
200
400
360
500
India R
200
400
140
200
India S
100
70
100
90
260
1
Hour
Average
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP/SPM)

WHO
India I
Indonesia
EPA (US Federal)
75
State of California
55
China Class 1
150
Class II
300
420
Class III
500
680
Korea
150
300
Mexico
275
Philippines
180
Russia
150
Thailand
100
Brazil
80
330
240
Particulate Matter- PM 10
WHO
30
70
Turkey
60
150
Brazil
50
150
Japan
100
Air quality standards and guidelines are expressed in ug/m3. It is very common to express air quality in units
of weight to volume ratio, such as g/m3. However, sometimes a volume to volume ratio is used, such as parts
per million (ppm), or parts per billion (ppb). Annex 3 gives an overview of some conversion factors in order to
compare different units expressing concentrations of air pollutants.
2
The annual mean is calculated as the sum of each daily mean divided by the numbers days measurements
were taken (UNEP/WHO 94 95, Vol.1)
3
Annual mean 98 percentage = ninety eight percent (98%) of all daily means should be at or below this
value. Where measurements are taken on 365 days a year, values should not rise above the 98 percentile on
more than 7 days. Where fewer measurements are made, the number of days in which levels are allowed to
exceed this guideline falls proportionally (UNEP/WHO 94 95, Vol. 1).
4
India R= Residential, rural and commercial city center; India I= Industrial and mixed zones;
India S=Sensitive areas (hill stations, national parks, and monuments)
WHO S=Guidelines based on effects on terrestrial vegetation (national parks)
These are proposed Indonesian standards (see Estimating the Health Effects of Air Pollutants, World Bank,
1994)
6
China, Class I = Tourist, historical and conservation areas; Class II = Residential, urban and rural areas; Class
III = Industrial areas and heavy traffic
34
EPA (US Federal)
50
150
State of California
30
50
8
Hours
Averaging
Time
Standard
Annual Mean
Annual Mean
98
Percentage
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
1
Hour
Average
WHO
50
150
125
WHO S
30
100
India I
80
80
120
655
India R
80
60
80
655
India S
30
20
30
Indonesia
60
EPA
80
State of California
60
Turkey
60
150
Egypt
60
200
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
350/250
European Community
(UK)
Secondary
80
365
40
100
China Class I
50
Class II
150
Class III
250
Philippines
369
Russia
150
Thailand
300
450
350
Mexico
Brazil Primary
350
850
350ugm-3 if black smoke is less than 150ugm-3, and 250 ugm-3 if black smoke is > 150ugm-3
Standard
Annual Mean
35
Annual Mean
98
Percentage
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
8
Hours
Averaging
Time
1
Hour
Average
100 8
60 9
10
30
India - I
40
India - R
40
India S

WHO
China Class I
Class II
Class III
Brazil
10
40
Philippines
10
85
Thailand
20
50
EPA
10
40
120
150 - 200
Russia
Ozone (O3)
WHO
150
WHO S
65
200
Indonesia
200
160
EPA
240
235
State of California
180
180
Argentina
200
Brazil
160
China Class I
120
Class II
160
Class III
200
Japan
Korea
120
40
200
Mexico
220
Philippines
120
Thailand
200
8
9
15 minutes average
30 minutes average
Standard
Annual Mean
Annual Mean
98
Percentage
36
24
Hours
Averaging
Time
8
Hours
Averaging
Time
1
Hour
Average
Nitrogen Dioxide(NO2)
WHO
40 50
WHO S
30
India I
100
20
120
470
India R
100
60
80
470
200
95
30
India S
Indonesia
150
EPA
100
100
China Class I
50
Class II
100
Class III
150
European Union
200
Mexico
395
Philippines
190
Thailand
320

WHO
100 10
60 11
10
30
India - I
40
India - R
40
India S
China Class I
Class II
10
11
15 minutes average
30 minutes average
37
Summary of Air Quality Guidelines* for the WHO European Region Member
12
States
Pollutant
Annual
mean
24 Hours
Averaging
Time
8 Hours
Averaging
Time
1 Hour
Average
Benzene
No safe level for airborne benzene is recommended due to its

carcinogenic effects to humans. There is no known threshold level
Formaldehyde
30 Minutes
Average
0.1mg/m3
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH)
Owing to its carcinogenicity, no safe level of PAH can be

recommended. BaP is a well studied PAH which has no known cancer
threshold and yet is present in every ambient mixture of PAH
Vinyl Chloride
No safe level can be indicated. VC is a human carcinogen and the

critical concern due to environmental exposure is the risk of
malignancy
Arsenic
No safe level of arsenic (Ar) can be recommended as there is no

known threshold and it is a carcinogen
Asbestos
No safe level can be proposed as the threshold level is not known and
it is a proven human carcinogen. Exposures therefore must be kept
as low as possible.
Carbon Monoxide
10mg/m3
Hydrogen Sulfide
0.15mg/m
3
Lead
0.5 -1.0
g/m3
Manganese
1g/m3
Nitrogen dioxide
12
30mg/m3
150ug/m3
60mg/m3
7g/m3
400ug/m
Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Russia, United Kingdom and
Yugoslavia and Montenegro.
38
3
Ozone
Sulfur dioxide
100 -120
g/m3
50g/m3
125g/m3
150 - 200
g/m3
350g/m
3
500g/m3
(10 min.)
Particulate Matter
-TSP
-black smoke
-thoracic particles
120g/m3
50g/m3
125g/m3
70g/m3
Vanadium
1 g/m3
*NOTE: The WHO Air Quality Guideline values are valid as of the preparation of this tool.
However, the guideline values for pollutants may have changed during publication of this
tool in 2005-2006 and may not be included in their revised forms in this tool.
Please consult the 2nd Edition of the World Health Organization's Air Quality Guidelines at
http://www.euro.who.int/air/activities/20050223_4) for updated values. One important
update to note is that the WHO no longer specifies a guideline limit value for particulate
matte (PM), reflecting recent research which indicates that there is no 'safe' lower
threshold for this pollutant.
39
Tool 7: Health and Other Adverse Effects of Common Air

Pollutants
This tool specifically concentrates on the human health effects of major pollutants. It is
intended to assist the Working Groups in understanding the danger of each pollutant,
identifying and prioritizing hazardous pollutants within their own cities, and initiating
actions to curb them
While there are many pollutants, it is generally sufficient to focus air quality management
on the major pollutants mentioned in the Table below. Some of these pollutants cause
acute health effects while others give chronic effects after long periods of exposure.
Acute effects occur when the concentration of a pollutant is above the prescribed level for
a short period of time. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a well-known example of a pollutant that
causes acute effects. It reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. People may
immediately die when exposed to very high CO concentrations. High CO concentrations
can occur in isolated rooms with badly maintained gas heaters. The one-hour, mean
concentrations of pollutants (that cause acute effects) should not exceed prescribed
levels. If information on hourly concentrations is not available, the information on the 24hour mean or the 8-hour mean concentrations could suffice.
In case of pollutants causing long-term effects (such as cancer or asthma), annual mean
concentrations should not exceed the prescribed levels. These levels can be found in the
WHO air quality standards TOOL 6. Dust (SPM) is a classic example of a pollutant with
long-term effects. It affects human health in the most serious way because it causes
breathing problems and asthma. The extent of illnesses depends upon the size and
chemical composition of the particulate matter. The smallest particles are the worst
because they are the inhalable, thoracic fraction of SPM. This fraction is called the PM 10
fraction, meaning that the particles are 10 microns or less in diameter. In practice, dust
emitted by diesel motor vehicles is worse than the same amount of dust from the desert,
because diesel emissions contain a large percentage of small particles. Alone in Europe,
particulate matter is estimated to cause more then 200000 deaths per year.
Table 7.1 Human Health Effects of Pollutants
Pollutant
Other Effects
Carbon
Monoxide
Reduces oxygen carrying capacity of the No adverse effects are known

blood
due
to
high
affinity
with
hemoglobin.
A sufficient exposure to carbon monoxide
can reduce the amount of oxygen taken
up by the brain to the point that the
victim becomes unconscious, and can
suffer brain damage or even death from
anoxia.
Nitrogen
Dioxide (NO2)
Sensitizes the lungs to other pollutants An ingredient in acid rain

and allergens.
(acid aerosols) which can
damage trees, lakes and
Combines a range of effects on lung
corrodes stonework .
function
(especially
from
indoor
pollution).
Ozone (O3)
Powerful oxidant reacting

biological substances.
with
most
Attacks paints,
and rubbers.
elastomers,
Pollutant
40
Other Effects
A lung irritant and sensitizer to other Can damage plants and trees.
pollutants and allergens.
Smog can cause reduced
Can produce teary eyes and sore throats. visibility.
Hydrocarbons
(CnHn)
Potential carcinogenic effects from certain

types of aromatic, saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Polyaromatic
Hydrocarbons
(PAHs),
notably
benzo(a)pyren
e
Benzo(a)pyrene and certain other species Harmful for plants

are carcinogenic
(BaP)
Some, such as formaldehyde

and ethylene may harm
plants
PAH related human health problems occur

via inhalation and via consumption of
food polluted due to atmospheric
deposition (these molecules are heavy
and deposit easily).
Benzene
(C6H6)
Powerful carcinogen linked to leukemia.
Lead (Pb)
Neurotoxin, (suggestion of impairment to

cognitive development reduces IQ
levels, affects capacity to concentrate and
memorize, especially of young children.
Harmful for plants
Affects blood biochemistry and can raise

blood pressure.
Lead related human health problems
occur via inhalation and via consumption
of food polluted due to atmospheric
deposition (food chain, for example
agricultural activities near main roads).
Sulfur Dioxide
(SO2)
Increased
bronchitis.
prevalence
to
chronic
Ingredient in acid rain (acid

aerosols) which can damage
trees, lakes and corrodes
stonework.
Narrows the airways, particularly in

sensitive
individuals,
producing
symptoms ranging from coughing and Acid aerosols
wheezing to bronchitis and asthma.
visibility.
Suspended
Particulate
Matter (SPM)
Affecting the airways, strongly dependent

on size and chemical composition.
This is the inhalable, thoracic fraction of Same as SPM

SPM. Often seen as the most serious
pollutant.
Increased cardio-respiratory mortalityparticularly in combination with SO2.
Some constituents of fine particulate
matter, such as diesel smoke, are
carcinogenic.
reduce
Ashes, smokes, and dusts can

dirty and discolor structures
and other property including
clothes and furniture.
Reduces visibility
PM10 (part of
SPM and refers
to
those
particles with
a
diameter
equal to or
smaller
than
10 microns)
can
41
Additional information can be obtained from:
The report Air Quality Management and Assessment Capabilities in 20 Major Cities
(UNEP/WHO 96);
The Air Guide, Chapter 3, included as a word file in the ISIS97 CD ROM; developed by the
WHO etc.
Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline: World Wide Experience and Policy Implications, The
World Bank 1996
42
Tool 8: Estimating the Health Effects of PM10

This tool allows you to estimate the health effects of PM10 (the fine components of dust).
by demonstrating the effect of dust concentrations on the urban population. It is based
on a WHO methodology for estimating air pollution health effects and can be applied by
individual cities for such estimations. Although there are health effects due to the
exposure of PM10 below 30 micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3), the dose-response
coefficients only allow to estimate the effects of PM 10 above 30 g/m3. This threshold is
used in the model.
Dose response is the change in effect on an organism caused by differing levels of
exposure to a substance. This may apply to individuals (for example, a small amount has
no observable effect, a large amount is fatal), or to populations (for example, how many
people are affected at different levels of exposure). Studying dose response, and
developing dose response models, is central to determining "safe" and "hazardous" levels
and dosages for drugs, potential pollutants, and other substances that humans are
exposed to. These conclusions are often the basis for public policy (wikipedia).
Note that models such as this are a cost-effective alternative to data collection and
processing. Unfortunately, many cities in developing countries do not have a
comprehensive set of monitors. Therefore, as an alternative, dispersion models such as
this can be developed and used. One should keep in mind that dispersion models are
always less precise than actual monitoring. For guidance on how to prepare a complete
emissions inventory, refer to Tool 19: 'Preparing An Emissions Inventory'.
How to Use the Spreadsheet
The link on the interactive AQM CD will allow you to open an easy to use spreadsheet.
The spreadsheet is organized in three worksheets:
The first worksheet (PM10 Entry Sheet) allows you to enter data which are specific to
your local authority. It will immediately provide you with results, which are based on
central dose-response coefficients.
The second worksheet (PM10 Your City) contains the detailed calculation formulas. Here
you can read the values for low and high scenarios as well.
The third/fourth (PM10 Example1/2) worksheet is similar to the second sheet and
contains sample data from selected cities.
Certain blocks with red squares at the corners contain comments. By placing your cursor
over these boxes you will be able to read these comments and view the formulas used in
calculations.
Please note: the worksheets are protected in order to avoid accidental deletion or
changing of formulas. Only the entry fields are accessible. In case that you want to
modify formulas, please unprotect the sheet (in Microsoft EXCEL: Tools - Protection Unprotect Sheet; in OpenOffice: Tools - Protect Document - Sheet).
For conversions (ppm, ppb and ug/m3) see Tool 28.
STEP 1: Insert data and view results:
Insert your city specific information into the white field in the first worksheet.
43
Some results focus on children, adults or asthmatics. You need to insert the respective
population ratio (or asthma ratio). For example, in Chennai, 38% (also enter 0.38) of the
urban population is 18 or younger. 5% is asthmatic (also enter 0.05). The average
mortality rate is 6 persons for every 1000 (0.6 % or 0.005 of the total).
Then, please fill in the total PM10 concentration four your city. Usually, PM10
concentrations are higher during dry seasons than during wet seasons. Here some
examples from Indonesia:
Wet Seasons: Concentration of PM10
44
a. Tegalega ranged from 41 74 g/m3, and average 60 g/m3

b. Dago Pakar ranged from 30 62 g/m3, and average 42 g/m3
c. Cisaranten ranged from : 44-118 g/m3, average 68 g/m3
d. Lapan ranged from 45-91, average 64 g/m3
e. Batunuggal ranged from 48 -113 average 68 g/m3
Dry Seasons: Concentration of PM10
a. Tegalega ranged from 52 117 g/m3, and average 79 g/m3
b. Dago Pakar ranged from 44 77 g/m3, and average 56 g/m3
c. Cisaranten ranged from: 44-118 g/m3, average 68 g/m3
d. Lapan ranged from 68-96, average 86 g/m3
e. Batunuggal ranged from 48 -113 average 68 g/m3
In China, PM-10 annual mean mass concentrations in the cities range from about 70 to
220 g/m3. The highest concentrations are observed in Guangzhou, Lanzhou, and
Beijing.
This first worksheet automatically calculates the expected health effects based on the
central scenario of dose-response coefficients. In the result box, the number of affected
citizens is displayed.
STEP 2: View detailed results:
45
Open the second worksheet (PM10 Your City).

The relevant percentage of the population within your targeted age bracket in your city is
displayed in column C. Column C is the part of the urban population for which the health
effect is being estimated. For example, if we want to see how many children get
bronchitis, we only want persons under age 18.
The result in Column D will show the estimated health effects of PM10 in your city for the
specified group. Three scenarios are included: low, central, and high.
Some Remarks on the Model (Formula)
The main objective of the model is to show the effects of increasing/decreasing PM10
concentrations on human health. As there are uncertainties in the causal relationships
between PM10 concentrations and health effects, the model works with high and low
estimates to indicate the likely ranges where actual damages are likely to fall. The central
scenario is the best estimate.
Models are a cost-effective alternative to data collection and processing. Unfortunately,
many cities in developing countries do not have a comprehensive set of monitors.
Therefore, as an alternative, dispersion models can be developed and used. One should
keep in mind that dispersion models are always less precise than actual monitoring.
For PM10, the emissions sources in the example given are natural dust (49%), industrial
(20%), residential (7%), diesel vehicles (19%), and gasoline powered vehicles (5%). In
urban areas, diesel powered vehicles contribute more to fine particles. For example, in
downtown Santiago de Chile, diesel powered vehicles contribute 74% to the ambient
PM10.
The model assumes that the concentrations apply to all the people equally, which never is
the case. Concentrations differ in the city by street and by house. The model only gives a
general idea about the enormous effects that PM10 pollution has on citizens. Some areas
are more affected than others are. For example, in Chennai, India, the following
differences have been measured within the city.
Chennai SPM Concentrations Measured in g/m3

Industrial and Mixed Zones
150
Commercial Areas
118
Residential Areas
78
Near streets
2740 1470
Note that as of 2005 the WHO no longer indicates a guideline level for SPM as research indicates
that there is no safe lower threshold of particulate matter in the air (see the second edition of the
WHO Air Quality Guidelines at http://www.euro.who.int/air/activities/20050223_4). India's own
national standard per 24 hours is 200 g/m3 for residential areas (140 g/m3 annual arithmetic
mean standard, see http://www.cpcb.nic.in/as.htm for full ambient air quality standards).
Therefore, this model should only be used on a citywide scale. When reducing the scale to
a specific number of streets or certain areas of the city, the percentage of error in the
estimations may increase significantly.
Mortality effects on the population can be generated using two methods. The first,
described above, uses results of estimates of the impact of PM10 on the percent change
in total (all-causes) mortality. The second method uses results on the impact of PM10 on
disease-specific (i.e., respiratory and cardiovascular) mortality.
46
Each method has certain advantages. It is advisable to use both. Using total mortality
ensures that all mortality cases affected by air population are included in the doseresponse function. If only cardio-vascular and respiratory - specific mortality are used in
the dose-response function the mortality effect may be underestimated.
The use of disease-specific mortality may provide more accurate estimates of the effect of
air population if the disease patterns are very different from those in the original studies.
For example, if a developing country has much higher infant and childhood mortality not
related to air pollution and/or higher rates of accidental deaths, the application of the
dose-response functions for total mortality may not be appropriate. In that case, it is
better to use the disease specific method.
There is an alternative way for calculating the expected mortality: r/(1+r)*CM. This
formula can be used when the expected annual concentration is very large (i.e. more
than 100 g/m3. Specific formulas are also available to split up the mortality between
respiratory and cardiovascular mortality. However, this is only usable if cardiovascular
and respiratory mortality information is available in the cities.
Table 8.1 City Example: Santiago, Chile
SANTIAGO PM10
Scenarios
4,700,000
Population
112.6
Concentration in ug/m3
82.6
PM 10 Concentration exceeding 30
ug threshold
Part of Population Number of

to be Counted
Effected
Average
Rate
Citizens
Mortality Premature Mortality
Low
0.005
2,388
Average
0.005
5,241
High
0.005
8,153
Whole Population
Respiratory Hospital
Admissions
Low
2,562
Average
466
High
6,056
Whole Population
Emergency
Visits
Low
45,810
Average
91,232
High
97,831
Population
Ratio Restricted
Above Age 18
Activity Days
Room
Adult
47
Low
0.618
9,596,798
Average
0.618
13,675,438
High
0.618
21,592,796
Population
Ratio Acute Bronchitis
Below Age 18
Children
Low
0.363
112,739
Central
0.363
225,478
High
0.363
338,217
in
Ratio of Asthmatics Asthma Exacerbation

in Total Population
Low
0.05
640,563
Average
0.05
1,145,249
High
0.05
3,804,556
Whole Population
Respiratory
Symptoms
Low
35,328,020
Average
69,879,600
High
104,819,400
Pop. Ratio over age Chronic Bronchitis

25
Low
0.6
6,988
Average
0.6
14,255
High
0.6
21,383
Mortality Rate
Respiratory Mortality
Low
Average
High
0
Mortality Rate
Cardiovascular
Mortality
Low
Average
High
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and populations, as such
graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution. This is an indicative tool that
will however be of use to policy makers and stakeholders.
If no computer with spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft EXCEL, is available, this tool
offers you a method to calculate the effects for the individual city manually.
48
Using the Manual Method:

STEP 1:
Collect the necessary input data to carry out calculations for the individual city (see table
8.2). If no information is available, use the same percentages as the city example of
Santiago.
STEP 2:
Fill in these data in the blanks in Table 8.3. The predicted health benefits are calculated
by multiplying the first four columns. The related formulas are given in the last column.
As input data for the tables, the following information is needed to carry out the
calculations:
Table 8.2 Information Needed to Perform PM10 Calculations Manually
Formula
Explanation
City example:
Santiago, Chile
(taken from the Air
Guide of WHO)13
Abbreviation
1
POPj
Population in area j
(the area one wants
to focus on because
of the high
concentrations of
PM10)
4.7 million people

(the whole of
Santiago; one could
also choose to carry
out calculations for a
polluted part of the
city only)
POPG25j
Population greater
than age 25 in area j
60% of the
population
POPG18j
and POPL18j
Population greater
than and less than
age 18 in area j
64% and 36%

respectively
POPa j
Asthmatic population
in area j (usually
about 5% of POPj). It
can be higher in
developing countries.
In Indonesia, it is
about 8%. (World
Bank 1994)
5%
PMj
Difference between
PM10 concentration in
g/m3 in area j and
the desired standard
(e.g. of WHO)
Measured urban
concentration is about
112.6 g/m3, WHO
guideline is 30 g/m3.
Therefore 112.6
minus 30 = 82.6
g/m3
13
To be Filled in by
Individual Cities
Air Quality Management and Assessment Capabilities in 20 Major Cities GEMS/AIR, UNEP,WHO
49
MR
Mortality rate (usually

about 0.5% of
population)
Number of people
that die annually as a
percentage of the
total population
MRr
Mortality rate due to

respiratory diseases
Number of people
that die due to
compared to the total
population
MRc
Mortality rate due to

cardiovascular
diseases
Number of people
that die due to
compared to the total
population
Table 8.3 Blank Sheet for Calculating PM 10 Effects

Dose Response
Coefficients
Difference in
PM 10
Population in
Specific Area
Population
Counted
Predicted
Health
Formula
Benefits
Used to estimate
Annual Effects of
Annual Average
Change in PM10
Mortality
Increase per 1
g/m3
Citys PM10
conc. in
g/m3 minus
ambient
standard of
30)
when
meeting the
PM10
Standard
Average
mortality
rate (MR)
Mortality
C*(POP)*MR*
(PMj) or
Whole
population
Respiratory
Hospital
Admissions
C*(POP)*
Whole
population
Emergency
room visits
C*(POP)*
R/(1*)*CM
Low 0 .001223
Central 0.0027
High 0.0042
Respiratory
Hospital
Admissions
(PM)
Increase per 1
g/m3
Low 0.0000066
Central 0.000012
High 0.0000156
Emergency Room
Visits
Cases per 1
g/m3
Low 0.0001180
Central 0.000235
(PM)
50
High 0.0003530
Restricted Activity
Days
Cases per 1
g/m3
Population
ratio above
18
Restricted
activity days
in adults
C*(POPG18j)*
(PM)
Population
Counted
Predicted
Health
Formula
Low 0.04
Central 0.057
High 0.09
Dose Response
Coefficients
Difference in
PM 10
Population in
Specific Area
Benefits
Used to estimate
Annual Effects of
Annual Average
Change in PM10
Citys PM10
conc. in
g/m3 minus
ambient
standard of
30)
Respiratory
Symptoms
when
meeting the
PM10
Standard
Whole
population
Respiratory
symptoms
C*(POPj)*
Percentage
above 25
years
(POPG16)
Chronic
Bronchitis
C*(POPG25j)*
(PM)
(PM)
Cases per 1g/m3

Low 0.091
Central 0.18
High
0.27
Chronic Bronchitis
Cases per 1
g/m3
Low 0.00003
Central 0.0000612
High 0.0000918
POPj
population in area j
POPL18j
population less than age 18 years in area j
POPG25j
population greater than age 25 in area j
PMj
change in annual average PM10 in area j
POPaj
asthmatic population in location j (usually about 5% of POP j)
MR
mortality rate
dose response coefficient
Data for the health effects coefficients used in this tool were compiled from: Estimating
the Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Application to Jakarta, # 1301 in
Policy Working Paper Series, The World Bank.
51
52
Tool 9: Estimating the Health Effects of Lead

This tool allows you to estimate the health effects of Lead by demonstrating the effect of
lead concentrations on the urban population. It is based on a WHO methodology for
estimating air pollution health effects and can be applied by individual cities for such
estimations.
The results can assist Working Groups in deciding whether or not lead is a priority
pollutant in their own cities, using different scenarios of dose-response coefficients.
The link on the CD will allow you to open an easy to use spreadsheet. The spreadsheet is
organized in three worksheets:
The first worksheet (Lead Entry Sheet) allows you to enter data which are specific to your
local authority. It will immediately provide you with results, which are based on central
dose-response coefficients.
The second worksheet (Lead Your City) contains the detailed calculation formulas. Here
The third (Lead Example) worksheet is similar to the second sheet and contains sample
data from Shenyang, China.
calculations.
53
The results focus on children, younger and older adults. You need to insert the respective
population ratio.
Then, please fill in the total Lead concentration for your city.
Open the second worksheet (Lead Your City).
effect is being estimated. For example, if we want to know the adult males that
experience hypertension, we would place the percentage of the entire population that is
an adult male. In this example we have used males between the ages of 20 and 70.
54
For IQ loss per child the relevant percentage is 100% or 1 because we are considering all
children.
Column C shows the health effect for every microgram per cubic meter. Three scenarios
are included: low, central, and high.
Column D will show the estimated health effects of Lead in your city for the specified
group. It will indicate:
How many citizens suffer from hypertension due to exposure to levels of lead in
the city
How many citizens suffer non fatal heart attacks
How many deaths occur due to lead exposure and
How many children suffer IQ loss due to lead exposure
Some Remarks on the Formula

The main objective of the model is to show the effects of increasing/decreasing lead
between lead concentrations and health effects, the model works with high and low
estimates to indicate the likely ranges within which the actual damages are likely to fall.
The central estimate is the best estimate and is typically selected from the middle of the
range reported in the studies/models examined.
Therefore, this model is only to be used on a citywide scale. Applying this model to a
specific section of a city will only increase its margin or error.
Manual Application
Working Groups can also get the same results through manual calculation. The number of
citizens affected is a product of the population, concentration of lead, dose-response
coefficient, and the part of the population to be counted. (i.e. number of citizens effected
= population * concentration of lead * dose-response coefficient * percentage of the
population to be counted)
The example of the City of Shenyang is provided for illustration.
Table 9.1 Example City of Shenyang
55
56
Table 9.2 Blank Sheet for Manual Calculation of Lead Effects

LEAD BLANK SHEET FOR YOUR CITY TO FILL IN
Enter Population Here:
Enter Concentration in ug/m3:
Dose-Response
Coefficients
Hypertension
Males)
Low
0.0448
Average
0.0726
High
0.0978
Part
of Number
Population to be Citizens
Counted
Effected
of
(Adult Population Ratio

Ages 20-70
Non-fatal
Heart Population Ratio
Attacks (Adult Males) Ages 40-59
Low
0.00018
Average
0.00034
High
0.0005
Deaths (Adult Males) Population Ratio
Ages 40-59
Low
0.0002
Average
0.00035
High
0.00065
IQ Loss per Child
Low
none
Average
0.975
High
none
All
Children
Counted
1
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and populations,
as such graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution. This is an
indicative tool that will however be of use to policy makers and stakeholders.
57
Tool 10: Estimating the Health Effects of Sulfur Dioxide

(SO2)
This tool allows you to estimate the health effects of SO2 by demonstrating the effect of
SO2 concentrations on the urban population. It is based on a WHO methodology for
estimating air pollution health effects and can be applied by individual cities for such
estimations.
The results can assist Working Groups in deciding whether or not SO2 is a priority
pollutant in their own cities, using different scenarios of dose-response coefficients.
organized in three worksheets:
The first worksheet (SO2 Entry Sheet) allows you to enter data which are specific to your
local authority. It will immediately provide you with results, which are based on central
dose-response coefficients.
The second worksheet (SO2 Your City) contains the detailed calculation formulas. Here
The third (SO2 Example) worksheet is similar to the second sheet and contains sample
data from a fictive city.
calculations.
58
The results focus on children and adults. You need to insert the respective population
ratio and the average mortality rate.
Then, please fill in the total SO2 concentration four your city.
Open the second worksheet (SO2 Your City).
effect is being estimated. For example, if we want to know the children that experience
59
respiratory illness, we would place the percentage of the population below 18 years.
Column D shows the results for the three scenarios.
Table 10.1 The Example of City X
City X Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Population:
5,000,000
Concentration in ug/m3:
106
Scenari Part
os
Population
be Counted
of Number
to Citizens
Effected
of
Average Mortality Rate

Low
0.005
530
Average 0.005
1272
High
3207
0.005
Children
Low
0.5
265000
Average 0.5
47965
High
69430
0.5
All
Low
26500
Average 1
53000
High
79500
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios
and populations, as such graphs only give an indication of the
seriousness of pollution. This is an indicative tool that will however
be of use to policy makers and stakeholders.
60
Manual Application
Working Groups can also use the table for manual calculations. The number of citizens
affected is a product of the population, concentration of SO2, dose-response coefficient,
and the part of the population to be counted.
Formula:
number of citizens effected = population * concentration of lead * dose-response
coefficient * percentage of the population to be counted
Table 10.2 to Aid Manual Calculations
Blank Sheet For Your City to Fill In: Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Population:
Concentration in ug/m3:
Dose-Response Part
of Number
of
Coefficients
Population to Citizens Effected
be Counted
Mortality
Low
0.0002
Average
0.00048
High
0.00121
Average
Mortality Rate
Respiratory
Children
Illness
and
Cough
Low
0.0001
Average
0.000181
High
0.000262
Chest
Discomfort
Low
0.00005
Average
0.0001
High
0.00015
All
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and
populations, as such graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution.
This is an indicative tool that will however be of use to policy makers and
stakeholders.
61
Tool 11: Estimating the Health Effects of Ozone (O3)

This tool allows you to estimate the health effects of Ozone (O3) by demonstrating the
effect of Ozone concentrations on the urban population. It is based on a WHO
methodology for estimating air pollution health effects and can be applied by individual
cities for such estimations.
It will assist the working Groups in clarifying whether or not ozone is a major pollutant in
their own city. In the long run, this tool will be able to show the health benefits of
reducing ozone levels. In the short-term, it can be used to predict the beneficial outcome
of reducing ozone levels. The results can assist Working Groups in deciding whether or
not Ozone is a priority pollutant in their own cities, using different scenarios of doseresponse coefficients.

organized in two worksheets:
The first worksheet (Ozone Entry Sheet) allows you to enter data which are specific to
your local authority. It will immediately provide you with results, which are based on
central dose-response coefficients.
The second worksheet (Ozone Your City) contains the detailed calculation formulas. Here
calculations.
62
The results focus on adults. You need to insert the respective population ratio and the
average ratio of asthmatics.
Then, please fill in the total Ozone concentration four your city.
Open the second worksheet (Ozone Your City).
63
effect is being estimated. For example, if we want to know the number of people with eye
irritations we would place the percentage of the population above 18 years. Column D
shows the results for the three scenarios.
Some Remarks on the Formula

The main objective of the model is to show the effects of increasing/decreasing ozone
between ozone concentrations and health effects, the model works with high and low
estimates to indicate the likely ranges within which the actual damages are likely to fall.
The central estimate is the best estimate and is typically selected from the middle of the
range reported in the models examined. Therefore, this model must be applied to an
entire city. Applying this model to a portion of a city will greatly increase its margin of
error.
Manual Application
Working Groups can also use the table for manual calculations. The number of citizens
affected is a product of the population, concentration of lead, dose-response coefficient,
and the part of the population to be counted.
Formula:
number of citizens effected = population * concentration of lead * dose-response
coefficient * percentage of the population to be counted
64
Table 11.1 Table to Aid in Manual Calculations

Blank Sheet for Your City To Complete: Ozone
Population:
Concentration ppb
Dose-Response
Coefficients
Part of Population Number

to be Counted
Citizens
Effected
Hospital
Admissions
All
0.000038
Average 0.000077
High
Low
0.00012
of
Minor Restrictions All

in Activity
Low
0.0001
Average 0.34
High
0.000262
Respiratory
Symptoms
All
0.00005
Low
Average 0.5475
High
0.00015
Eye Irritations
Adults
Low
0.00005
Average 0.26
High
0.00015
Asthma
Exacerbation
Low
Asthmatic
Persons
0.00005
Average 0.6844
High
0.00015
***Disclaimer***
These results are approximations and may vary in different scenarios and
populations, as such graphs only give an indication of the seriousness of pollution.
This is an indicative tool that will however be of use to policy makers and
stakeholders.
Data for the health effects coefficients used in this tool were compiled from: Estimating the
Health Effects of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Application to Jakarta, # 1301 in Policy
Working Paper Series, The World Bank.
65
66
Tool 12: Measuring City Air Quality

Objectives for Monitoring
Measurement of ambient concentrations of pollution is an integral component of air
quality management. Air quality monitoring can provide information and help working
groups to clarify a number of air quality issues, such as
To ascertain likely consequences, chiefly health, of ambient exposure
To identify the contribution of specific sources/ activity sectors
To measure the spatial distribution of pollutants
To determine trends in concentrations of various pollutants
To ascertain compliance with air quality standards
To provide public information
Essential Components in Establishing an Air Quality Monitoring Programme
Selection of pollutants
Averaging times
Mobile and stationary sources
Monitoring techniques
Network design and citing of stations
Data collection and storage
Quality assurance
Financial and manpower requirements
Meteorological data needs
Techniques for Monitoring

There are four instrumental methods for measuring ambient air concentration:
Passive samplers,
Active samplers,
Continuous analyzers and
Remote sensors.
Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. A monitoring technique
may be assessed as most appropriate depending on the objective for which
measurements are to be taken, as well as the resources available. At present, no
methodology is appropriate for all circumstances and all requirements. State-of-the-art
continuous analyzers and remote sensors are able to provide considerable amounts of
raw data that can be used to produce excellent decision-relevant information. However,
these instruments are expensive to purchase, operate and maintain and require
considerable technical support. The problem is further exacerbated by the fact that skills
required to make maximum use of continuous data outputs are not always available,
particularly in developing countries. Consequently, the use of automated air quality
measurement networks is either not appropriate or cost-effective for most developing
countries.
67
Less sophisticated active and passive sampling techniques are not able to produce hourly
continuous data, but are very reliable. They also require considerably low level of
technical support than automated samplers. They are considerably cheaper to purchase,
operate and maintain. Passive and active sampling methodologies are able to provide
data to meet most monitoring objectives and are therefore more appropriate for most
countries. As long as the monitoring methodology is able to meet the objectives of the
AQM network, the technique adopted is not critical. The selection of equipment should
therefore be based upon the availability of resources (both human and financial) to
purchase and operate instruments most effectively.
Table 12.1 Instrumental Air Quality Monitoring Techniques
Method
Advantages
Disadvantages
Capital cost
per
sampler
Passive samplers
Very low cost and

simple
Unproven for some

pollutants
US$ 2 - 4
Useful for screening

and baseline studies
Integrated sample
Low cost
Integrated
samples
Collects an integrated sample

of pollutant through diffusion of
the pollutant along a path of air
within a tube with one closed
end where the gas is trapped
on an absorbent substance
which is subsequently
analyzed.
Active samplers
Collects an integrated sample
of pollutant by pumping air
through the sampler and
trapping the pollutant in a
physical or chemical collecting
medium that is subsequently
analyzed to determine quantity
present.
Automatic samplers
Uses a physical or chemical
property of the pollutant to
measure the concentration in
continuously collected samples.
Calibrations are performed
using a standard of known
concentration for comparison
Remote sensors
Determines the average
concentration of the pollutant
over a fixed path
spectroscopically.
Easy and reliable to

operate
Laboratory
analysis required
Labor intensive
Historical data set in

some cities
Laboratory
analysis required
Proven high
performance
Complex and
expensive
Continuous on-line
measurement
High skills required

to maintain and
operate
Low direct costs
US$ 2,0004,000
US$ 10,000
- 20,000
High recurrent
costs.
Provides path or
range resolved data
Useful for near
sources and for
vertical
measurements
Multi-component
Difficult to support
operate, calibrate
and validate
Not always
comparable with
fixed point
sampling analyzers
greater
than US$
200,000
68
measurements
Source: UNEP/WHO, 1994a
Table 12.2 Monitoring Methods for Various Air Pollutants
Pollutant
Monitoring
Method(s)
Brief Description of Method
Particulates
Hi-Volume
Sampler
Used for measuring TSP. Drawing air through a filter

collects the particulate matter. The concentration is then
determined from the mass collected. It is a laboratory
based, highly sophisticated method and with a sampling
period of 24 hours. It has a detection limit of about 5g/m3
Smoke Shade
Reflections
Method
Drawing air through a filter collects particulate matter.

Concentration is determined from light reflectance of the
darkened filter. It is a laboratory-based method with
sampling period of 24 hours. The detection limit is 5g/m3
Beta-Gauge
Method
Particulate is collected on high frequency glass fiber filter

tape, through which sample air is drawn. The filter tape
runs through a radioactive source and a detection device.
This analysis is semi-continuous. The monitoring is cyclic
and permits a time resolution of hours or even minutes. The
detection limit is 5g/m3
Chemiluminescence
Method
The analyzer measures the NO concentration of air. This is

determined by measuring the light emitted when NO is
reacted with the O3 that is generated within the instrument.
In order to determine the NO2 concentration in the air, the
NO2 is first thermally decomposed to NO. The concentration
of NO is then derived by comparing the reading for NO from
the primary sample with the reading for air containing NO
and decomposed NO2. It is a continuous automatic type of
analysis with high level of sophistication. Detection limit is
about 1g/m3
Christie
Arsenite
Method
In this method, NO2 is collected by bubbling air through a

sodium hydroxide-sodium arsenite solution to form a stable
solution of sodium nitrite. The nitrite ion produced during
sampling is reacted with color forming reagents. The
concentration of NO2 is then determined calorimetrically.
This analysis is laboratory based with a sampling period of
24 hours and of low sophistication. The detection limit is
about 2g/m3. It is low cost.
NO2
Diffusion tube
Method
This is a laboratory-based method with low sophistication in

which NO2 is diffused along a plastic tube, then absorbed
and converted to nitrite by triethanolamine. The NO2
concentration is then determined colorimetrically after the
nitrite has reacted with a color-forming reagent. The
sampling usually takes place over a seven to fourteen day
period, from which daily averages can be calculated. It has
a detection limit of about 2 g/m3 and is a low cost
method.
Differential
Optical
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
DOAS technique makes use of the fact that gases (e.g.

NO2) absorb light at precise wavelengths that are unique to
themselves. In operation, a beam of light known as
spectrum is transmitted through the atmosphere from a
source to a receptor. The concentration of a number of
gases can be determined by analysis of the spectrum of
light incident at the receptor. This involves comparison of
the intensity of light at that wavelength absorbed uniquely
by a specific gas (e.g. NO2) with the intensity of light
absorbed at a wavelength that is not absorbed by any gas.
This analysis is semi-continuous automatic and is highly
sophisticated. Data is integrated in five minutes and its
detection limit is 1g/m3
(DOAS)
SO2
69
Hydrogen
Peroxide
Acidimetric
and
Calorimetric
Methods
These are laboratory-based methods with low

sophistication. In the acidimetric method, SO2 is absorbed
in an oxidizing solution (e.g. dilute hydrogen peroxide,
H2O2) which converts it to H2SO4. The original
concentration of SO2 is then inferred by determining the
concentration of the free acid (H+ ion) by filtration or
electrically, by conductivity of pH measurements.
Alternatively, in the colorimetric method, the sulfate
concentration can be determined by reaction with a colorforming reagent, followed by spectrophotometric
measurement of the color or by ion chromatography. The
methods have a 24-hour sampling period that allows
calculation of averaging time of one day or greater and both
have a detection limit of 5g/m3.
Calorimetric
Pararosaniline
Method
In this method, air is bubbled through a solution of

dipotassium tetrachloromercurate. SO2 is continuously
absorbed to form the non-volatile
dichlorosulphitromercurate ion, which then reacts with
formaldehyde and bleached pararosaniline to form red
purple pararosaniline methyl sulphonic acid. The
concentration of SO2 is determined from the color intensity
of the dye, which is measured at a wavelength of 560nm.
This method is laboratory based with sampling period as
little as 30 minutes although 24 hours is commonly used.
Detection limit is 5g/m3.
O3
70
Gas Phase
Fluore-scence
Method
Pulsed ultra-violet light with a wavelength of 214nm is used

to irradiate the sample gas (air) flowing continuously
through an optical cell. SO2 molecules absorb the radiation
and remit part of the energy at a different wavelength. This
? florescence is then detected by a photomultiplier. SO2
has a florescence band centered near 340nm. The strength
of the electrical signal generated in the photomultiplier
indicates the concentration of the SO2 in the air sample.
The detection limit is 1g/m3
Flame
Photometric
Method
The SO2 content in the air can be determined by burning air

samples in hydrogen rich flame. Light emissions are
measured with a photomultiplier in a photometric detector.
The concentration of SO2 can be derived from the intensity
of light of the wavelength (394nm) characteristic of sulfur.
This method is highly sophisticated and has a detection limit
of 1g/m3
Ultra-violet
Photometry
Method
This technique is based on the fact that O3 absorbs ultraviolet radiation at 253.7nm. Sample air is drawn through an
absorption cell across the path of beam of ultra-violet light.
The concentration of O3 is determined from the degree of
absorption at 253.7nm. This instrument typically gives a
reading every 30 seconds and has a detection limit of
6g/m3
Cheminuluminescence
Method
Sample air is mixed with ethylene (supplied from a cylinder)

in flow cell at atmospheric pressure. The two gases react
rapidly with accompanying emissions in the 350 to 600nm
wavelength regions. These emissions are monitored with a
sensitive photomultiplier and the concentration of O3 is
inferred from the intensity of the signal. The detection limit
is about 2g/m3
Differential
Optical
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
The DOAS technique makes use of the fact that gases e.g.
O3 absorb light at precise wavelengths which are unique to
themselves. In operation, a beam of light with a known
spectrum is transmitted through the atmosphere from a
source to a receptor. The concentration of a number of
gases can be determined by analysis of the spectrum of
by a specific gas (e.g. O3) with the intensity of light at a
wavelength that is not absorbed by any gas. The data is
integrated over a period of 5 minutes. This method has a
detection limit of 3g/m3
(DOAS)
CO
VOC
Benzene
71
Infra-red
Absorption
Method
This technique is based on the fact that CO absorbs light at

a characteristic wavelength (4.67nm) in the infrared
spectrum. When the air sample is irradiated with such light,
the CO concentration can be determined from the extent to
which the sample absorbs the radiation. There are two main
variants in analyzer design, referred to as the nondispersive infrared and gas filter correlation techniques. The
detection limit is less 0.5mg/m3
Electrochemical Cell
Method
The concentration of CO is determined electronically during

the oxidation of CO to CO2. It has detection limit of less
that 0.5mg/m3
Total
Hydrocarbon/
Non-methane
Hydrocarbon
Analyzer
Method
Hydrogen is mixed with the sample air and combusted. An

electric current produced from charged ions in the flame
indicates the total hydrocarbon content of the air. The
methane content can be determined by catalytically
decomposing all other hydrocarbons before measurement.
The non-methane hydrocarbon content can be inferred by
subtracting the methane value from the total hydrocarbon
value. The method has a detection limit of 5g/m3
Specific
Hydrocarbons/
Halocarbons/
Oxygenates
Method
Specific compounds are separated by gas chromatography

and detected individually by an appropriate method (i.e
flame ionization, electron capture). The analyses are cyclic
and generally have a period of about one-hour. The
detection limit for an individual compound is less than
1g/m3
Gas
Chromatography
Method
Benzene is collected from ambient air on a porous polymer

adsorbent. It is then thermally desorbed into a gas
chromatography, separated and measured using a flame or
photo- ionization detector. The analysis is generally
laboratory based and the collection by adsorption usually
takes place over a period of about one-hour. It has a
detection limit of less than 0.1g/m3
Differential
Optical
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
The DOAS technique makes use of the fact that gases e.g.
benzene absorb light at precise wavelengths which are
unique to themselves. In operation, a beam of light with a
known spectrum is transmitted through the atmosphere
from a source to a receptor. The concentration of a number
of gases can be determined by analysis of the spectrum of
by a specific gas (e.g. benzene) with the intensity of light at
a wavelength that is not absorbed by any gas. The data is
integrated over a period of 5 minutes. This method has a
detection limit of 5g/m3
72
PAH
High
Performance
Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC)
Method
PAH are collected on filters (particulate PAH) followed by

polymeric adsorption (gaseous PAH). Both are the extracted
and partitioned chromatographically using high performance
liquid chromatography. The individual PAHs are detected
using florescence or ultra-violet absorption collection
techniques. This method is laboratory based and the
sampling period is about 24 hours. The detection limit
depends upon the particular compound, but generally is less
than 0.1g/m3
Lead &
Cadmium
Atomic
Absorption
Spectroscopy
Method
Lead and Cadmium particles are collected on filters, and

then extracted into strong acid solution and analyzed by
atomic absorption spectroscopy. (The metal ions in the
solution can be atomized electrothermally or by chemical
reduction in a flame, prior to spectroscopic analysis). This
method is laboratory based and has a detection limit of
about 0.01g/m3 for lead and 0.001g/m3 for cadmium.
X-Ray
Fluorescence
Method
Drawing air through filter paper collects samples. After

preparation, the samples are placed in an X-ray
Spectrometer. When irradiated with X-ray, metal pollutants
absorb energy and then re-emit the energy at wavelengths
characteristic of the individual metals. The metal
concentrations are determined from the intensity of
secondary X-rays emitted at these characteristic
wavelengths, as observed with a spectrometer. The method
is laboratory based with a sampling period of 24 hours.
Source: World Bank-URBAIR, 1997
73
Tool 13: Calculating Air Pollution Near Roads Using CARInternational Model
CAR International is a simple to use air quality dispersion model. This model has been
developed by the Dutch Institute Environmental, Energy and Process Innovation (TNO) in
cooperation with the Netherlands National Institute of Public Health and Environmental
Protection (RIVM). Although CAR International is not supported at the moment it is still
helpful in calculating concentrations of a number of air pollutants such as:
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
carbon dioxide (CO)
benzene
lead
black smoke
The model, CAR International, is contained in this CD-ROM. Please read the instructions
for installation and the guidance notes for Car International.
Results of CAR International

The level of pollution of a given pollutant near roads is calculated at a distance to the
road axis ranging from 5 to 30 meters. The following concentrations of the abovementioned three pollutants can be calculated with CAR International:
Average yearly concentration in g/m3
98 percentile of average concentrations over 1 hour in g/m3
98 percentile of average concentrations over 8 hours in g/m3
98 percentile of average concentrations over 24 hours in g/m3
Average annual and peak concentrations of CO, NO2 and benzene can subsequently be
compared with the (WHO) air quality guidelines in order to identify potential air pollution
problems.
The model
This version of the CAR International model requires Microsoft Windows operating system
(95, 98, 2000, XP).
Please extract the car_int.zip file and click on start.bat. The following window will open.
Table 12.1 Entry pages of Car International
74
75
Input Data:
The model is easy to use, as long as the necessary parameters and input data are
available. It requires few data, as follows:
Table 12.2 Factors That Users Can Change
PARAMETER
UNIT
Emission Factors for CO, NOx and Benzene
g/m/s
Fraction of Directly emitted NO2
---
City/ Regional Background Concentration (CO, NO2 and Benzene)
g/m3
Yearly average wind speed (at 10 meters height)
m/s
76
Table 12.2 above presents those factors that users can change. These factors have been
fixed based on an average Dutch situation. In case of developing countries, the factors
have to be adopted locally, especially the emission factors. However the program as we
have received it from RIVM has one computer mistake - it is not possible to adapt the
emission factors (see above at parameters given) for the Dutch situation to that of the
situation in the developing city. Cities applying this model could solve this problem with a
trick. For example, the average bus emission factor of NOx in, let us say, Bombay is 2
g/vehicle/km, whereas in the Netherlands, it is 0.8 g/vehicle/km. If, the number of
vehicles passing in a street is 500, one could adjust the number of vehicles in the street
in order to correct the fact that the emission factors cannot be changed. Therefore, in this
example, the number of vehicles as input data (of course not for real) is 2/0.8 x 500.
The following tables give the necessary parameters that have to be fed into the model in
order to calculate the pollutant concentrations.
Given below are the specifications:

Speed Types: CAR International uses four speed types
Type
Average
(Km/h)
Speed
Description
100
Representative for the average speed of vehicles in a

roadway
44
Representative for the average speed of vehicles on a road

with a maximum speed of 70 km/h
77
22
Representative of the average speed of city traffic
13
Representative of the average of stagnating traffic, due to

stopping for traffic lights or road crossings
Tree Factor: The tree factor represents the influence of trees on the dispersion of air
pollutants. There are three options described as below:
Value
Description
1.00
Very few or no trees on either side of the road
1.25
Trees on one side of the street
1.50
Trees on both sides of the road, with the tops touching

each other
Road Types: CAR International Distinguishes between five road types

Type
Description
A road through an open field lined with very few or no buildings within a
distance of 100m from the traffic lanes
3a
Roads lined with buildings on both sides. The buildings are more than 3m high
and the distance between them and the center of the carriageway is less than
3 times the height of the buildings
3b
Roads with buildings on both sides. The buildings are more than 3m high and
the distance between them and the carriageway center is less than 1.5 times
the height of the buildings
Roads lined with buildings on one side. The buildings are more than 3m high
and the distance between them and the road axis is less than 3 times the
height of the buildings
All roads differing from types 1, 3a, 3b or 4
78
Table 12.3 Results
The TNO Environmental Sciences developed the CAR International computer programme.
For further information on this programme, please contact TNO-MEP, Department of
Environmental Quality, P.O Box 6011, 2600 JA Delft, The Netherlands. Tel +31-152696035, fax +31-15- 2616812, Email: O.Weinhold@mep.tno.nl
Using the Spreadsheet

The following example from Dar es Salaam is based on a speadsheet which uses the
same parameters as the above model. Air pollution concentrations for five streets in Dar
es Salaam are calculated:
Getting the Data of Dar Es Salaam as Input Data For CAR INTERNATIONAL (like number
of cars passing and the average emission factors)
Illustrating an easy way of adapting CAR International to local situation by changing the
number of vehicles instead of the emission factors (as these are default). The input data
of that sheet have been used in CAR International (for example in Dar es Salaam).
79
80
Tool 14: Using IMMIS LUFT and CALINE Models to Assess

Air Quality Pollution due to Traffic
The quickest and most worthwhile method of obtaining further information about air
pollution by traffic is generally to use dispersion calculations with appropriate models. As
the highest impact on health is expected in city streets, especially in street canyons, the
models IMMIS-Luft or CALINE are recommended. These use the relevant parts of
emission models and meteorological statistics to calculate annual means and 98
percentile values.
1. IMMIS LUFT Model

IVU Umwelt GmbH offers a comprehensive model set to evaluate traffic induced air and
noise pollution. The programme system IMMIS
consists of the following software
packages:
IMMISem - developed to calculate traffic-induced emissions
IMMISnet - a Gaussian multi-source dispersion model is used to calculate and represent
the spatial extent of background level concentration of air pollution
IMMISluft (air) - is a Screening program for the evaluation of air pollution in city streets
IMMIScpb - for the calculation of complex individual case studies and short term
calculations of air pollutant's transmission in street canyons
IMMISlrm (noise) - for the estimation of noise pollutions in street canyons
IMMISmap und IMMISarc - the integration of the IMMIS modules into the geographical
information systems (GIS) MapInfo and ArcView, respectively
The IMMIS products are mostly used in German cities and increasingly applied in other
European countries. The prices of the products range between EURO 2500 (for IMMIS
Luft) up to EURO 11200 for the entire suite (see price list).
More information can be obtained at http://www.immis.de/
IMMIS - Luft, (Luft is the German word for air) is the most relevant model in the
context of urban environmental planning and management. It designed to calculate the
annual mean value of benzene and elemental carbon as well as the 98 percentile value of
nitrogen dioxide. IMMIS-Luft only requires relatively few input data.
Input Data
The description of this model uses data from Berlin, Germany.
a)
Type of Road
IMMIS-Luft is designed to calculate the concentration of pollutants in street canyons with

uninterrupted buildings on both sides. a porosity factor can be entered to take account of
gaps between buildings. The concentration calculated falls rapidly as the porosity of the
street increases. The following values are needed for the calculations:
width of the street canyon (in meters)
height of the buildings lining it (in meters)
porosity (0 to 90%)
81
In Berlin estimates for the inner city are mainly based on a building height of 22 m. The
width of the street canyon and the porosity are variable.
(b)
Calculation Site
The characteristic values for air quality are determined using the sum of concentration
values at fixed sites on both sides of the street canyon. They are assumed to be at a
height of 1.5m and a distance of 1.5m from the facades of the buildings.
Taking the most common wind direction in Berlin (12%N, 22%E, 26% S and 40% W) into
account, it can be expected that the concentrations would systematically be about 10%
higher on the climatically unfavorable sides of roads and about 10% lower on the
climatically favorable sides of roads than the values determined using IMMIS-Luft. Other
configurations can be pre-set by the supplier at the request of the user.
(c)
Emissions
IMMIS-Luft requires the following input data:
Mean daily volume of traffic (the number of motor vehicles per day),
Proportion of heavy duty vehicles in the mean daily volume of traffic
Proportion of vehicles with catalytic converters (closed-loop catalytic converters

and closed tank ventilation),
Proportion of diesel vehicles,
Proportion of light duty vehicles,
Proportion of time with slow traffic as a percentage (the proportion of time during
which traffic is slow is used in the programme to undertake a linear interpolation
of the emission factors between the values for slow traffic, corresponding to a
driving speed of 19 km/h, and flowing traffic, corresponding to a driving speed of
34 km/h),
Set of emission factors for the four pollutants total nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon
monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC) and particulates (TSP) divided
into the following types of vehicle: passenger car with a combustion engine and no
emission reduction technology, passenger car with closed-loop catalytic converter,
passenger car with diesel engine, night duty vehicles and heavy duty vehicles, and
three representative driving speeds of 19 km/h, 34 km/h and 78 km/h.
To determine the benzene concentration, it is assumed that benzene accounts for 6% of

the total VOC. To determine the nitrogen dioxide concentration it is assumed that it
accounts for 7% of the total nitrogen oxides. The emission factors are installed by the
supplier on the basis of information provided by the user. The user can only change them
by by-passing the interface.
(d)
Meteorology
The average wind speed in a built-up area at a height of 10 meters above the buildings
must be given as a characteristic value for the weather. In dense urban areas on flat land
this value is about 75% of the wind speed measured at 10 m above the ground in an
open place or airport [Toen e.a., 1987, European Wind Atlas].
For further information, contact;
82
IVU Gesellschaft fr Informatik, Verkehr und Umweltplanung mbH, Burgweg 10, D 79350 Sexau, Germany. Tel: +49 (0) 7641 530 46, Fax: +49 (0) 7641 530 47
83
2. CALINE Model
CALINE is a line dispersion model developed by the state of California, Department of
Transport. CALINE 4 (Caltrans, 1989) is a dispersion model that predicts carbon
monoxide (CO) impacts near roadways. Its purpose is to help planners protect public
health from the adverse effects of excessive CO exposure. CALINE 4 is a simple line
source Gaussian plume dispersion model. The user defines the proposed roadway
geometry, worst-case meteorological parameters, anticipated traffic volumes, and
receptor positions. The user must also define CO emission factors for each roadway link.
CO emission factors should be generated with the California Air Resources Boards
EMFAC7f model or CT-EMFAC1, which was adapted from EMFAC7f by Caltrans to be easier
to use. (Note that CT-EMFAC modeling requires a similar level of user-effort as CL4.)
Note: The Caltrans publication, Transportation Project-Level Carbon Monoxide Protocol
(CO Protocol) (Garza et al., 1997), recommends the use of CALINE 4 when a proposed
transportation project fails an initial screening analysis, and therefore, requires a more
detailed analysis.
The model is designed to simulate the profile of concentrations on the downwind side of
roads in areas where airflow is not affected by buildings lining the street like a canyon.
The concentration patterns up to 150m from the road are computed for specified
short-term meteorological conditions. The wind can blow across or along the street, or at
any angle to the street. For comparison with criteria for yearly means and percentiles of
concentrations, climatological information of the combination of wind direction, wind
speed, stability and mixing height must be provided. The user has to combine this with
adequately designed sets of modeled concentrations to compile the characteristic yearly
values of air pollution. As CALINE does not take into account the effects of rotating wind
vortices in street canyons, which tend to produce higher concentrations than in open
areas, it should be used carefully in built-up areas.
CL4 is a graphical windows-based user interface, designed to ease data entry and
increase the on-line help capabilities of CALINE4. The CL4 setup program is self-contained
with both programs (the CL4 interface and the CALINE4 dispersion model), so the user
only needs to complete a single installation step. The original CALINE4 executable files
are copied to the CL4 program directory.
Please refer to the CALINE 4 manual which is part of this CD.
84
85
Tool 15: Rapid Inventory Assessment Technique (RIAS): A

Decision Support Tool for Selecting Options to Address
Traffic Related Air Pollution
This tool uses the principle of Rapid Inventory Assessment Technique (RIAS) to calculate
emissions and to evaluate the expected environmental improvement of different response
options. RIAS is designed to assess the nature and severity of pollution problems and to
predict the impact of control measures on future situations. RIAS facilitates the
examination of all available control options. RIAS evaluates the effectiveness and costs of
control options. It is a quick method to use to calculate emissions from the pollution
sectors. For Working Groups, RIAS will be instrumental in clarifying and prioritizing air
quality issues by analyzing the existing problems and identifying the most critical ones.
RIAS was developed by the WHO and is well explained further in WHOs Motor Vehicle Air
Pollution: Teachers Guide - One week Workshop which is found in the WHOs CD-ROM
and also as a WHO document reference WHO/EHG/96.16.
General Principle of RIAS
Emissions from different sources are calculated by multiplying the emission factors by the
specific numbers or volumes of sources:
EMISSION TO AIR = EMISSION FACTOR * VOLUME
Activity Sector Causing Emissions to Air
Where:
EMISSION FACTOR
VOLUME
Emission per Unit

Total Amount of Unit
How to do this is explained in the following case example:

Example: The Case of Santiago, Chile:
Calculating the total exhaust emission in Santiago from total suspended particulates (SPM)
created from cars made between 1978 and 1980. This example is elaborated on page 76 of
the teachers guide for motor vehicle air pollution.
Emission factor =
Volume
0.07 kg SPM per 1000km (page 3-49)
= In Santiago, there are about 12,400 of the above mentioned cars; the
Annual distance driven averages 12,000 kilometers per vehicle.
Total Emission =
0.07/1000 * 12,400 * 12,000 = 10,400 kg/year = 12 ton SPM/year
86
***Conversion tip calculate 1.1 * 1000kg of emissions to get tons/year
For clearer understanding on the use of RIAS in selecting response options to trafficrelated air pollution, a case study of Chennai, India is presented in this tool.
How to use RIAS for the selection of appropriate response options to address
traffic related air pollution: The case of Chennai India
Chennai is a city with a relatively comprehensive ambient air monitoring network
operating since more than 30 years. This field monitoring provides information on the
urban air quality or more specifically, on the concentrations of the most common air
pollutants shown in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1. Concentrations of Air Pollutants in Chennai in Comparison with the Air Quality
Standards (Red numbers exceed standards)
Air Quality Standards
of Air Pollutants in
3
g/m
Measured
Concentrations
3
Chennai in g/m
WHO
Indian
Standards
Dust (SPM)
60 -90
200
150
118
78
274 -1470
Sulfur Dioxide
50
80
10
Nitrogen Dioxide
---
100
40
47
31
Ozone
150 -200
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons
Carbon Monoxide
no monitoring data
0.01
70000
R =
Residential Areas
I=
Industrial and mixed zones
C =
Commercial Areas
S=
Near streets
in
0.042
70000
1370080200
*Source: UNEP/WHO 96, and transport proposition paper for SCP consultation)
As shown in the table, the concentrations of dust, carbon monoxide, and polyaromatic
hydrocarbons far exceed both the Indian and WHO guidelines. Policy should focus on
these three pollutants. In the case of dust (SPM) and carbon monoxide (CO), two very
serious air pollutants, it is clear that policy should focus on transport management
because the highest concentrations have been measured near streets.
Given such information, the next step should be to determine what type of transport
management strategies would be effective in addressing air pollution and which motor
87
vehicles: scooters, buses, or cars are responsible for the high concentrations of dust, CO,
and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Information from relevant sources such as UNEP and the
Sustainable Chennai Project indicate that Chennai has not carried out emission
assessments of the activity sectors. Therefore, the exact link between the degraded air
quality and the responsible polluting activities is missing.
As mentioned earlier, RIAS is a tool to carry out emission assessments for all kinds of
activity sectors such as industries, households, and the transport sector. This case study
will show how to apply RIAS for the evaluation of different transport management
strategies. The following steps were executed:
Step 1: Selecting the air emission factors from the RIAS tables that correspond with the
cars in the individual city
Step 2: Converting the emission factors into an appropriate unit such as emissions per
trip per person.
Step 3: Calculating the total emissions by multiplying the unit by the total number of
trips made.
Step 4: Assessing the emission reduction effects of different response options by
adapting the emission factors or the total number of trips made.
Step 1:
The RIAS reports contain tables that provide an overview of the emission factors of all
types and ages of vehicles. The user should select those emission factors that correspond
to the average type of vehicles in the individual city. The emission factors are expressed
in i.) grams of air pollutant per km driven with a specific vehicle or in ii.) grams of air
pollutant per kg of fuel consumed. In Table 15.2, emission factors have been selected
that correspond to the transport modes used in Chennai.
Table 15.2: Information on Transport Modes in Chennai
TRANSPORT MODE
EMISSION
FACTOR
IN
GRAM
AIR
POLLUTANT PER KM
DRIVEN
TRIPS IN MILLION IN
1992
AVERAGE NUMBER
OF
PEOPLE
PER
TRANSPORT MODE;
THE
OCCUPANCY
RATE
SPM
CO
Buses
1.4
5.3
2.84
60
Trucks
1.6
7.3
0.03
Car/Taxi
0.07
23.4
0.11
Scooters
0.12
10
0.52
Autorickshaw
0.12
22
0.16
Bicycle
1.06
Cycle rickshaw
0.24
Walk
2.21
TOTAL
88
7.45 (5.8 million people

making 1.3 trip per day;
5.88 trip per household)
The Sustainable Chennai Projects City Consultation Proposition Paper on reduction of

congestion on roads in Chennai Metropolitan area analyzed a number of transport and
traffic factors. The following findings were used to select the appropriate emission factors
in the RIAS tables:
The average travel speed in the city is 25 km / hour
All buses and trucks are powered by heavy duty diesel
Average production year of the cars is between 1985-1992, and the average
engines are smaller than 1400cc
The petrol is of poor quality
The two wheelers have engines smaller than 50cc, and are two stroke
The motorized rickshaws have engines bigger than 50cc, and are also 2 stroke.
Step 2:
Subsequently, the emission factors per km driven were converted into emissions per trip
per person per transport mode (ETP) by using the information contained in Table 15.2.
The results are shown in Figure 15. 2.
ETP = (EF per Transport Mode * Average Length of Trip)
Average Number of Persons per Transport Mode
A common assumption is average trip of 8km.
89
Figure 2 Relative emissions per trip per person per

transport mode (ETP) in Chennai
walk
cycle rickshaws
carbon monoxide
bicycle
SPM (dust)
autorickshaw
scooters
car/taxi
buses
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
The following conclusions can be drawn from Figure 15.2:

Two-wheelers and auto-rickshaws cause the highest SPM (dust) emissions per trip per
person
Buses are relatively clean, as the carbon monoxide emissions per trip per person are
negligible and the dust emissions are only one-fifth of those of scooters. A requirement is
that the buses are fully occupied.
Cars, auto-rickshaws and two-wheelers cause relatively high carbon monoxide emissions
per trip.
Step 3:
The total daily emissions of SPM and carbon monoxide can subsequently be calculated by
multiplying the ETP by the number of daily trips per transport mode in Chennai (see
Figures 15.3 and 15.4). The number of daily trips in million are given in Table 15.2. The
table shows that most passengers still travel by buses. Buses make about 25 times as
many trips than private cars and taxis and 5 times more than scooters.
90
Figure 15.3 Total SPM Daily Emissions of Different Transport Modes in Chennai
TOTAL
autorickshaw
scooters
car/taxi
trucks
buses
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
in KG
Figure 15.4 Total CO Daily Emissions of Different Transport Modes in Madras

TOTAL
Auto Rickshaws
Scooters
Car Taxis
Good Vehicles
Buses
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
in KG
Several conclusions can be drawn from Figures 15.3 and 15.4:
Cars are not the main polluters in Chennai
Car ownership is low
In the case of SPM, scooters emit 3 times more pollution per trip per person than
cars
Scooters are by far the main contributors to the carbon monoxide problem
Scooters and buses are the main contributors to the SPM emissions in Chennai
(without taking industries and households into account). However, on a per trip
per passenger, the two-wheeler emits about 5 times as much as a bus. Because
91
most passengers still travel by bus, the urban SPM emissions of two-wheelers do
not exceed those of buses. This can change quickly because many passengers
have shifted to two-wheelers and the number of trips is increasing at 10% per
year. The underlying reasons for this are because two-wheelers have become
affordable and because the people are annoyed by overcrowded buses and long
travel time
Trucks transporting goods are also substantial SPM polluters
Step 4:
Based on the information collected above, the cost-effectiveness of response options can
be evaluated with RIAS by adapting the volume (or the emission factors) of the polluting
activities.
Appropriate Response Options and Their Impact on Urban Air Quality.
Measure 1: Prevent trucks from passing through the city center by re-routing them. As
the contribution of trucks to the total SPM emissions is 20%, the maximum SPM
reduction will be about 20% (see figure 15.5).
Measure 2: Set up efficient maintenance programs for motorized vehicles. If all motorized
vehicles are better maintained, the overall SPM emission reduction can be about 20%
(see figure 14.5). The carbon monoxide emission reduction per scooter can be about 2030%. As the contribution of all scooters to the carbon monoxide pollution is 60%, better
maintenance of these scooters could result in a total emission reduction of 0.2 - 0.3 *
60%, which is about 12% to 18%.
Example Quezon City, Philippines
An example on this measure is from Quezon City, Philippines, where a successful
Auto Anti-Smoke Campaign began in 1993. The first phase of 6 months consisted
of a public education program about the health effects of pollution, and the need to
reduce auto emissions. During the second phase, two teams tested about 200
vehicles on the street daily. If vehicles did not pass the tests, licenses and
registrations were taken away and the owners were given 24 hours to have their
vehicles fixed. More than 95% of vehicles passed the second test.
Measure 3: Replace heavy diesel buses with gas buses. This has been done successfully
on other Indian cities, such as Delhi.
Measure 4: Increase the purchase taxes on scooters without clean engine technology. It
is difficult to assess in advance whether this will reduce the purchase of scooters.
However, the funds generated can be used for pollution control measures. Also, the
conversion of scooter to CNG has been successfully demonstrated in other cities.
Figure 15. 5. The Expected Emission Reduction after Implementing Transport ResponseOptions for
Chennai (Chennai)
92
Conclusion
RIAS is a good tool to identify the main polluting activity sectors. The quantification of
their contribution to urban air pollution facilitates the justification of the polluters pays
principle.
RIAS:
Can be used to support the implementation of existing emission standards and

identification of air pollution problems requiring regulation
Can be used to estimate the effectiveness of alternative control measures
Is easy to use and quick (the calculations can be done by computer containing
spreadsheet software such as lotus or excel)
Can serve as a database to record and keep track of the emissions of activity
sectors
Is flexible (it can easily be adapted to local circumstances and different geographic
areas within the city)
Results may be presented in city maps and clear figures which will facilitate
understanding among stakeholders about the development-environment
interaction
Because of the above mentioned advantages RIAS can support the design of various
environmental pollution prevention oriented strategies, e.g., Environmental Impact
Assessments, Strategic Urban Development Plans, and Environmental Management
Information Systems.
Those readers who wish to experiment with the calculation sheets can access the
spreadsheet on this CD. Please note that those sheets are not elaborated tools but
provide you ideas in how to perform the calculations of the charts on this page.
93
Tool 16: Calculating Air Pollution near Industrial Activities

This tool will help the city to set priorities among air pollution problems caused by
industries. It consists of a simple table to calculate air pollution at a certain distances
from industrial activities. The method of application is described in six steps below.
Based on this tool, SCP has developed a Spreadsheet to calculate the air pollution caused
by all emitting factories in Dar es Salaam (about 35 factories) and the distance from the
chimney where the highest concentrations could be expected. This spreadsheet is
adaptable to allow cities in developing countries to apply this spreadsheet for their own
situations.
The Method:
STEP 1: Collect the annual emission, the stack height, the heat content, and the amount
of working hours per year of each factory.
STEP 2: Choose the appropriate correlation factor in the table below:
Table 15.1: Maximum Concentration (in mg/m3) of an Inert Pollutant near an Industrial
Source with an Emission of 1 kg/hour, Characterized by Stack Height H (in meters) and
Heat Content W (in MW)
Distance
from Source
Concentration
0-5 m, 0 Mw
100
18
5-15 m, 0 Mw
100
13
5-15 m, 1 Mw
100
15-40 m, 0 Mw
H (m), W (Mw)
Distance
Concentration
From Source
35
100
35
19
1.9
35
3.33
100
1.4
35
2.22
15-40 m, 5 Mw
100
0.33
35
0.55
40-70 m, 0 Mw
100
0.22
70
0.31
40-70 m, 10 Mw
600
0.033
70-215 m, 0 Mw
600
0.031
70-215m, 10 Mw
1600
0.008
94
*** The data in italics is outside the validity area of the model because the model is not
accurate within 100 m of the source. However, it still gives a rough indication of the
expected concentrations.
The correlation factors was calculated with the Operational Atmospheric Transport Model
(OPS), a dispersion model for industrial sources developed by the Dutch National Institute
of Public Health and Environment (RIVM). The correlation factors are based on the
general Dutch situation. This means a wind speed of 4 m/s and a south to west wind
direction for about 40% of the time. During the rest of the time, the wind directions are
equally divided.
If the wind speed and directions in your city is not completely different, this table will
give a good indication of the enhanced concentrations of pollutants near industrial
activities. If the wind speed in a specific city is very different, one must make an
assumption about whether the occurring concentrations will be higher or lower. This
method will give developing countries a good indication of pollution dispersion.
STEP 3: Calculate the concentration based on the annual emission and the amount of
working hours of each factory.
STEP 4: The above calculations are based on the assumption that the wind speed is
4m/sec, and about 40% of wind flows from the southwest. Assess whether the
concentrations will be higher or lower in your individual city.
STEP 5: Compare the concentration to the (WHO) air quality guidelines for annual mean
SPM concentrations (of 60-90 g/m3 ).
STEP 6: Assess the extensiveness of the areas, where the air quality guidelines are
exceeded. The table gives factors to make rough assumptions about the surface size
where guidelines are being exceeded. The Dar es Salaam example will give an example of
how to use the table.
Box C.16.a City Example: A Cement Factory in Dar es Salaam
95
Step 1:
The following data were collected in Dar es Salaam:
annual emission of the cement factory:
the chimney height: 75 meters
the heat content: 0 MW (own estimation)
106,000 ton dust (SPM)
Step 2:
See the correlation factor in the table for 70 210 m and 0 MW. The maximum
concentration will be found around 600m from the source, and the concentration will be
0.03 g/m3 per 1kg SPM/hour.
Step 3:
0.031 g/m3 per 1 kg SPM/hour is the same as:
(0.031/8760)*106,000*1000=375 g/m3 per 106,000 ton SPM/year
Step 4:
The average wind speed in Dar is about 5 to 8 m/sec. Since the city is situated near the
coast, the dispersion conditions will be better than average. Therefore, it is expected that
96
the concentrations due to the emissions of the cement factory will be somewhat lower
than the calculated 375 ug SPM/m3. We assume that it will be about 300-350 g/m3 .
Step 5:
The emissions of the cement factory lead to a serious SPM problem in the city. The
average calculated concentration at 600m from the source does exceed the guideline
(200- 300 g/m3 versus the guideline of 60-90 g/m3 (WHO) or 200 g/m3 (Indian)). In all
probability, the concentrations will exceed the WHO guidelines in a large area around the
cement factory, especially if other sources, e.g., transport, will further increase the SPM
concentrations.
Step 6:
As calculated in steps 1 to 5, the average calculated concentration at 600m from the
source is seriously exceeding the guideline. Therefore at least 50% emission reduction is
necessary to reduce the concentrations to the guideline level.
The table in step 6 shows that about 4,440,000 m2 = 4.44 km2 around the factory will
exceed the guideline (see the factor in the table at a chimney height of 100m, and a
needed emission reduction of at least 50%).
***A spreadsheet with the example of Dar es Salaam City has been included for easy
adoption by the cities.
97
Tool 17: Decision Support System for Industrial Pollution

Control (DSS/IPC)
Description of DSS/IPC
The Decision Support System for Industrial Pollution Control (DSS/IPC) is useful software
to set priorities among all industrial air emissions and to evaluate pollution control
measures. The DSS/IPC contains databases with industrial emission factors for air and
water. It also summarizes the emissions per production unit for each pollution control
technology. The software allows the cities to complete a cost analysis that can be used to
evaluate the different response options by including the cost in US dollars for each
response option.
DSS/IPC allows emissions assessment to be done for over 300 pollutants including rare
toxic substances emitted by specific industrial branches. The model contains a list of air
quality guidelines and the facility for priority screening. It has the capability for
comparative geographic analysis of emissions and ambient air concentrations.
To start using the software, the city must determine the specific area to apply the
system. Depending on the meteorological conditions and the amount of polluting
activities, the average air pollutant concentrations are calculated. This can then be
compared with the air quality guidelines.
Potential Applications of DSS/IPC
To serve as a database to record and keep track of industrial environmental data
The system was developed to assist environmental managers in making decision

on pollution control in their communities.
To be useful where no monitoring data and emissions assessments exits or where

data and assessments are too costly to obtain.
The system includes an extensive database on which a preliminary analysis of the

local situation can be performed.
To support regulatory control/enforcement of existing emissions and ambient

standards and/or the identification of air pollution problems requiring regulation.
To support the design of environmental pollution oriented strategies (e.g.

Environmental Impact Assessment, Land Use Planning and Environmental
Sensitive Area Management).
To facilitate understanding among non-specialists about the cause-effect links

between economic activity and their environmental and health effects; as well as
the potential economic impact of environmental policies on industrial activity in a
given area.
Please note: the software has not been updated and the authors do not release
it prior to update and validation.
98
Tool 18: Assessing Indoor Air Pollution

This tool is based on the indoor air pollution database for China prepared by J.E Sinton
and K.R. Smith and H. Hansheng. The original database itself is included in the CD-Rom
Healthy Cities Air Management of WHO.
For further information, journalists can contact the Office of the Spokesperson, WHO,
Geneva. Tel: (+41 22) 791 2599. Fax: (+41 22) 791 4858. E-mail: mailto:info@who.int.
All WHO Press Releases, Fact Sheets, as well as other information on this subject can be
obtained via the WHO home page http://www.who.int/peh/
The purpose of the Indoor Air Pollution and Exposure Database is to provide the scientific
community with a concise overview of measured household indoor air pollution levels in
about 250 communities extracted from 71 studies published between 1968 and 2002.
This working database is structured so that the independent interviewer can extract and
analyze findings within and across studies. This database includes publications with
measurements in all developing countries except those before 1995 already found in the
China Database - see below. The database has been prepared by Sumeet Saksena and
Lisa Thompson, under the supervision of Kirk R. Smith and was partly supported by the
World Health Organization and the Fogarty International Center. This CD-ROM contains
two versions of it in MS ACCESS format.
An explanation is given below on how the database can be used to roughly assess indoor
air pollution. In other words, it illustrates how the information of the database for China
can be extrapolated and used for similar situations in other cities within other countries.
The assessed concentrations could subsequently be compared to the air quality guidelines
to assess the extent to which indoor air pollution affects human health in the particular
city.
The Database
From the database, one can obtain a rough idea of the ranges of pollutant levels to which
Chinese are exposed, as well as the importance of various factors, such as location,
season and fuel type. The database cites over 110 papers published between 1980 and
1984 in Chinese journals and some in Western scientific journals. It gives all the
measured concentrations and is organized on the basis of:
(i) pollutants (particulates, SO2, CO, NOx and BaP);
(ii) Fuel type (coal, gas and biomass); and
(iii) Location (urban and rural)
Furthermore, a lot of additional information about each study is also included.
The Tables
As studying the database takes an appreciable amount of time, the information contained
therein has been simplified here by calculating the average concentrations per pollutant,
location and fuel type of all the measurements included in the database. The average
concentrations have been included in the tables below together with the total number of
measurements. In cases where there are many measurements, one could expect that the
average outcome is more reliable. The results are discussed per table. These tables also
99
contain an overview of the air quality guidelines of both WHO and China. The Chinese
guidelines are divided in three classes as follows:
Class 1:
Tourist, historical and conservation areas
Class 2:
Residential, urban and rural areas
Class 3:
Industry areas and heavy traffic areas
As indoor air pollution takes place in residential areas where citizens get directly exposed,
Class 2 contains the most appropriate guidelines to compare the measured
concentrations with.
Table 18.1 below illustrates that burning coal indoor leads to serious SO2 concentrations.
All guidelines are exceeded, both in the urban and in the rural areas. This table only gives
a rough average indication because different sulfur contents in coal can change the
concentrations substantially.
Using gas instead of coal can solve the problem as the WHO and China Class II guidelines
are not exceeded. Biomass is not as bad as coal but it still impacts on human health as
the WHO guidelines are exceeded by a factor of 4.
Table 18.1 SO2
SULFUR DIOXIDE (mg/m3)
Coal &
Mixed Urban
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
Average Concentration
0.90
2.59
0.11
0.04
0.54
No. of Measurements
174
98
102
31
WHO; daily average
0.125
Class I: daily average
0.05
Class I: maximum anytime
0.15
Class II: daily average
0.15
Class II: maximum anytime
0.5
Class III: daily average
0.25
Class III: Maximum anytime
0.7
100
Table 18.2 below illustrates that burning coal and biomass indoor leads to serious TSP
concentrations. All guidelines (with the exception of those of class III) are exceeded, both
in the urban and in the rural areas. Using gas instead of coal can solve the problem
considerably. The concentration as a result of using gas in rural areas is more or less
below the guidelines (0.19 mg/m3 versus 0.15 - 0.23 mg/m3). In rural areas, the
monitored concentrations emanating from using gas are higher. This is probably because
of the high background concentration from other polluting sources.
Table 18.2 TSP
Total Suspended Particulates (mg/m3)
Coal &
Mixed Urban
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas
Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
0.89
1.08
0.34
0.19
1.86
No. of Measurements
75
48
16
11
WHO: daily average
0.15 - 0.23
0.15
Class I: maximum
anytime
0.3
0.3
Class II: maximum

anytime
Class III: maximum

anytime
1.5
101
Table 18.3 illustrates that indoor coal burning leads to serious CO concentrations. All
guidelines are exceeded, both in the urban and in the rural areas. Gas and biomass are
cleaner fuels, although the CO concentrations can increase substantially in case of
incomplete combustion. For example, moisturized biomass (such as wood or dung) will
hamper the combustion process.
Urban areas have higher CO background concentrations because of traffic. Therefore, the
monitored CO indoor concentrations are also higher than in rural areas.
Table 18.3 CO2
CARBON MONOXIDE (mg/m3)
Coal &
Mixed Urban
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
21.53
15.61
7.32
2.38
4.39
No. of Measurements
194
76
99
25
WHO: daily average
10
4.58
Class I: maximum
anytime
11.45
4.58
Class II: maximum

anytime
11.45
6.87
Class III: maximum

anytime
22.9
Table 18.4 below illustrates that indoor coal burning leads to serious NOx concentrations.
The relevant guidelines (WHO and Chinese Class II) are exceeded both in the urban and in
the rural areas. Gas and biomass are cleaner fuels. Although, the emission of nitrogen
dioxides depends largely on the combustion process, urban areas have much higher NOx
background concentrations mainly because of traffic. Therefore, the monitored NOx indoor
concentrations are also higher than in rural areas.
102
Table 18.4 NO2

NITROGEN DIOXIDE (mg/m3)
Coal &
Mixed Urban
Coal &
Mixed Rural
Gas Urban
Gas Rural
Biomass Rural
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.04
0.06
No. of Measurements
131
42
117
14
WHO: daily average
0.15
0.050
Class I: maximum anytime
0.100
0.100
Class II: Maximum

Anytime
0.150
0.150
Class III: Maximum

anytime
0.300
The figures in the Table 18.5 cannot be explained. Unknown external factors determine the
Benzo(a)pyrene concentrations.
Table 18.5 BaP
Benzo -a- Pyrene (ng/m3)
Coal & Mixed
- Urban
Coal & Mixed

- Rural
Gas - Urban
Biomass Rural
23.73
2523.13
23.53
1022.70
No. of Measurements
43
31
WHO: Daily average
103
1000

Class I: Maximum anytime
Class II: Daily average
Class II: Maximum anytime
Class III: Maximum anytime
Factors that should be taken into account when assessing Indoor Air Pollution
The tables provided above only give a rough average indication of the pollutants
concentrations due to the indoor burning of fuels. The following factors may considerably
influence indoor air pollution:
Fuel Type and Amount
The type of coal. The emission factors (for example - the sulfur content) for different types
of coal and coal products can vary greatly. If information is available in the individual city,
one could report the coal type and its origin, so that published data on average properties of
coal from different mines and mining regions could be collected.
Whether the coal is in raw form (run-of-mine containing dust and dirt), sorted, washed or
formed into briquettes. If briquettes are used, it is useful to report the composition and
manufacturer. What percentage of what types of coal is used? Are they home made coal
cakes? Was lime or any other ingredient added to reduce sulfur emissions?
If LPG is used, it is generally unnecessary to report details of the fuel type since LPG is quite
uniform compared to coal. Investigators might make an effort to find out and report the
type of piped gas, since natural gas is different from coal gas. This is less important though
than if one compares gas and coal, since the difference in pollutant level between types of
gas is much less than that between coal and gas.
Biomass has, of course, very different properties even among fuels (such as wood or dung)
of the same type. Moisture content, for instance, will affect the heat value per unit of fuel,
combustion efficiency, and the composition of the products of incomplete combustion.
Studies in the individual cities should note the type of biomass used and describe, if
possible, its fuel characteristics (e.g. moisture content and species).
Stove Type
The type of stove used makes a lot of difference, especially whether the stove has a flue or
a kang (a heated bed, through which the flue gases from a stove or a fire pit pass).
Smoking
104
Smoking can have a tremendous impact on levels of indoor air pollutants. One study in the
database (Wang and Zhang, 1990) compared pollutant levels in households in which
smokers were and were not present.
Ventilation
Information on the ventilation conditions and type of houses is also important in assessing
the level of indoor air pollution. Look whether windows are usually open or closed and the
number and placements of rooms.
Season
The time of the year during which measurements were taken often gives clues to the state
of some of the above variables. During winter, for example, northern households are likely
to have low rates of air exchange and detached houses can be expected to be heated with a
small coal stove and perhaps a kang. The level of indoor air pollution is therefore expected
to be higher during this time.
Background Concentration and Household Location
The outdoor pollution is added to the indoor pollution. Therefore, it is important to indicate
whether households are situated in a heavily polluted district, or in an area where all
households are heated with coal. This could increase the individual indoor air pollution level
considerably.
105
Tool 19: Preparing an Emissions Inventory

An emissions inventory is a database of sources of air pollutants in a region of interest.
Emission inventories contain information on the type, number, location and magnitude of
sources of air pollutioninformation that is used in other studies aimed at understanding
the generation, dispersion and effects of emissions. By quantifying the amount of air
pollutants released into an air shed, the inventory provides a basis for setting reduction
targets and identifying priorities for management.
There are three types of sources in this database, namely: point sources, line sources and
area sources. Point sources refer to industries and power plants, which usually emit
pollutants through smokestacks. Line sources refer to roads traversed by many motor
vehicles whose individual emissions form a nearly continuous line. Area sources include
large construction sites, bare tracts of land and landfills, but they may also comprise a
cluster of houses too many to account for individually.
Preparing an emission inventory need not involve gathering actual data on the amount of air
pollutants released into the air shed, but it does call for collecting information about sources
that can later be translated into quantitative emission strengths. It must also contain the
location of sources and a technical description of the manner with which they release
pollutants.
Stationary Source Inventory

For point sources, the emissions inventory should contain such basic information as the
identity of a source, the nature of its products and manufacturing process, and its location
within the area of interest. If the data is available, the rate with which a source emits an air
pollutant must be recorded in the inventory. Depending on the local regulations, most firms
can provide this information from actual analyses of their stack emissions. This analysis
yields the emission concentrations, usually in milligrams per cubic meter, of key air
pollutants. The emission rate of a pollutant can then be obtained by multiplying the
emission concentration by the gas flow rate (the amount of gas discharged from the stack
per second), which is reported together with the emission concentration as part of the stack
gas analysis.
In addition to the data above, the inventory should also try to obtain the following about
each smokestack in a facility:
Stack height
Diameter of a stack at its mouth
Discharge temperature
Discharge velocity (or gas flow rate)
These data may be found among a facilitys engineering records or from stack sampling
reports.
Data on emission concentrations may not be immediately available in some countries where
the law does not require firms to report them, or where enforcement is lax. Owners of small
boilers and generators may also be exempt from reporting them. But even when firms do
have the information on their emissions, they may sometimes be reluctant provide the data
for their own reasons. Estimating emissions would therefore have to rely on indirect
methods.
In cases where the stack gas analysis results are unavailable, the emissions inventory must
instead collect other information about the firm that could be used to estimate the emission
rate. Such information includes any or all of the following:
Types and rates of usage of raw materials
Annual production capacity
Types and rates of usage of fuel
Power generating capacity
106
Note that some industrial facilities may have multiple products, or may operate their own
power plants in addition to their manufacturing lines. In such cases, there must be data
available for each power plant and each production line.
To translate these quantities into air pollutant discharge rates, appropriate emission factors
must be gathered. Emission factors for a host of manufacturing processes have been
collected by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in the document
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, or more often called AP-42 (more information
at http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/). Emission factors typically have units of tons of
pollutant emitted per unit of product or per quantity of raw material consumed. Other
emission factors are also available for such activities as material transfer or road use.
It is critical to select the correct emission factor to assign to a source. This can be difficult
since factors can differ for two facilities with the same product if their manufacturing
process is not identical or if one has more efficient pollution controls than the other does.
For some sources, no emission factors are available, and some judgment must be exercised
in choosing a suitable one. Generally, the more is known about the source, the easier the
selection.
In addition to point sources, area emissions should also be included in the stationary source
inventory. For landfills, construction sites, mines and similar bare areas, appropriate
emission factors that are to be multiplied to the size of the area source are available. Area
sources in the form of storage facilities such as coal yards or fuel tank farms may also be
part of the total emissions from industries depending on the pollutant being studied.
Household cooking and garbage burning within a community can cause that community to
also become an area source. Although emission factors can be obtained for air pollutants
released by residential areas (to be multiplied to the size of the area and its population
density), household emissions are typically too small relative to point and line sources to be
worth the computational effort.
Line Sources
Determining the contribution of motor vehicles to total emissions requires the following:
The average amount of pollutants each type of vehicle emits per kilometre travelled
The length of each road within an area of interest
The number of vehicles of a given type that use a road in the area of interest.
For each road and vehicle type, these three quantities are multiplied to yield the amount of
pollutants generated by all vehicles of that type travelling along that particular road.
Summing up the contributions of all the types of vehicles and all the roads, the total
contribution of mobile sources can be estimated.
The first item in the list above is the mobile source emission factor. Emission factors for
many types of vehicles are also available in AP-42 and may be used for most estimates.
However, emission factors can vary from one country to another since emissions are
affected by the typical state of vehicles, local fuel quality, driving habits, climate, traffic
flow, and road conditions. If vehicular emission factors have not been measured for a
country being studied, values from another country with similar conditions should be used
instead of AP-42.
The second item in the list, total road length, should be readily available from local
government agencies. Most towns and cities have records on the length, types of pavement,
and number of lanes on the roads they maintain.
The third item should also be available from national transportation or public works
agencies that conduct traffic counts for planning and project monitoring. The data are often
presented as annual average daily traffic (AADT) counts. How easily and accurately the total
emissions along these roads can be estimated depends on the coverage of the counts. In
some areas only the heavily used roads are included; cities with more resources may have
total coverage. In other locations, or if the data from an extensive AADT archive is not
107
stored on computer, it may suffice to approximate the traffic along each type of road in a
network with a value taken from a similar road in or outside the network.
Since the AADT is the sum of all types of vehicles passing through a road daily, the number
of each type may be estimated by assuming the same percentage composition for all roads.
This is of course a weak assumption, and actual counts should be used whenever possible.
But if this simplification cannot be avoided, vehicle registration records should be consulted
regarding the proper breakdown of the AADT by type.
It will be necessary to determine the number of such types as motorcycles, cars, buses,
trucks, or utility vehicles. Because each of these may vary with size, sub-classifications
based on engine capacity should also be used in the vehicle count whenever possible.
Emissions from private motorcycles, for one, will vary significantly from those used for
public transportation (which often carry three or more people other than the driver) and the
two should be separately counted. Private cars can also be registered as light, medium or
heavy. More important, country-specific motor transport modes such as the jeepneys in the
Philippines or river ferries in Thailand may have to be included as independent
classifications.
The number of vehicles per type should also be separated between those that run on diesel
fuel and those that run on gasoline. As many classes may be used as there are fuel types
used in the market for transportation.
In addition to those from land vehicles, emissions from other types of transportation may be
included. Airport emissions are often approximated on the basis of the daily number of
landings and takeoffs of various classes of aircraft. Ship emissions can be significant mainly
because they often run on low-grade oil. They are however best treated as point sources
since they are stationary or slow moving most of the time. What is needed in the inventory
are the typical numbers and sizes of ship engines that are kept running while docked. An
appropriate emission factor may then be assigned to their emissions.
The data contained by an emissions inventory should be stored in a computer for easy
access. The amount of data can be massive, particularly when inventories for many
pollutants are being prepared. Seldom can an emissions inventory be called complete, as it
should undergo a continuous process of crosschecking, improvement, addition, and
updating.
108
Tool 20: Management Strategies for Air Pollution due to Transport

This tool provides you with an overview of the management strategies, addressing pollution from the transport activity sector. Apart from the
use of emissions standards, technological approaches (like emission control devices and fuel modification) and policy, regulation, and economic
strategies (including traffic management and transportation planning) are very essential and already practiced. This tool concentrates on the
latter two, giving their advantages, disadvantages and city examples. These are presented in three sections:
Strategies for reducing vehicle pollution
Strategies for managing travel demand; and
Strategies for improving transportation supply.
I. Strategies for reducing vehicle pollution

(Reference is made to Phasing out Lead from Gasoline: Worldwide experience and Policy Implication, a World Bank report and guidebook on
Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia)
Measure
Expected improvement of air

quality and other advantages
1.Vehicle inspection and

Maintenance
Developing countries have a high proportion of older vehicles, as they are passed down the economic chain. An old, badly
maintained vehicle can emit 100 times the pollutants of a properly maintained modern vehicle. As a result, any air quality strategy
that does not take vehicle maintenance into account is inherently flawed. Effective response options include setting up privatized
and effective maintenance programmes and promoting the disposal of old and inefficient cars. Chapter 4 "Controlling Emissions
from In-Use Vehicles" of World Bank 1996 is dealing with this subject. It discusses inspection procedures, the institutional setting,
and the costs and benefits for Inspection and Maintenance.
Effective inspection and

maintenance programs
(especially for vehicles that are
highly used, such as taxis and
buses)
It can successfully reduce

emissions from old vehicles, and
ensure that new vehicles remain
in good condition, especially to
avoid incomplete fuel
combustion.
Carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbon emissions of an
individual vehicle can be reduced
up to 25%
Disadvantages
Inspection and maintenance

programs face financial,
political and enforcement
barriers. It requires legislative
or economic incentives and
training of car workshop
personnel.
Beyond that, the results of such
programs can be mixed.
California recently found out
that only about 50% of the
Comments and city examples
Very useful in developing countries, because much of the

car park is composed of older, more polluting cars.
Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, India, the Philippines, Chile,
and Mexico have all implemented at least rudimentary
inspection and maintenance programs (effectiveness:
unknown).
In Quezon City, Philippines, a successful Auto Anti-Smoke
Belching Campaign began in 1993. First phase of 6 months:
public education program about the health effects of
pollution, and the need to reduce auto emissions. Second
phase: two teams tested about 200 vehicles on street a
Effectiveness up to 50%
depending on statistical
distribution of mal-adjustments.
If combined with a scheme for

safety inspection (road worthiness), traffic safety benefits
are substantial
Accelerate the disposal of old and

inefficient cars
2. Improving fuel Quality
109
repairs arising from inspections

were effective in reducing
emissions
day. Fines: licenses and registrations were taken away, 24

hours were given to have their vehicles fixed. More than
95% of vehicles passed the second test.
In Alexandria, Egypt: between 1986 and 1990, 127 vehicles
were fined for heavy fume emissions (part of the air
pollution control legislation). In 1994, the government
proposed that all cars will be inspected for hydrocarbon and
CO emissions, and diesel vehicles for smoke from 1995
(part of the Clean Air Act).
In Ankara, Turkey, annual exhaust gas emission tests are
required for all motor vehicles; which are then issues with
an emission control stamp. The exhaust emissions are
relatively strict (being set at 4.5 per cent CO for vehicles
first used after 1983; 6 per cent for vehicles first used
between 1975 and 1983; and 1200 ppm for vehicles first
used before 1975).
In Budapest, Hungary, the city government will exchange

respectively 4 year and 6 year public transportation passes
for Trabants and Wartburgs (two highly polluting cars). In
addition, the program will buy these cars for a price higher
than the market price, if the car is replace by a new, more
efficient vehicle. So far about 2000 vehicles have been
taken off.
The most relevant examples for developing countries are reducing the lead and sulfur content of fuels or focusing on alternative
fuels such as compressed natural gases. Chapter 5 "Fuel Options for Controlling Emissions" of World Bank 1996 (TOOL 15) is
dealing with this subject.
In case of traffic related lead pollution it is clear that the only effective measure is eliminating the use of lead additives in gasoline.
Travel demand management measurements could of course also reduce the problem, however not as effectively as programmes
focussed on phasing out leaded gasoline. City experiences have illustrated that these programmes could be implemented in a
cost-effective way. The World Bank report: "Phasing Out Lead from Gasoline: World Wide Experience and Policy Implications"
(TOOL 4) is very useful if cities are involved in this process.
It should be borne in mind that the potential contribution of fuel changes to the reduction of emissions of HC, CO and NOx is
small when compared with the reductions achieved by improved vehicle maintenance or by emissions control devices.
Reducing sulfur and lead content

in fuel/ banning lead in gasoline
-This results in a direct health

treat
- lead in gasoline prevents the
use of catalytic converters on
gas-burning engines; therefore
reducing lead, will increase the
use of catalytic converters
110
High costs for eliminating lead

from gasoline, and eliminating
older vehicles have made it
difficult for lower-income
countries to switch to unleaded
gasoline
Reduction of SO2 is proportional to reduced sulfur content

In Bangkok, government support unleaded gasoline by tax
subsidy. By taxing unleaded fuel less than leaded fuel, the
government made it cost-effective for local refineries to
produce unleaded gasoline. In January 1996, use of
unleaded gasoline became mandatory.
In Alexandria, Egypt, a measure adopted is the reduction in
the lead content of petrol from 0.8 to 0.45 g/l; there are
plans for a further reduction in 1997 to 0.15 g/l
In France, the use of low-sulfur fuels is required in urban
"special protection zones".
Canada has a regulation to limit the sulfur content of diesel
fuel.
Using better quality fuel e.g. more

volatile diesel fuel
-This measure addresses black

smoke from heavy diesel
powered vehicles, such as buses,
in congested traffic
- This measure depends on a

range of other variables for its
effectiveness, such as tuning
and maintenance of motors.
- It also requires monitoring of
marketed diesel.
Use of 'low-smoke' lubricating oil
- Low-smoke lubricating oil is

known to be effective in
addressing white smoke
Mandating use of 'smokeless'

lubricating oil (polyisobutene)
- Use of 'smokeless' is 100%

effective for reduction of white
smoke emissions
Using biofuels
- Biofuels fuels are particularly

successful in reducing emissions
of particulates
The 'smokeless' lubricating oil use is mainly a Japanese

development
- Higher investment costs for

refining used oil;
- Vehicle manufacturers often
In Brazil ethanol is used for transportation.

Many countries are using biodiesel and biogas for
- Biofuels are CO2 neutral
111
refuse liability in warranty

cases;
- in Brazil, recently, alcohol
shortages and poor road and
car maintenance threaten the
potential benefits of the
program
Introducing LPG as fuel
- The introduction of LPG

addresses Lead, smoke, NOx,
SO2, CO, and VOC
- LPG does not contain lead and
sulfur and results in emissions
reduction up to 25%
transport.
Austria uses recycled cooking oil for bus fleets (from the
pan into the tank).
- LPG fuel tanks taking up more Retrofitted LPG vehicles are widely in use
space in the car;
the logistics system (fuel
availability remains a problem;
LPG is a byproduct of
refineries;
- system is proven technology

and safe
Introducing compressed natural
gas (CNG)
- Use of CNG addresses black

smoke from buses in congested
traffic as well as routine
emissions of TSP, NOx, SO2 and
CO.
- CNG is low cost and often
available within the country
-CNG requires a separate

system for its supply, new bus
fleets, and increased inspection
and maintenance of buses.
-Investment in CNG can be
costly due to technical
alteration of engines and fuel
system though this cost may be
partly offset by the low CNG
cost.
Use of compressed natural gas
in diesel powered engine is not
a proven technique i.e. limited
availability of heavy vehicles,
such as tucks.
Compressed natural gas is used in many countries. The

biggest CNG busfleets are in Indian cities.
112
3. New vehicle technologies
Promoting the use of three-way

catalysts
Improved vehicles technology

such as three-way catalysts for
emission control is an essential
part of any environmental
strategy as it could give emission
reductions per vehicle of 90%
and higher.
Catalyst technology is relative

expensive and only effective in
properly maintained vehicles.
Furthermore, a precondition is
unleaded gasoline and vehicles
capable of using it.
Catalysts are not appropriate as a "quick fix" to pollution

problems in developing countries, because they are usually
only included in relatively new cars and the car fleet in
developing countries is mainly old and badly maintained.
On the other hand they should be adopted as soon as the
economy, infrastructure and quality of maintenance levels
permit.
In many countries, catalysts are compulsory for new
vehicles. For example in South India, many new car
manufacturing industries have been established in the last
years. These industries are enforced to produce and sell
low polluting vehicles.
Promoting motor vehicles that run

on electricity, fuel cells, or
hydrogen (especially for high inuse vehicles, such as taxis,
buses).
Low emissions at source if

electricity is produced from
renewable resources;
Electric vehicles are easy to
produce.
Production and distribution of

hydrogen is still in the
experimenting phase and will
not be an option for the near
future.
Hybrid vehicles (petrol/electric engines) are being

increasingly used in metropolitan areas.
India produces suitable electric vehicles.
Electric vehicles have a limited

range but are very suitable for
inner city use.
Use of particle traps and other

similar tail-pipe technology
Reduces particles from diesel

vehicles
Applied in many countries.

Active filters technically
complicated and expensive and
passive filters not as effective
Reducing emissions of two wheel

vehicles by switching from twostroke to four-stroke engines or
by installing catalytic converters
The emission reductions are

possible at modest costs by
switching to the mentioned
technical measures. In most
cases the initial increased cost is
offset by improvements in fuel
economy.
In Asia, imposing strict

emission standards is difficult
given the sheer number of twowheel vehicles.
In Asia, this is a great air pollution challenge as two

wheelers are responsible for a majority of respirable
particles in cities. Bangkok has a programme on this. Delhi
has converted most of the three-wheelers to CNG.
113
II. Strategies for managing travel demand

Urban transportation systems in cities are continuously growing. Changing a compact city towards urban sprawl bears immense economic,
social, and environmental costs of providing transport infrastructure. Many cities have started to re-examine urban transportation demand and
devise new strategies that provide optimal access at a minimum cost. A number of implementation options are available to reduce excessive
travel demand towards a more sustainable mobility behavior.
Measure

Disadvantages
Strategies to integrate land use

and transport management:
Minimising travel distances

between home, work, business
and leisure.
High acceptance risks (popular

and political);
An integrated strategy requires co-ordination between the

transport and land use sectors across an entire
metropolitan region.
Compact city, with high

population densities
It facilitates walking or bicycling,

and buses or subways are costeffective alternatives to the use of
private cars.
Mixed land use, where homes,

workplaces and businesses are
clustered together
It can reduce car trips and

address the problem of deserted
central business districts at night.
Limited availability of land.
City examples: Portland, Oregon and Seattle, Washington

in the USA.
In Delhi, India, mixed land uses

and high population densities
are the norm, yet the city is
faced with congestion, air
pollution, and limited
transportation options for its
poor people.
114
Many small self-sufficient urban

centers linked by a public
transportation system
Short transport distances.
Green towns in UK.
Channeling urban growth along

public transit routes
Increases bus use, reduces traffic

congestion, and probably private
owned car use. All will have a
positive effect on urban air quality
Successfully implemented in Curitiba, Brazil in combination

with an effective public transportation network. The city has
managed to reduce privately owned car use. On a typical
workday, over 70% of all commuters travel by bus. The city
has one of Brazils lowest rates of ambient air pollution.
Improving efficiency of movement

by improving connections
between city parts
Reduces congestion; avoid that

automobilists have a long detour
Does not automatically reduce

air pollution (due to shorter
average trips) because making
the route more comfortable
may result in an increase of the
total amount of trips: reducing
congestion will only result in air
quality improvement if the
amount of trips stays constant
Keeping good vehicles, and

passing traffic as much as
possible out of the city center
Reduces urban air pollution

(because those vehicles are often
very polluting), and congestion in
the city center considerably
High acceptance risks.
Almost every large city has a ring road to avoid passing

traffic in the city center
Increasing road space
Reduces congestion
Air pollution will probably still

increase, because total trips,
especially by using privately
owned cars will grow.
Furthermore, road building is
very expensive.
Should not have first priority as it does not reduce air

pollution, and costs a lot
Improvement of quality of road
Reduces congestion, traffic

accidents, and annoyance at bad
Does not directly reduce air

pollution; air pollution can even
Although it does not reduce air pollution directly, the other
115
network
road quality
increase if more vehicles pass

the street
advantages can be decisive for implementing this measure.
Full cost pricing as motorists

rarely pay sufficient for:
Increased modal shift towards

public transport.
High acceptance risks.
Banning the use of old, polluting

taxis and buses (high in-use
vehicles)
Very effective in reducing air

pollution;
It could be that this is not

affordable for taxi drivers;
therefore, people could loose
their jobs (for example in India,
most taxi drivers have very
polluting but very cheap auto
rickshaws).
In the Netherlands, it is not allowed to drive taxis older than

7 years. Taxi drivers can buy new cars tax-free.
Road pricing, use of tolls, area

licensing schemes
- It will encourage people to use

alternative modes of transport or
to drive during off-peak hours
(the latter will not necessarily
reduce air pollution, only traffic
congestion).
- Designing such a system is

complicated administratively,
technically and politically.
Most effectively if: i) covering all important roads ii) charge

should vary according to demand, with high charges during
peak hours.
- In addition it will only succeed

if cities offer attractive
alternative transportation
options.
Singapore introduced an area-licensing scheme. To enter

the area a car must display a special window sticker, for
which a fee is charged (also dependent on occupancy of
vehicle).
- It must be examined for its

equity impacts (by allowing
those who can afford it to drive
on a more efficient road
system).
Santiago is also implementing this; in general good for

middle income cities with rapidly increasing vehicle use, as
it can offset or delay costly expansion of the road system.
Not relevant for developing
Not feasible in developing cities: a) difficulty of enforcement;
- road maintenance
- negative health effects and
- productivity losses incurred by
traffic delays
Also comfortable for passengers
- The funds generated could be

used to reduce transit fares and
improve transit service in lowincome areas.
Electronic road pricing
Not relevant for developing cities
Successful implementation of a congestion charge system

in London.
Purchase taxes on new vehicles
- Less people will decide to buy a

vehicle
116
cities
b) high (investment) costs
- People will not easily replace

their old more polluting vehicle
City example: Singapore
- Objections of the public to

higher taxes and fees are
enormous; people tend to view
these measures simply as
additional unwelcome taxes;
Implemented in Hungary. Its success is vividly illustrated by

the effects of increases in world oil prices (oil crisis) on i)
the overall volume of transport; ii) development of
alternative fuel technologies.

used to reduce transit fares and
improve transit service in lowincome areas.
Reducing fuel subsidies and

increasing fuel taxes
- Can be an important policy tool

in efforts to improve vehicle
efficiencies also in developing
countries;
used for pollution control
measures or to reduce transit
fares and improve transit service
in low-income areas.
Sufficient regulatory measures,

and enforcement of traffic rules
Reduces traffic congestion and

accidents. The funds generated
could be used for i.e. pollution
control measures
Parking controls
- Can deter the use of privately

owned cars;
- Workers will look for cheaper
alternatives, in the form of carpooling or public transport.
Bans for good vehicles during
- Reduces congestion and air
- Tend to hurt low-income

families relatively more;
- Taxes do not influence when
a car is used, so they may have
little effect on congestion
Probably does not have
significant impact on air quality
improvement
- Unintended effects as: illegal

parking or increasing the length
of trips
City example: Singapore
Parking controls are the most effective when they are used
as part of a more comprehensive program and when strict
enforcement is possible.
- Strict enforcement is needed
- Enforcement is needed
Successfully implemented in Philippines (Manila), Thailand
117
certain hours a day (e.g. allow

them only to load and unload in
early morning).
pollution during peak hours;

keeps the city center free of
heavy vehicles during the day.
- It should not hinder the citys

economy
(Bangkok) and many Dutch cities
General traffic bans (e.g. license

number restrictions)
Should reduce the number of

cars in the city and thereby
reducing congestion and air
pollution
- Many households bought a

second car or switched license
plates
Have been unsuccessfully tried in Athens, Mexico City and

Santiago
- The second car is often

cheap, and tend to be more
polluting
III. Strategies for improving the transport supply

Even though mechanisms such as parking controls may be able to reduce travel demand, there is still a considerable need to expand the
transport infrastructure in many rapidly growing urban regions, particularly in the developing world. In many urban areas, the transport
structure -including roads- is seriously deficient. Poor road surfaces lead to safety hazards, congestion, and premature vehicle aging, as well as
increased fuel consumption, maintenance costs, and air pollution.
The challenge, however, is to expand and improve the transport supply in such a way that the automobile is only one part of the transport
system rather than the focus. Implementation options for discouraging the over-reliance on privately owned cars will not work unless people are
given fast and efficient transport alternatives - whether bus, light rail, subway, walking or cycling.
Measure

Disadvantages
- They can carry up to 80

passenger, and yet take up the
space of no more than two
privately owned cars
- Systems are often

overloaded, uncomfortable,
and unreliable
- In most cities, efficient bus systems can be both affordable

and effective
Public transit expansion
Extra efficient bus systems
- Old buses tend to be noisy

and polluting (see below,
regular maintenance)
Give buses priority in traffic (at

intersections)
It is proved that more people will

turn to buses as a fast and
efficient alternative
A dedicated bus lane with a high

speed bus network
i) Cut bus trip times up to half

ii) Relieved congestion
118
Implemented in Bangkok, Thailand and in many European

cities, including Zurich, Helsinki
High-occupancy rates, and

efficient operation is a
necessity
Successful implementation of exclusive bus lanes with a

high-speed bus network in Abidjan, Cote dIvoire, and
Curitiba
iii) Postpones planned

infrastructure investments
Also applied in Bangkok, Thailand
Promoting bus-way system rather

than a subway system
Comparatively low cost and high

flexibility
Curitiba, Brazil and Ottawa, Canada; ideal in serving low- to

medium-density urban areas
Introduction of light rail systems

(as trams, trolleys, subways)
- Can move more people than

buses
- Dependent on the fuel, light rail
systems consumes less energy
- System inflexibility
- Construction and operation
costs are huge (e.g. $40 million
per km in Santiago, $64 million
in Osaka, and $117 million in
Caracas. In comparison, a
surface light rail system in
Tunis, costs $29 million per
km)
Improving Existing Public

Transport Services
Privatize and deregulate bus

services
In the dense cities of Asia, light rail is becoming

increasingly attractive and viable. However, cities should
resist it, when lower cost approaches might be adequate.
A phased approach - first identifying transport corridors well
in advance of city growth, and then upgrading services from
dedicated bus-ways to light rail, and finally perhaps, to a
subway system - may be the best way to ensure the
development of economically sound transit system
City examples: Kuala Lumpur, Madras, Manila
Although improvements in public transport services bring in

more passengers, they tend to have only a limited effect on
the use of privately owned cars and thus on congestion and
emissions, even if transit travel is increased substantially.
The majority of new users tend to be former pedestrians,
cyclists or car passengers.
Competition can improve bus

services and reduce costs
Disadvantages of a completely
deregulated and competitive
public transport market: i)
City examples in Manila, Philippines and London,

In Colombia and Sri Lanka, deregulation allowed small bus
owners to compete with the public bus company,
Improve existing interchange

facilities between e.g. different
buses, or buses and trains
- It improves the efficiency of

mass transit system, and
accessibility of suburbs
- Passengers are probably more
willing to choose for public
transport instead of privately
owned cars, which will reduce air
pollution
Promote informal transit services
Cater especially the needs of the

poor, provide more frequent
services than municipal buses,
maneuver more easily on narrow
crowded streets
Integrate informal transit services

into the formal transportation
This can reduce pollution, and

improve safety, and efficiency. It
will improve the transportation
options for the poor.
Making cities friendly to

pedestrians and non-motorized
vehicles
119
Private companies concentrate

in areas with high densities,
and high income
neighborhoods, leaving the
poor without adequate
services. ii) In Santiago,
deregulation resulted in poorly
maintained buses
substantially improving service coverage and quality.
Efficient, affordable bus

systems can increase the total
amount of trips, as more
people decide to travel.
Therefore it is uncertain
whether urban air quality
directly improves.
Experiences from developed cities have shown that people

with cars are not easily willing to transfer to public transport.
However an efficient public transport system will avoid
people to transfer to privately owned vehicles. As most
people in developing countries do not own vehicles, it is a
challenge to keep it like this by offering an efficient,
affordable public transport system. China is a good
example.
Often very polluting, tend to

contribute to congestion. They
reflect the failure of public
transportation to meet the
needs of city residents
Jeepneys in Manila, kabu-kabus in Lagos, dolmus in

Turkey, and matatus in Nairobi
Flat landscape, and local

culture play important roles
Deregulation will only be successful if companies are able

to comply with emissions, safety, frequency and cost
requirements before they can be granted rights to various
routes. By promoting this, buses are cleaner; fares are
lower, and service more uniform.
Making bicycles affordable

(subsidies, reducing import taxes,
etc.)
- Good alternative for cities

plagued by traffic congestion and
pollution.
- Encouraging will improve the
economic welfare of the poor
120
Cities impose constraints,

particularly on cycle rickshaws:
claiming that they cause
congestion, or unfairly exploit
human labor.
In China, government promoted bicycle commuting by

offering subsidies, and accelerating bicycle production
Present in a lot of cities in China and India
Promoting non-motorized
transport as a link in an integrated
public transportation system, e.g.
by building safe bicycle parking
outside train and bus stops
same
same
Allocating urban street space to

bicycle traffic
Same, in addition to this:
Above mentioned
disadvantages are less with
this measure
- It is safer;
- Cyclists are not anymore in
between the unhealthy exhaust
gases.
121
Tool 21: Management Strategies for Air Pollution Due to

Industries
This tool presents the management strategies that are applicable to air pollution emanating
from industries. The expected improvements due to the implementation of these
management strategies, their disadvantages as well as examples are also included where
possible. The strategies can be summarized as follows:
1. Physical planning and zoning
2. Promoting pollution control through tight measurers such as compulsory emission limits,
enforcement of best available techniques, etc.,
3. Cleaner production
Expected
improvement of
air quality and
other
advantages
Disadvantages
I. PHYSICAL PLANNING AND ZONING

Restricting the
location of new
industries.
Improving the
air quality in the
respective areas.
Alienates
potential
investors and
decrease of
economic basis.
Katowice: Within the Ecologically

Endangered Region it is no longer
possible to establish new enterprises
or develop existing ones which could
significantly pollute the environment.
Controlling the
emissions in
sensitive areas
(establishment of
e.g. special
control areas or
smoke free
zones).
Improving the
air quality in the
respective areas.
Financial
implications due
to setting up
emission
monitoring and
enforcement.
Birmingham, UK: The Clean Air Act

(1993) controls emissions of smoke
and dust, through the implementation
of the "Smoke-free zones".
Relocation of
existing industries
out of sensitive
areas.
Improving the
air quality in the
respective areas.
Area planning
based on
emission
Johannesburg: A smoke-control zone

to prohibit emissions of smoke from
any location was declared.
Targeted reductions of emissions of
SO2 in Agra, following concern over
the corrosive effects that ambient
concentrations have on the Taj Mahal.
Following extensive assessments,
emissions from main industrial
sources were appreciably reduced,
lowering the SO2 concentration near
the Taj Mahal by 75 per cent.
Effective if being
done in a
consultative
Financial
implications in
terms of
compensations
or higher
infrastructure
costs.
Pusan, Korea: relocation of those

industries producing high
concentrations of TSP away from
residential areas.
High acceptance
risks.
Ekaterinburg, Russia: Emission

inventories are used to calculate the
spatial distribution of pollutants and to
In Cairo, relocation of pollutive

industry (lead smelters) outside the
city.
assessments and
air quality
objectives (for all
areas not only the
sensitive ones)
process.
Environmental
Impact
Assessment for
new industries
Sensitising
potential
investors in
introducing
cleaner
production
122
determine Maximum Permissible

Emissions per area (MPEs).
Hong Kong: Air Quality Objectives
have been established for different
zones. They must be attained
throughout each of the Air Quality
zones. Emission controls take into
account existing emissions sources
and enable the development of
rational, cost-effective emission
abatement. Hong Kong needs very
good air quality management because
of the close proximity of residential
and industrial areas.
A potential
barrier for
attracting
investments.
Lagos, Nigeria: Environmental Impact

assessments of new industries are
now mandatory.
Guard against
'end-of-pipe'
solutions that
will transfer the
problem from
one media to
another (e.g.
the fly ash from
power stations,
such as that in
Chennai was
mixed with
water and
dumped off the
coast).
Chennai, India: to control SPM and

heavy metals emissions from large
thermal plants in populated areas,
stacks have been equipped with
scrubbers and mechanical dust
collectors which have operating
efficiencies of about 70 per cent
reduction. Electrostatic precipitators
can perform with up to 99 per cent
efficiency, however they have not
been introduced extensively owing to
their high costs. Where these have
been fitted, they are often poorly
maintained, thereby reducing their
effectiveness.
The
effectiveness
depends very
much on proper
operations and
regular
maintenance;
enforcement
together with
commitment of
the industries is
required.
Katowice, Poland: emissions of SO2

are being reduced through the
construction of two installations for
the desulfurization of flue gases (FGD)
in two major power plants.
Same policy being implemented in the

Philippines.
II. PROMOTING POLLUTION

CONTROL
Setting priorities
by focussing on
pollution control
devices for the
most serious
polluting factories
Very effective;
city examples
have shown that
this could
solve/reduce the
air pollution
considerably.
Especially if the
air pollution is
caused by only a
few factories.
* many
developing
countries have
emission
standards.
However they
Lahore, Pakistan: plans to fit emission

control equipment on the largest
emitters have also been developed,
although how quickly and extensively
they can be implemented will depend
upon the availability of capital.
Santiago, Chile: an estimated 90 per
cent of SO2 emissions in Chile
originate from copper smelting. Cleanup plans were prepared to reduce
emissions from this source and they
have been introduced in 1996.
123
are seriously
exceeded
because the
enforcement is
weak (no
serious
penalties), and
sometimes
industries are
not well
informed or are
not committed
to change.
Furthermore,
there are no
regular
emission
inspections to
monitor and
control the
performance of
the industries.
Licensing of
specified strongly
polluting
processes
Compulsory
emission limits
Hong Kong has classified specified

processes, emitting significant
amounts of air pollution. These
include power stations, incinerators,
petrochemical works, cement,
ceramic, electricity and gas works and
mineral plants. Specified processes
are strictly licensed. A staged
programme of removing the
exemptions granted to plants already
in operation before 1987 is in
progress.
Emission limits
are an essential
part of
successful air
quality
management.
However
effectiveness
however
depends very
much on the
enforcement,
and on the
commitment and
available
resources of
industries.
Requires strict
enforcement in
order to be
effective.
Lahore, Pakistan: the effectiveness of

air quality management in Pakistan
has been limited in the past by the
absence of quantitative emissions
limits for which controls could be
implemented. However, in 1993,
national air quality emission standards
for a range of pollutants helped to
rectify this problem. In the past, with
the absence of statutory standards,
the Punjab EPA attempted to reduce
emissions through consultations with
industry. This resulted in a good
relationship between industry and
regulator, which should assist the
effective operation of the new
legislation.
Lagos, Nigeria: all industries must
have emissions monitoring capabilities
or assign responsibility to a consultant
approved by the FEPA. As this was a
problem for small industries, it was
agreed with FEPA, that groups of
124
contiguous industries could borrow or

jointly sustain on site pollution units.
Industrial emission limits have been
established for 37 different pollutants.
These limits are, in general, a range
of values set in order to take into
account the size and nature of the
source. However, the air quality
hardly improved, as there is no
effective enforcement. The inspections
of sources occur irregularly owing to
limited resources, and there are no
emission and monitoring data
available. The overall criticism is that
the emission limits are imported and
inappropriate and irrelevant to the
Nigerian situation.
Pusan, Korea: the regulations against
emissions from industry have been
successfully strengthened with a
focuses on dust emanating from steel,
cement, and coal factories, and from
construction and demolition sites);
Belo Horizonte, Brazil has established
standards to control industrial
emissions. If standards are exceeded
the company responsible may be
given a warning, fined, or even forced
to close. However, companies are not
policed regarding their actual emission
discharges. There are no strategic
plans for reducing emissions by
industry.
Chennai, India: India has an
advanced national air quality policy,
however there is no information
available on the effectiveness of its
implementation in Chennai. National
regulations exist to control emissions
from industry and large power
generation plants. Companies are
inspected annually to ensure
compliance; they are also required to
keep records and summary reports of
emissions. Exceedances, by degree,
can lead to warnings, fines and even
plant closures. National plans for
reducing emissions from industry
include the greater use of available
control techniques, substitution of
fuels, and process optimisation.
Katowice, Poland: well regulated
emission controls are available,
however hindered by a lack of
resources, particularly for emissions
monitoring (only some small
industries have formal emissions
125
limits set owing to the lack of

personnel).
Quito, Ecuador: emissions limits exist
for stationary sources. These are law
and are subject to enforcement. If
levels are exceeded above 100 per
cent of the maximum permissible
value over two consecutive months, a
fine can be imposed on the polluting
company (or even closure). However
industrial exceedances are not
routinely measured.
Alexandria, Egypt: Industrial emission
limits are introduced in 1995 and
emission inspections started 3 years
later.
Chennai, India: difficult to bring
emissions from small companies
under control owing to resource
problems and limited knowledge of
their contribution towards total
emissions. However they form a
serious problem because of the use of
inefficient furnaces and boilers and
low chimneystacks.
Setting strict
fines for the
exceedance of
emission limits
Katowice, Poland: the fee for

releasing of air pollutants is quite
substantial (some enterprises pay at a
discounted rate to enable them to
continue operation; the exemptions
should in the medium and long-term
be phased out). In 1991, the total
amount of fees paid by enterprises for
polluting the air was approximately
US$40 million. There have been
criticisms of the system whereby the
moneys raised from pollution fees in
Katowice are distributed across
Poland, rather than being spent in the
area. The high fines encourage power
plants and industries to use coal with
a low sulfur and ash content. Coal
cleaning technologies are also
increasingly being applied to reduce
emissions from coal.
Hong Kong, China: industrial emission
controls are rigorously enforced. The
inspectors offer advice and where
necessary issue legal notices which if
ignored, result in legal action. Air
pollution prosecutions upon industrial
premises are mainly illegal
installations and not allowed dark
smoke emissions.
Enforcement of
best available
Birmingham, UK: Emissions are

controlled on the principle of Best
techniques
126
Available Techniques. The relevant

responsible local authorities that
charge fees in order to recover their
costs hold public registers of small
and medium sized industries. The
local authorities are provided with
General, Process and Guidance notes
covering each of the industrial
processes as an aid in setting
conditions for authorization. These
provide details of what constitutes
BATNEEC for each category of
process; including details of emission
limits and controls, monitoring,
sampling and the measurement of
emissions. In granting an
authorization, the local authority must
consider whether the process will
preclude compliance with UK and EU
Air quality regulations and standards
and adhere to other relevant
legislation. Comments from members
of the public and the ability of the
applicant to meet the terms of the
authorization are also important.
Local authorities are required to
institute a programme of site
inspections and monitoring to carry
out reviews every four years. Failure
to obtain or implement the terms of
an authorization carries the penalty of
an unlimited fine and up to two years
imprisonment.
In case of major emission sources,
The Environmental Protection Act
(1990) (EPA) assigned responsibility
for controlling emissions to Her
Majestys Inspectorate of Pollution
(HMIP) (not the responsibility of local
government).
Johannesburg, South Africa: Industry
operates under the principle of Best
Practicable Means (BPM), and limits
are set and controls are imposed. The
Chief Officer Air Pollution Control
provides scheduled processes with a
registration certificate. The
registration certificate enables the
plant to operate and can be
withdrawn if it is considered that the
BPM is not being met, thus closing the
operation. Stack emissions guidelines
have also been adopted for different
processes and pollutants.
Compulsory
notification of
accidents
Lagos, Nigeria: Accidental discharges

must be reported within 24 hours and
contingency plans must have been
127
developed by the operator to deal

with such unplanned releases.
128
III. CLEANER PRODUCTION

UNEP IE has published a few relevant reports on this subject:
UNEP 96 Cleaner production - A training Resource Package, ISBN 92-807-1605-0. This package
explains step by step how industries could implement cleaner production options.
UNEP 94-1 Government strategies and policies for cleaner production, 1994, Sales No. 94-IIID12, ISBN 92-807-1442-2. This report explains i) how factories can transfer to cleaner
production; ii) strategies for governments to promote cleaner production; iii) policy instruments
to encourage cleaner production.
UNEP 94-2 Cleaner Production in the Asia pacific Economic Cooperation Region, 1994, Sales No.
94-III-D.13, ISBN 92-807-1443-0
The publication gives successful experiences of cleaner production in Asian factories. Its purpose
is to illustrate the progress of Cleaner Production in the region and encourage its further
development. Examples of cleaner production are given for the following industrial branches:
food processing (among others the coconut and pineapple industry), electronic manufacturing,
automobile component manufacture, food industry (alcohol production), photographic industry,
rubber industry, textile dyeing and finishing, wood finishing, fibre production (polyester),
automobile and bicycle industry. Most of these success stories are however water related (e.g.
recycling of wastewater), the publication does hardly give measures to address air pollution.
It is very useful that the publication contains the contact addresses of the factories that
implemented cleaner production successfully with both environmental and economic benefits.
In general, cleaner production options can be divided in five categories:
1. improved product design (manufacturing less polluting products, e.g. by avoiding the use of
heavy metals as pigments in plastics);
2. improved housekeeping (better management of the production floor: using exactly the
amount of ground substances, no waste of energy, and working in a clean, safe environment);
3. substitution for/improvement of fuels, and toxic, dangerous materials;
4. process modifications; and
5. internal reuse of waste products.
In case of air quality management, the main successes have been reached by improving the
quality of fuels (category 3). Examples are restricting the sulfur content of fuels and
encouraging the use of cleaner type of fuels (notably the replacement of coal by natural gas).
REDUCING FUEL RELATED AIR POLLUTION
Restricting the
sulfur content of
fuels
Very effective if
sulfur dioxide
has been
identified as a
major problem
Pusan, Korea: the government has

lowered the sulfur content of fuels
used by industry;
Hong Kong: Fuel restriction
Regulations were implemented in July
1990 to apply virtually to all nondomestic fuel users. These regulations
require fuel oils and solid fuels to
have a sulfur content of below 0.5 and
1 per cent by weight respectively.
Breaching this regulation can make
owners liable to fines. The
implementation of this regulation has
resulted in a substantial reduction of
SO2 concentrations in ambient air.
Refineries in Chennai process crude oil
with high sulfur content, resulting in
129
high emissions into the atmosphere;

action is necessary.
Encouraging the
use of cleaner
type of fuels
(notably LPG)
Pusan, Korea: liquid petroleum gas

(LPG) is being encouraged, and
factories are transferring from coal
and B-C oil to the use of cleaner fuels.
Chennai, India: emissions of small
industries are made worse as coal
supplies are unpredictable and often
wood, rice husk and other biomass
materials are burned.
130
Tool 22: Management Strategies for Indoor Air Pollution

This tool discusses the strategies for addressing indoor air pollution. It provides information
on advantages and disadvantages of certain measures, illustrated by city examples. The
discussed measures are:
1.
Improving the coal quality;
2.
Transferring towards cleaner fuels;
3.
Encouraging the use of cleaner stoves; and
4.
Introducing smoke control zones.
I. Improving the coal quality
Importing better
quality coal
Expected
improvement of air
quality and other
advantages
Disadvantages
It can reduce the

SO2 and TSP
emissions
considerably (3070%) without many
extra costs (no
investments are
needed and no
change of attitudes)
It requires a good
knowledge of the
coal market (of the
properties and
prices of coal from
different mines and
mining regions).
Generally, the use of coal will

always be the least favourable
solution.
Ankara, Turkey: Biggest air
pollution problems are due to
high SPM and SO2 levels which
are over 90% caused by
domestic burning of low-grade
coal (Turkish lignite). This is
very similar to those air quality
problems of London in the
1960s.
One of the measures taken was
the use of better quality
imported coal, mostly from
South Africa, Russia or China.
Improving the
coal by adding
an SO2
absorbing
substance or by
washing it (the
coal is
subsequently
sold in the form
of briquettes)
It can reduce the

SO2 and TSP
emissions
considerably (3070%) without many
extra costs (no
investments are
needed and no
change of attitudes)
It requires some
technical know-how
in treating the coal;
Forbid the sell of

not approved
Strong enforcement
makes sure that the
response options
Enforcement could
be difficult
eventually higher
prices;
Ankara (Turkey) is considering

the use of combustible
briquettes of lignite mixed with
SO2 absorbing gypsum.
In Ankara (Turkey) it is illegal

to sell or handle any solid or
liquid fuels not formally
fuels
mentioned above will

be successfully
implemented
131
approved by the relevant

authorities.
II. Transferring towards cleaner fuels

Encouraging the
use of cleaner
fuels
If citizens indeed
transfer, it will have
a positive effect on
the indoor
environment as gas
is much cleaner than
coal
It is difficult to
implement as long
as the alternative is
not cheaper.
Hyderabad, India: A 1981

study estimated that the city
consumed approximately
150,000 tons of wood a year
for domestic consumption. Also
cow dung from cattle in the
cities is used. Supplies of
cleaner fuels, mainly kerosene,
coal and LPG are available but
only the richer are currently
using them, as cleaner fuels
are more expensive (see below
under III, encouraging the use
of cleaner stoves).
Pusan, Korea: Coal, and B-C oil
have been substituted by the
use of cleaner fuels (substantial
decrease of SPM and SO2).
Katowice, Poland: Reduction of
low-level emissions produced
from domestic and small
industrial processes is
recognized as a priority issue.
In the past, house owners have
been encouraged to switch
fuels from heating from hard
coal to natural gas. However,
recent changes in the price of
these fuels have made the use
of natural gas very expensive.
Local authorities are therefore
seeking for other solutions
including the use of hot water
area heating from power plants
and industries. Another plan is
the extraction and utilization of
coaled methane, of which
deposits are estimated to be
300 to 320 billion m3. So far
only a small part of these
reserves have been used.
Ankara, Turkey: The highpressure gas supply to some
parts of the city has been
extended (financed by the
World Bank). It has been
132
estimated that this project has

reduced the emissions of
particulate matter by about
25%, and sulfur dioxide by
over 10 percent.
III. Encourage the use of cleaner stoves
Making cleaner
stoves
compulsory
Very effective
Requires strong
enforcement; it
could also be too
expensive to afford
for the poor
Johannesburg, South Africa: All

new stoves are supposed to
comply with national standards
in force since 1982. However,
the introduction of low-smoke
stoves is quite slow owing to
the long life of existing stoves.
Encourage the
use of cleaner
stoves
Could be very
effective in reducing
the air pollution
levels if citizens
indeed use the
cleaner stoves.
It will only work if

the investment is
viable for the urban
poor (maybe in
case of small loans)
In Hyderabad, India, the

Government is attempting to
reduce dependence on biomass
fuels and reduce indoor
exposure to air pollutants
through encouraging the use of
cleaner stoves. Emissions of
SPM can be reduced by 60%,
and CO by 86%, through the
introduction of a more fuelefficient stoves equipped with a
ventilation chimney.
This will also encourage the use
of the initially more expensive
cleaner fuels. Because of
appropriate efficient stoves,
kerosene cooking becomes
appreciably cheaper than wood
(after the initial purchase of the
stove has been made).
Some serious barriers exist in
slums: the investment costs,
lack of adequate housing, and
the risk of having the cooking
stove stolen.
IV. Introducing smoke control zones

Forbid the
smoke emissions
in a certain area
(of all kind of
sources)
Effective for certain

areas (for example
high-income), the air
pollution could be
reduced to the
desired level by a
combined package of
Requires strict and

comprehensive
enforcement;
unrealistic in lowincome
settlements; not
realistic in cool
The Johannesburg Municipal

Authority (South Africa)
employed a smoke-control
zone - to prohibit emissions of
smoke from any location
(including domestic dwellings).
The townships have not
measures.
climates where
heating is required.
133
adopted this.
134
Tool 23: Managing Air Pollution from Natural Sources

Air pollution from natural sources includes mostly dust. Dust is a general name for minute
solid particles of diameters less than 500 micrometers (otherwise see sand or granulates)
and, more generally, for finely divided matter. Soil dust lifted up by wind from vegetation
free land. It can also result from volcanic eruptions, or as discharge from industries.
Airborne dust is considered an aerosol and can have a strong, local radiative forcing on the
atmosphere and significant effects on climate.
Air pollution from dust is difficult to control and to manage. However, there are some
general strategies in reducing the dust exposure within an urban setting.
Strategies
Expected
improvement of
air quality and
other advantages
Disadvantages
Paving of
unpaved
roads
Lessen dust in the

air
Expensive, needs to be
balanced against
alternative infrastructure
improvements, such as
sanitation.
Implemented in many urban

areas.
Establishment
of speed
control
devices on
unpaved
roads
Reduces
Requires enforcement
effectively the
and/or physical devices
dust raised by
speeding vehicles;
also increases the
traffic safety
Implemented in many urban

areas.
Establishment
of dust
control areas
with planted
vegetation
Planted vegetation no known disadvantage

helps reduce the
generation and
dispersion of dust
Johannesburg, South Africa:

Dust had presented a major
problem near sand and sludge
dumps composed of mine
tailings. However, the
establishment of dust control
areas has resulted in the
extensive plantations of many
of these dumps. The dust
dispersion could be reduced.
Regular street
sweeping
(manual or
with sweeping
equipment)
Reduces the
amount of lose
dust in the paved
streets
Pusan, Korea: Increasing use of

street sweeping equipment,
including vacuum sweeping
systems (only for paved streets
of course). This was part of a
whole package of response
options to address the SPM
problem. The main contributors
to the SPM concentrations are
no known disadvantage
135
industries burning fossil fuels.
136
Tool 24: Cost-Benefit Analysis and Cost Effective Analysis

Cost benefit analysis (CBA) and cost effectiveness analysis (CEA) are analytical methods to
select the most appropriate set of policy measures. It is important to analyse the costs,
benefits, and effectiveness of various technical and policy measures that combat air
pollution. After identifying possible measures to reduce emissions, the working group will
have (a) to assess costs for each identified measure; and (b) assess the benefits of each
identified measure.
A cost benefit framework allows the ranking of air pollution control measures in order to
determine the net social benefits each measure confers.
Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)
In order to conduct a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis, both costs and benefits from
each option, whether technical or policy, need to be identified, quantified, and valued in
monetary terms to the extent possible. The comparison of benefits and costs reveals
whether or not a measure is worth undertaking. It also provides a basis for the
prioritisation of measures to be taken.
Steps towards the calculation of total benefits of a policy measure include:
1. Estimate emissions reduction at source;
2. Estimate the monetary costs of the measure;
3. Estimate reductions in ambient concentrations as a result of reductions of emissions at source;
4. Estimate reduction in exposure to pollutants;
5. Assess increased health benefits; and
6. Compare the economic values of health benefits with the monetary costs of measures.
However, CBA is disadvantaged by the fact that, while it is theoretically feasible, it is often
difficult to accurately assess benefits. This difficulty can be attributed to the fact that
comprehensive and reliable data may not be available and some impacts of pollution are
not easy to quantify. An example is the fact that it is difficult to place an economic value to
human life, deterioration of cultural monuments and loss of biodiversity. In such situations
where a full cost benefit analysis is not feasible because the benefits cannot be estimated,
cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) can be done.
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA)
The primary objective of cost-effectiveness analysis is to attain a given pollution goal at the
least cost. The following set of information is necessary:
1. Priority pollutants in a city;
2. Concentrations of these pollutants;
3. Specified goals/standards;
4. The difference between these standards/goals with pollutants concentrations; and
5. Available least cost options to meet the difference/reduce pollutants.
The principal difference between CBA and CEA is that in CBA both costs and benefits of air
pollution reduction measures are expressed in monetary terms. In CEA, only the costs of
137
measurers are considered and the benefits are expressed in physical terms, such as
reduced emissions or reduced concentrations. For each set of measures, a determination is
then made as to whether the goals are met and at what cost. A set of measures that meets
the goals at the lowest cost is then selected.
When carrying out a CBA under a fixed budget for air pollution reduction, the selected set
of measures should be those whose costs do not exceed the fixed budget, and which best
meets the guidelines or goals for a certain pollutant, beginning with the least cost measure.
Procedures for a CBA
The procedure for putting up a least cost set of measurers from available options is as
below.
1. Calculate the discounted costs stream for each measure

OR:
Let the number of measures = n, where 1, 2, 3 up to n will represent the measures
And the discounted cost per unit reduction in pollutant = C
Then there is C1, C2, C3, C4,........................Cn
Where C1 is less than C2 which is less than C3,-------which is less than Cn.
2. Estimate emissions reduction resulting from each measure

OR:
The reduction associated with each measure is X1, X2, X3, ...................Xn
Select a number of measures whose reductions when added together are either greater
than or equal to a targeted reduction. This targeted reduction is represented by T.
Therefore X1+X2+X3...............>/=T
3. Calculate the costs per unit of reduction from the ration of (1) and (2)
OR:
The total cost, C, across all of the most cost-effective measurers required to meet the
selected target, T, is then given by
C1X1 + C2X2 + C3X3 + ............CtXt = C
138
Select the measure which has the least cost per unit of reduction
Case Study: Metro Manila, Philippines
14
Abatement Measures: Effectiveness and Cost

Measure
Improving diesel fuel quality
Implementation of an Inspection and

Maintenance
Scheme
Effectiveness
1,200 tons PM10 (1995)
4,000 tons PM 10 (1996) avoided

annually
Costs
P300 million
P 5.5million for vehicle owners in

inspection costs
Maintenance costs saved by improved
fuel efficiency.
Benefits
Avoided Mortality: 94
Avoided Mortality: 316
Avoided RSD: 2.5 million
Avoided RSD: 8 million
Benefits: P350 million
Benefits P 1.1 billion
Reduction of SO2 emission
Reduction of CO, VOC emissions,

improvement of road safety (if road
worthiness is included in the
scheme).
Instruments and
Institutions
Energy Regulatory Board
Land Transportation Office
Oil Price Stabilisation Fund
DENR NCR
Term
Two five years
Two five years
Target groups
Petroleum industry
The scheme could be carried out by

the private sector.
14
Urban Air Quality Management in Asia, Metro Manila Report, World Bank Technical Paper No. 380
139
Tool 25: Indicators for Air Quality Management Capabilities

Indicators are important tools for monitoring the air quality. They are the basis for
municipal air quality management such as emission control, information dissemination and
policy development. This tool helps you to get insights in how indicators are designed to
meet such specific needs.
Monitoring air quality usually generates large and complex data sets and often it is difficult
to draw coherent conclusions from it, especially in situations where decision makers have
less expertise with such a topic. The careful selection of the right indicators - appropriately
chosen for the citys specific need in terms of target audience, types and purpose of
information - is essential for a successful and long-term monitoring task. Designing
indicators is based on five key principles:
Transparent - aiding understanding of the functional relationship among the different

elements of the system;
Realistic - presenting an appropriate view of the system in terms of accuracy, knowhow and cost-benefit;
Scientifically valid - although popular knowledge can be used in case there is no

scientific information available;
Sensitive - responsive
demonstrate trends);
Accessible - derived from readily available data.
to
changes
in
the
system
(especially
over
time
to
The target audience for indicators of air quality management capability depends on the type
of information dissemination.
Decision makers in government or the municipal authorities with responsibility for
controlling air pollution levels in urban environments depend on accurate indicators for
policy making. Decision makers need to identify deficiencies in the capabilities of cities in
air quality management and develop appropriate responses.
Environmental activists in turn require indicators which allows them to pin-point air
pollution issues which are ignored by the formal decision makers. This can be community
groups, residents associations or even individual legal persons.
Research institutions require air quality indicators for scientific analysis, preparation of
scientific documents and as teaching materials.
Indexes representing the principal components of air quality management for which specific
indicators could be developed include the following:
Air quality measurement capacity index - assessing the ambient air monitoring
taking place in a city and the accuracy, precision, and illustrative accuracy of the
data produced.
Data assessment and availability index - assessing how the air quality data are
processed to enhance their value and provide information in a decision-relevant
form. The index also assesses the extent to which there is access to the air quality
information and data through different media.
140
Emissions estimate index - assessment of the emissions inventories conducted to

determine the extent to which decision-relevant information is available about the
sources of pollution in the city.
Management enabling capabilities index - assessing the administrative and

legislative framework through which emission control strategies are introduced and
implemented to manage air quality.
Table 25.1 Indicators of Air Quality Management Capabilities

I. Air Quality Measurement Capacity
Indicators for chronic
health effects
A monitoring site in a residential area with an acceptable

frequency of at least once every six days, for main pollutants
like NOx, SO2, PM, CO, Pb and O3. This monitoring site should
be operating continuously for over a year.
Indicators for acute

health effects
A monitoring site in a residential area operating over a year,

which provides daily or hourly mean values each day for the
pollutants NO2, SO2, PM, CO and O3.
Indicators for trends

in pollutant
concentrations
A monitoring site in a residential area which has been

monitoring for over five years and capable of providing the
annual mean values for the pollutants, NO2, SO2, PM, CO, Pb,
O3.
Indicators for spatial

distribution of
pollutants
At least three sites, one site in each of the predominantly

residential, commercial and industrial area of the city. These
sites should have been monitoring for at least one year using
equivalent equipment and methodologies with a monitoring
frequency greater than one in six days for the pollutants NO2,
SO2, PM, CO, Pb, O3.
Indicators for
kerbside
concentrations
A site monitoring within 3 metres of the roadside or kerb

operating for one year or more, at least one day in six days for
NO2, SO2, PM, CO, and Pb.
Indicators for data

quality
Instruments calibrated at least monthly;

Calibrating and analysis conducted using certified solutions or
gases;
Site audits conducted to compare measurements from different
instruments in the network (inter-comparisons);
Auditing procedures conducted by an independent body;
Sample analysis and audits performed by a laboratory with an

accreditation certificate;
Sites reviewed at least every five years to ensure they are still
meeting the objectives of the network and hence are
appropriate;
Data are validated (critically assessed) before they are finally
ratified;
Comparison exercises are conducted between different
measurement techniques and / or instruments from other
networks.
II. Indicators of Data Assessment and Availability

Indicators for
analysing data
Statistics and data analysis determined from raw data include:

daily, monthly and annual means; daily, monthly and annual
maximum values; percentiles, exceeding of national or WHO air
quality standards; trends; spatial distribution (mapping);
exposure assessment; epidemiological studies; modelling with
meteorological measurements; predicting modelling;
use of computers in data assessment.
Indicators of data
dissemination
Air quality information about the city is available as raw data, in

newspapers, on television and radio, on the Internet, and on
municipal information boards.
Data are accessed either through published reports which are
readily available, internal reports and bulletins or on request
Air quality warnings are issued to the public during episodes of
pollution.
III. Indicators of emissions estimates

Indicators of source
emissions estimate
Estimates of emissions from major polluting sources are

available e.g. domestic, commercial, power generating facilities,
industrial, motorised transport.
Indicators of
pollutant emissions
estimate
Estimates of emissions from major pollutants are available e.g.

NOx, SO2, PM, CO, Pb, CnHn.
Indicators of the
accuracy of
The emissions inventory is calculated using either estimates

based upon some actual measurements or estimates based
141
emissions estimates
142
upon fuel consumption statistics and emissions estimates only.

Emissions from non- combustion processes are included.
The inventory is cross-checked (validated).
Inventories are upgraded every two years and plans are in place
for such future inventories.
Indicators of the
availability of the
emissions estimate
Details of the inventory are either published in full or partially

available.
IV. Indicators of air quality management capability tools

Indicators for
assessing air quality
acceptability
Acute ambient air quality standards have been established for

major pollutants e.g. NO2, SO2, PM, CO, O3.
Chronic ambient air quality standards have been established for
NO2, SO2, PM, Pb.
Regulations exist to enforce compliance with air quality
standards.
Local air quality standards or guidelines are being introduced
and/or amended in the future.
Indicators for using

air quality
information
Emissions controls imposed upon sources such as cars, buses,

domestic dwellings, heavy industries, light industries, etc.
Penalties imposed for exceeding emission limits from sources
Local air quality considered in development strategies, e.g. the
development of new roads, industrial plants, etc.
Unleaded petrol available in the city.
Additional emission controls are imposed during episodes of
particularly poor air quality.
Source: Air Quality

GEMS/AIR, UNEP
Management
and
Assessment
Capabilities
in
http://themes.eea.eu.int/Environmental_issues/air_quality/indicators/#
20
Major
Cities-
143
Tool 26: Some Environmental Management Principles

This tool aims to give an overview of globally acknowledged and commonly used
environmental management principles. It should also provide you with some background
and practical examples on common directives and licensing models. These principles cover
air quality management concerns as well as environmental management in general. The
following principles are explained:
1. Opportunity Cost Principle
2. Polluter Pays Principle
3. Pollution Prevention Pays
4. The Principle of Long-Run Perspective
5. The Principle of Interdependence
6. Everything Must Go Somewhere
7. Best Technical Means versus Best Practical Means
8. BATNEEC - Best Available Technique Not Entailing Excessive Costs
9. IPPC Directive
10. Best Available Techniques (BAT)
11. As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA)
12. Precautionary Principle
13. Extended Producer Responsibility
1.
Opportunity Cost Principle

The scarcity of a resource implies that there would be competing uses of that resource. And
when there are such competing interests, opportunity costs arise. Opportunity costs may be
defined as those costs of an opportunity foregone by not utilising a resource in an
alternative way. The opportunity cost principle requires that if a scarce resource or good is
put into specific use, the opportunity costs have to be considered. The benefits of a specific
use have to outweigh its opportunity costs. The opportunity costs principle guarantees that
goods and resources are put to their best use. It is a manifestation of the principle of
rationality.
As a guide for environmental policy, this principle mandates that a specific use of the
environment provide benefits that are more than the opportunity costs. For example, if a
city decides to build a sanitary landfill on vacant land that it owns, the opportunity cost is
some other thing that might have been done with the land and construction funds instead.
In building the landfill, the city has forgone the opportunity to build a hospital on that land,
or a sports centre, or the ability to sell the land to reduce the city's debt, and so on. The
opportunity cost is also the loss of environmental quality. The use of environment for
assimilative purposes cannot be continued if the opportunity costs, that is, loss of
environmental quality, is greater than the benefits of this use, i.e. facilitating the
production of private goods. If, on the other hand, the environment is used as a public
good for consumption, the opportunity costs are given by the implied restraint on the
assimilative capacity and, consequently, on the production of private goods. So this
principle works both ways.
2.
144
Polluter Pays Principle

Polluter Pays is a principle in government whereby industries causing pollution or
contamination are obliged to pay for their damage to the environment either through
directly funding clean-up work or through taxation. This principle has a number of
advantages: it allocates the opportunity costs of environmental protection in a reasonable
way from the public to the private sector. Instead, commodity prices include environmental
costs in addition to the production costs.
Therefore, where the polluter pays principle is an applicable policy, an industry polluting the
air in a city might be told to reduce pollution and invest in pollution control, invest in
cleaner technology or pay an emissions fee. The industry might be held responsible for
measures taken to reduce or mitigate the effects of the air pollution, such as contributing to
the restoration of damaged cultural heritage.
3.
Pollution Prevention Pays

Following the principle that prevention is better than cure it is usually cheaper to prevent
pollution than to minimise its effects at a later stage. Investing in clean industrial processes
and products usually has higher investment costs, which might be amortised through lower
taxation of other incentives. Industries increasingly realise that pollution is often a waste of
resources. Like hot cooling water is dumping energy away that might be used for other
purposes.
The advantage of pollution prevention can be summed up as follows Pollution control is a
cost while pollution prevention/cleaner production is an investment.
For example, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
National Pollution Prevention Policy
Under Section 6602 (b) of the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990, Congress established a
national policy that:
pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source whenever feasible;
pollution that cannot be prevented should be recycled in an environmentally safe

manner whenever feasible;
pollution that cannot be prevented or recycled should be treated in an environmentally

safe manner whenever feasible; and
disposal or other release into the environment should be employed only as a last resort
and should be conducted in an environmentally safe manner.
Definitions of Pollution Prevention and Source Reduction

Pollution prevention means "source reduction," as defined under the Pollution Prevention
Act, and other practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants through:
increased efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources,
or
protection of natural resources by conservation.
The Pollution Prevention Act defines "source reduction" to mean any practice which:
145
reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering

any waste stream or otherwise released into the environment (including fugitive
emissions) prior to recycling, treatment, or disposal; and
reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the
release of such substances, pollutants, or contaminants.
The term includes: equipment or technology modifications, process or procedure

modifications, reformulation or redesign or products, substitution of raw materials, and
improvements in housekeeping, maintenance, training, or inventory control.
Specific Pollution Prevention Approaches
Pollution prevention approaches can be applied to all pollution-generating activities,
including those found in the energy, agriculture, Federal, consumer, as well as industrial
sectors. The impairment of wetlands, ground water sources, and other critical resources
constitutes pollution, and prevention practices may be essential for preserving these
resources. These practices may include conservation techniques and changes in
management practices to prevent harm to sensitive ecosystems. Pollution prevention does
not include practices that create new risks of concern.
In the agricultural sector, pollution prevention approaches include:
reducing the use of water and chemical inputs;
adoption of less environmentally harmful pesticides or cultivation of crop strains with

natural resistance to pests; and
protection of sensitive areas.
In the energy sector, pollution prevention can reduce environmental damages from
extraction, processing, transport, and combustion of fuels. Pollution prevention approaches
include:
4.
increasing efficiency in energy use;
substituting environmentally benign fuel sources; and
design changes that reduce the demand for energy.
The Principle of Long-Run Perspective

Pollutants often accumulate over a long period in the environment and damage will often
become apparent with the passage of time. Examples include the accumulation of DDT in
food chains, the transport of Freon (trade name for a group of chlorofluorocarbons used
primarily as a refrigerant.) for over two to three decades into the ozone layer and eventual
penetration of nitrites into ground water systems.
Not only must the opportunity costs of environmental degradation be specified in long-run
but also the opportunity costs for environmental protection. A long run orientation of
environmental policy is absolutely necessary because some abatement activities are capital
intensive and some also take many years to put into place. In many countries, the time
between a piece of legislation is drafted and the time it is actually approved/passed for
application is usually quite long.
5.
146
The Principle of Interdependence

Environmental systems are interdependent and represent a complex network of interaction.
In an ecosystem, all the biotic and abiotic components interact with each other to ensure
that the system is perpetuated. Any outside interference may result in an imbalance and/or
the extermination of the system.
Distinguishing different environmental media such as air, water or land is only an auxiliary
analytical device since the subsystems are related to each other in a multitude of ways. The
interdependence of environmental media implies an interdependence among pollutants
from the point of view of environmental policy. This interdependence is due to the following
reasons:
Pollutants are linked through environmental systems and diffusion occurs between them.
Pollutants present in the air can be deposited into water systems, and pollutants present in
rivers, lakes and ocean can get into the atmosphere by evaporation. Similar relationships
exist between air and land as well as water and land. This diffusion can also be through
ecological systems such as food chains;
Pollutants may be linked to each other by the emission technology.
Pollutants may be interrelated through the production technology. If a specific pollutant is
reduced, another may increase. For instance, cutting down carbon monoxide in combustion
engines is likely to increase nitrogen oxides.
Environmental policy must take these interdependencies between environmental media,
between abatement, emissions and production technologies and between and among
pollutants into account. If an environmental policy addressees itself only to a particular
pollutant, a particular media, a particular abatement or production technology, it is likely to
fail in the long run. Environmental policy should therefore be integrative and should
encompass all environmental media and pollutants.
6.
Everything Must Go Somewhere

When something is thrown away, it disappears from sight but it does not cease to exist. It
ends up somewhere. For example, gases released in smokestacks or as vehicular emissions
may disperse but it will end up as a component of the atmosphere or brought down by
rains. What a particular type of waste does to the earths repository should be of concern to
all.
This principle opens our eyes to the need to turn back from a throw away attitude.
Methods of waste management must be studied carefully for adoption wherever
appropriate.
7.
Best Technical Means versus Best Practical Means

In addressing air pollution, it is recommended that the focus be on the best available
techniques rather than on emissions reductions only. This is especially applicable for
specific industrial processes. This principle allows local governments to make action plans
for implementing the best available techniques and /or affordable techniques together with
the industries themselves. This usually results in a more realistic action plan that would
receive commitment from the actors involved. Furthermore, it is easier to monitor whether
industries have shifted towards best available pollution control devices than to monitor their
exact emissions.
8.
BATNEEC - Best Available Technique Not Entailing Excessive Costs
147
This principle is based on the best technique that is available and is applicable when dealing
with air quality standards. The technology in question should be Best at preventing
pollution and Available in the sense that it is procurable by the operator of the activity
concerned. Technology itself includes techniques and the use of techniques, such as
training and maintenance. NEEC sets out the balance between environmental benefit and
financial cost. It was commonly used in the European Union.
9.
IPPC Directive
The European Union has a set of common rules on permitting for industrial installations.
These rules are set out in the so-called IPPC Directive of 1996. IPPC stands for Integrated
Pollution Prevention and Control. In essence, the IPPC Directive is about minimising
pollution from various point sources throughout the European Union. All installations
covered by Annex I of the Directive are required to obtain an authorisation (permit) from
the authorities in the EU countries. Unless they have a permit, they are not allowed to
operate. The permits must be based on the concept of Best Available Techniques (or BAT),
which is defined in Article 2 of the Directive. In many cases BAT means quite radical
environmental improvements and sometimes it will be very costly for companies to adapt
their plants to BAT. To impose new and considerably tougher BAT rules on all existing
installations in the European Union could jeopardise many European jobs, and therefore the
Directive grants these installations an eleven year long transition period counting from the
day that the Directive entered into force.
(see also: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ippc/)
10. Best Available Techniques (BAT)

In the identification of BAT, emphasis is placed on pollution prevention techniques,
including cleaner techniques and waste minimisation, rather than end-of-pipe treatment.
Consideration must be given to energy efficient techniques and practices and to the
efficient use of raw materials, chemicals and water. Hazardous substances should be
substituted by less hazardous substances whenever possible. Measures such as in-plant
changes, process recycling and reuse, improved material handling and storage practices,
must be employed to effect reduction in emissions.
For example, in Ireland, BAT was introduced as a key principle in the IPPC Directive. To
meet the requirements of the Directive, relevant sections of the EPA Act 1992 were
amended to replace BATNEEC with BAT. The fundamental criteria for determining BATNEEC
and BAT are very similar.
A system of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) licensing came into effect in
Ireland on 12 July 2004. The primary aims of IPPC licensing are to prevent or reduce
emissions to air, water and land, to reduce waste and to use energy efficiently. The IPPC
system replaces Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) as the licensing regime applicable to
certain industrial activities in Ireland.
11. As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA)

ALARA is an acronym for an important principle in radiation protection and stands for "As
Low As Reasonably Achievable". The aim is to minimize the risk of radioactive exposure.
This compromise is well illustrated in radiology. The application of radiation can aid the
patient by providing doctors with a medical diagnosis, but the exposure should be
reasonably low not to induce other cancers or sarcomas (Wikipedia).
There are four major things one should monitor when exercising the ALARA concept.
Shielding - Use proper barriers to block ionising radiation.
Time - Spend as little time in radiation fields as possible.
Distance - Stay as far away from radioactive sources and fields as possible.
Amount - Use as little radioactive material as possible.
148
For example, in 1995, the Netherlands Government opened an Information Centre for
Environmental Licensing. The centre has been set up primarily to provide licensing
authorities with information, but industry can also make use of it. The idea is that licensing
authorities, by using appropriate and up-to-date information, should be able to apply the
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle as referred to in the Environmental
Protection Act. The information centre has started by integrating existing information
facilities regarding air pollution, energy, soil remediation technology and the helpdesk of
the facilitating organization for industry. Information regarding legal aspects is also
provided. According to the plans, the scope of the information centre will be broadened to
cover the information needs of licensing authorities regarding all environmental aspects.
The information centre will be extended, with information on water, waste prevention and
environmental care systems. A further assessment of the "market" for information will be
performed, the results of which will lead to further completion of the information system.
Quality, accessibility and cost-effectiveness are also under the permanent attention of the
management. A connection to Internet is planned. An easily accessible data base of stateof-the-art technology has to be created. Up to now information has been available only by
telephone or mail (see further information under:
http://www.un.org/esa/agenda21/natlinfo/countr/nether/eco.htm).
12. Precautionary Principle

Given the uncertainty that surrounds our knowledge of ecosystems and processes and the
way in which these systems respond to changes in the environment, the precautionary
principle provides a means to ensure that, as much as possible, the needs of the future
generations are not compromised. Rather than take undue risks, this principle cautions one
to be more prudent and thus avoid/prevent the likelihood of the problem arising. This is the
principle cited by environmentalist on the issue of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
and nuclear plants.
On the other hand, where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, the lack of
full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental degradation.
13. Extended Producer Responsibility

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a policy tool that extends manufacturer's
responsibilities beyond their current accountabilities - for worker health & safety, consumer
safety, and production costs - to also include responsibility for life cycle costs of their
products and associated packaging. Essential to EPR is its mandate for producers to take
back' their end-of-life products and create closed looped systems that prevent pollution and
the inefficient use of resources. By promoting a cradle to cradle responsibility, EPR
enforces a design strategy that takes into account the upstream environmental impacts
inherent in the selection, mining and extraction of materials, the health and environmental
impacts to workers and surrounding communities during the production process itself, and
downstream impacts during use, recycling and disposal of the products. The ultimate goal
of EPR is to encourage cleaner, safer materials and production processes, as well as to
eliminate waste at each stage of the products life cycle (further information under
http://www.grrn.org/epr/epr_principles.html).
149
Tool 27: Environmental Management Instruments

There is a range of instruments available to be used in strategies for urban environmental
management. Three main groups can be distinguished:
1.
Policy and Law Instruments
These are instruments based on the mandate of the government to force people to comply
with rules and directives issued by the government. Examples of these instruments are
laws, policy directives, licences, permits, local government ordinances, and physical plans.
It is clear that these instruments need a system of inspection, monitoring and enforcement,
to ensure compliance and penalize those that do not comply.
2.
Economic Instruments
These are instruments that use the market mechanism to influence peoples behaviour.
They are based on incentives or disincentives. Examples of economic instruments are
grants, taxes, fees such as emission fees and road users fee, etc. This needs an effective
delivery system to provide the appropriate incentives and disincentives.
3.
Communication Instruments
These are instruments that try to convince the audience of the necessity to do something or
not to do something. They include advertising, television programmes and commercials,
public meetings, brochures, etc. Media campaigns on the ill effects of using leaded gasoline
are a concrete example of a communication instrument.
Experiences in many countries have shown that the best strategies use a mix of
instruments, preferably as many as possible from the different categories, whenever they
are applicable. These instruments actually complement each other. For example, economic
incentives work best when people know that there is strong enforcement. Thus, if used
appropriately, this mix of instruments will ensure more effective environmental
management.
Tool 28: Some Technical Concepts and Terms Explained

Units and Abbreviations
Compound
Explanation
BaP
benzo[a]pyrene, is the best known and most-measured PAH
CO
Carbon Monoxide
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
NOx
Oxides of Nitrogen
PAH
Policyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PAN
Peroxyacetyl nitrate
PVC
Polyvinyl Chloride
PM10
Particulate Matter of 10 microns or less
SPM
Suspended Particulate Matter
SO2
Sulfur Dioxide
TSP
Total Suspended Particles
VOC
NMVOC
Volatile Organic Compounds
Non- Methane Volatile Organic Compounds
Units
m
metres
gram
mg
milligrams (10-3 grams)
150
microgram (10-6 grams)
ppm
parts per million (volume/volume)
ppb
parts per billion (volume/volume)
mg/m3
milligrams per cubic metres
g/m3
micrograms per cubic meter
151
152
Units
Mass:
gram
Length:
metres (m)
Area:
square meter (m2)
Volume:
cubic metre (m3)
Capacity:
litre (l)
Time:
seconds, minutes, hours, days, year
Energy:
Watt (W)
Temperature: degree Celsius (oC)

Pressure:
atmosphere (atm)
Conversion Factors
Sulfur dioxide
0oC, 1 atm
25oC,1 atm
2,856g/m3
1 ppm = 2,860g/m3
SO2
Carbon Monoxide
1mg/m3 = 0.35 ppm

1.250mg/m3
CO
Nitric Oxide
1 ppm = 1.145mg/m3
1mg/m3 = 0.873 ppm
1,340g/m3
1ppm = 1,230 g/m3
2,050g/m3
1 ppm = 1,880g/m3
NO
Nitrogen Dioxide
NO2
1 g/m3 = 0.000532 ppm
Benzene
1 ppm = 3.19mg/m3
C6H6
1mg/m3 = 0.313 ppm
Hydrogen Sulphide
1ppm = 1.5mg/m3
H2S
1mg/m3 = 0.670 ppm
Vinyl Chloride
1ppm = 2.589mg/m3
VC
1 mg/m3 = 0.386 ppm
Toluene
153
1ppm = 3.75 mg/m3

1 mg/m3 = 0.226 ppm
Trichloroethylene (TCE)
1ppm = 5.4mg/m3
C2HCl3
1mg/m3 = 0.18 ppm
Tetrachloroethylene
1ppm = 6.78mg/m3
C2Cl4
1 mg/m3 = 0.14 ppm
Styrene
1 ppm = 4.2mg/m3
C6H5.CH=CH2
1mg/m3 = 0.24 ppm
Formaldehyde
1 ppm = 1.2mg/m3
HCHO
1mg/m3 = 0.833ppm
Peroxyacetyl nitrate
1 ppm = 5mg/m3
PAN
Carbon Disulphide
1 ppm = 3.13mg/m3
CS2
1mg/m3 = 0.32 ppm
Ethylene dichloride
1ppm =4.12mg/m3 (at

20oC)
(1,2-Dichloroethane, DCE)
C2H4Cl2
1mg/m3 = 0.242 ppm
Dichloromethane
1 ppm = 3.47mg/m3
CH2Cl2
1 mg/m3 = 0.28 ppm
Ozone
2,140g/m3
1 ppm = 2mg/m3
O3
*For conversions between ppm, ppb, mg/m3 and ug/m3: MolWeight x PPM = 24.45 x
mg/m3 or MolWeight x PPB = 24.45 x ug/m3
For additional unit conversions see the attached Conversion Table.
154
Terms:
Acute Health Effects:
Those immediate health effects resulting from exposure to an episode of air pollution e.g.
asthma attack. In certain conditions, acute episodes of air pollution are also associated with
an overall increase in respiratory and cardiovascular mortality.
Adverse Effect:
Any effect that may affect the performance of the whole organism or that reduces an
organisms ability to respond to an additional pollutant.
Background Concentration:
The normal concentration of a particular air pollutant occures naturally in the environment
(also without any human activity). This is determined by the natural characteristics of an
area like the presence of deserts, volcanoes, etc.
Carcinogenic:
A substance that causes abnormal, uncontrolled growth of cells or cancer, like lung cancer
or leukaemia. This includes benzene, benzo-a pyrene (BaP) and heavy metals like lead,
arsenic, nickel, cadmium etc.
Carcinogenic and Toxic Health Effects:
Those health effects resulting from exposure to carcinogenic (cancer causing) substances.
Cardiovascular Disease:
Heart related disease
Chronic Health Effects:
Those health effects owing to long term exposure to lower levels of pollution e.g. bronchitis
resulting from SO2 exposure, or the increased respiratory and cardiovascular mortality
observed in a number of epidemiological studies due to exposure to particulate matter.
(ENDS, 1994)
Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA):
An analysis of the costs of pollution abatement versus the benefits to be derived from such
abatement measure: both of which are expressed in monetary terms.
Cost Effective Analysis (CEA):
An analysis of the costs of abatement measures whose benefits are expressed in physical
terms such as reduced emissions or reduced concentrations.
Dispersion Model:
A dispersion model is a software programme that assesses/calculates the concentrations of
a specific pollutant on the basis of the emissions of the polluting activity sectors, at a
certain point in time and space. These models account for geographic factors such as wind
speed, temperature and direction. e.g. CAR International, IMMIS LUFT, BLB etc., Dispersion
155
models help to limit the complex and often expensive ambient air monitoring since it
calculates the ambient air quality in a given area and identifies where the emissions are
likely to have an impact. However, regular monitoring will remain important to validate the
models and determine the natural background concentration.
Emission:
Any measurable air contaminant, pollutant, gas stream, or unwanted sound from a known
source which is passed into the atmosphere
Emission Control Device:
Any device that is placed in a system to reduce the amount of air pollutants released into
the environment.
Emission Factor:
This is a constant which relates the emission of a certain compound to the input or output of
another compound by the same source, e.g. the emissions of SO2 by a factory can be
estimated from its coal consumption. Emission factors are useful in cases where emissions
data are missing. They can be used to make a rough estimate of emissions, based on
economic activities, traffic and number of households, followed by the use of dispersion
models to assess concentrations.
(OR: a numerical estimate of the mass of one or more air contaminant produced by a given
amount of material processed by an industrial facility or, in the case of transportation
sources, per mile driven (by a given vehicle using a particular fuel). It is important to note if
the emission factor is for an uncontrolled source or one with properly functioning air
pollution control equipment. This factor is used to arrive at a rough estimate of the total air
emissions for a facility or a geographical area.)
Emission Inventory:
A compilation of estimated air emissions by pollutant from smokestacks, cars and other
emission sources in a given area.
Emission Standards:
Legal limits on the degree or quantities of pollutants that are permitted to be discharged to
the atmosphere from specific sources or process, e.g. emissions from vehicles or from
industrial sources.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
The process of analyzing the probable environmental effects, both positive and negative, of
a proposed project, programme or policy and suggesting ways to mitigate the adverse
effects, including the identification of alternatives or other ways of implementing parts of it.
Episode:
A series of short-term air pollution events that significantly alter the ambient air quality of
an affected area.
Lowest Achievable Emission Rate:
Any technology or combination of technologies and process controls that result in the lowest
possible emission of a given air pollutant. The technology must be reasonably demonstrated
to be appropriate and reliable for the given application.
156
Lowest Observed Adverse-Effect Level (LOAEL):

The lowest experimental dose of a chemical at which there is statistically or biologically
significant increase in the severity or frequency of a toxicity effect.
Mobile Sources:
Those sources of pollution that emit pollutants along their path of movement e.g. road
transport and off road mobile sources.
Mutagen:
A substance that causes mutation or the alteration of the basic genetic structure of any
living organism
No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL):
The highest experimental dose of a chemical at which there is no statistically or biologically
significant increase in the frequency or severity of a toxicity effect between an exposed
group and its appropriate control.
Respiratory Effects:
Air pollution problems related to the respiratory/ breathing difficulties, sometimes resulting
in acute effects like asthma and fatal heart attacks.
Stationary Sources:
Those sources of air pollution that emit the pollutants from a fixed-point e.g. industrial
plants, power generation facilities, domestic cooking and heating, agricultural activities etc.
Threshold:
The point below which the environment is not harmed by any pollutant.
Threshold Value:
Denotes the concentration of a pollutant below which no negative effects are expected.
Threshold Level:
The minimum dose of a toxic substance that causes harmful effects in any ecosystem.
Threshold Limit Value (TLV):
The concentration of an airborne contaminant to which workers may be exposed regularly
without adverse effect. The TLV recognizes that there are some individual variations among
workers and that maintaining exposures within the limits may not prevent discomfort or
aggravation of a pre-existing condition in some individuals. Most TLVs represent average
exposures and some fluctuations during the day is possible without causing adverse effects.
Wavelength:
The distance separating one wave crest from the next in any uniform succession of traveling
waves.
157
Tool 29: Where to Find Further Information on Air Quality

Management
The Internet offers a vast amount of information related to Air Quality Management. Using
popular Internet search engines may already get you satisfactory results. Online
encyclopaedias, such as Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org) offer you detailed and recent
information for many air quality topics.
This tool provides you with a small selection of information sources which are relevant to
this toolkit. Many of the sites listed here contain useful information including online air
quality data, air pollution facts and air quality related management options. They also
contain links to other useful homepages. You will also find contact addresses for inquiring
further information. Although particular care was taken to verify the relevant links of the
various sites, please be aware that the content and links of such sites on the Internet may
change continuously.
The links in this tool are grouped into national and international institutions (including local
governments), research institutes, pressure groups and private sector organisations.
The selected sites do not involve any commercial interest to any of the listed institutions or
private companies. The authors and publishers of this book will take no responsibility and
liability for the content and its correctness of third websites.
Local Governments
Mexico City Air Quality Report
http://www.sima.com.mx/valle_de_mexico/reporte.htm
This site informs the public on the actual air quality situation of the various parts of Mexico
City. It provides concentrations of O3, NO2, SO2, CO, PM10 and UV-Index on an hourly
basis and classifies them in a popular way (satisfactory, not satisfactory, bad, very bad). It
also contains general information on atmospheric pollution, explanation of units and indexes
used in air quality management. The information is available in English and Spanish.
Stockholm Environment and Health Protection Administration - Stockholm Air
Quality
http://www.slb.mf.stockholm.se
The site contains descriptions of Stockholm's air quality management system. It gives an
overview of the air quality situation in Stockholm on a regular basis with daily, monthly and
yearly levels of pollutants. Data are obtained form the monitoring stations and generated
through advanced modelling.
Moscow City Government: State of the Environment in Moscow
http://www.md.mos.ru/eng/
A report produced within the Sustainable Cities Programme. The site informs for example
about the air pollution situation in Moscow, and about the Moscow Integrated Environmental
Action Programme. Available in Russian only.
Jakarta, Indonesia:
Estimating the Health Effects of Air Pollutants, A Method with Application to Jakarta, The
World Bank, 1994. Apart from dust, lead and sulfur dioxide, it can also be used to predict
the health effects of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and ozone. The methods discussed are illustrated
with a city example of Jakarta.
158
National Initiatives
Pollution Control Department in Thailand: Air Quality and Noise Information System for
Thailand
http://www.aqnis.pcd.go.th/
The site presents daily air quality reports, and gives an overview of the management
system for air quality management in Thailand. Available in English and Thai.
Environment Canada: Smog Facts
http://www.ec.gc.ca/air/smog_e.html
This is a homepage presenting information about smog and its components, as well as the
smog situation in Canada.
Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand
http://www.casanz.org.au
The society promotes the protection of the environment through organising training
courses, conferences etc. The site contains many useful links and addresses.
Clean Cities Program
http://www.eere.energy.gov/cleancities/
The mission of the Clean Cities Program is to advance the nation's economic,
environmental, and energy security by supporting local decisions to adopt practices that
contribute to the reduction of petroleum consumption. Clean Cities carries out this mission
through a network of more than 80 volunteer coalitions, which develop public/private
partnerships to promote alternative fuels and vehicles, fuel blends, fuel economy, hybrid
vehicles, and idle reduction.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) - Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards
http://www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/index.html
This U.S. EPA site provides a lot of information on air quality in the U.S.
International Organisations
World Health Organisation (WHO)
http://www.who.int/phe/en/
WHO dedicates a health topic section at the Protection of the human environment (PHE)
site. WHO Air Quality Guidelines and other tools can be found there.
Various air quality initiatives of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
www.unep.org
UNEP's Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE), France
www.unepie.org
UNEP's International Environment Technology Centre(IETC), Japan
159
www.unep.or.jp
Clean Air Initiative
http://www.cleanairnet.org
The Clean Air Initiative (CAI) advances innovative ways to improve air quality in cities by
sharing knowledge and experiences through partnerships in Latin America, Asia and SubSaharan Africa. It is a support programme of the World Bank and regional Development
Banks that brings air quality managers and other stakeholders together in the development
and implementation of air quality action plans.
The Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) promotes and demonstrates innovative
ways to improve the air quality of Asian cities through partnerships and sharing
experiences.
The Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa was launched in 1998 as a response to an
increase in air quality problems in the region. Urban air pollution tends to increase with the
rate of urbanization.
EMMA, Integrated
Metropolitan Areas
Environmental
Monitoring,
Forecasting
and
Warning
Systems
in
http://www.axp.mdx.ac.uk/emma/index.html
The site is a presentation of EMMA, a project financed by the European Commission. The
project compiles data on air quality in four European cities. The site provides further links to
sites with air pollution information, and online air quality data from several cities in (mostly
European) countries. Available in English, French, Italian, and Spanish.
ISIS: Integrated System for Sustainability, Life Environment Programme, European
Commission, 1997. This report contains a guide on the general health and social impacts of
one specific activity sector, i.e. road transport. It explains how the broad adverse health
effects of traffic-related air pollution can be assessed. It also covers the health and social
effects of transport.
Research Institutions
World Resources Institute:
www.wri.org
The World Resources Institute's programme on Health environment and development
provides useful input into the efforts to understand the impacts of air pollution and climate
change.
School of Environment, Resources and Development, AIT
http://www.serd.ait.ac.th/
Through its academic programs and outreach units, SERD, AITs largest School, has been
working towards capacity building and human resource development in the areas of
environmental and resources management, poverty alleviation and socio-economic/gender
development.
Atmospheric Chemistry and Air Quality Glossary
http://www.shsu.edu/~chemistry/Glossary/glos.html
Senior level class students created this glossary at Sam Houston State University, U.S.A. It
contains words and expressions, from Abatement to Zeolite. References and hyperlinks are
160
being updated on a continuous basis. The current 2005 version marks the tenth year of this
project.
Air quality modelling
http://www.dar.csiro.au/
A CSIRO Atmospheric Research site describing air quality modelling using the Lagrangrian
Atmospheric Dispersion Model (LADM).
Non-Governmental Organisations
Center for Science and Technology (CSE)
www.cseindia.org
CSE is an NGO with programmes including air pollution and climate change. Useful insight
on the impact of this popular sector on environmental management issues, especially in
terms of policy research, advocacy, public awareness raising, education and training, is
provided in their website
Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning /Global Lead Network
www.globalleadnet.org
Global Lead Network provides resources and support for those working on lead poisoning
prevention around the world. The site is designed to assist agencies, NGOs, researchers,
concerned citizens and all stakeholders interested in developing solutions. It features
information, tools, on-line translations and a searchable database of organizations and
individuals with relevant expertise and experience. The global lead Network is sponsored by
the Alliance to end Childhood Lead Poisoning.
Public/private organisations
The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI)
http://www.smhi.se/en/index.htm
SMHI offers extensive know-how in air pollution control in many countries globally. SMHI is
using an environmental information AIRVIRO software system for e.g. acquiring data,
analyses of data and modelling (http://www.airviro.smhi.se/)
Air and Waste Management Association (A&WMA)
www.awma.org
A & WMA is an organisation that provides training, information and networking opportunities
to 12,000 environmental professionals in 65 countries. The association publishes
publications and arranges conferences and workshops. It is based in U.S.A., but has
sections and members worldwide. The site is also of use for non-members, and it contains
many useful links.
International
(IPIECA)
Petroleum
Industry
Environmental
Conservation
Association
http://www.ipieca.org
IPIECA includes both petroleum companies and associations at the national, regional or
international levels. The association is involved in global environmental issues related to the
161
petroleum industry. It has developed an urban air quality management toolkit, and has
activities in Latin America and South East Asia.
Spare The Air
http://www.sparetheair.org
The Spare the Air Program was established by the Bay Area Air Quality Management District
to educate people about air pollution, and to encourage them to change their behaviour to
prevent it.
162
Tool 30: Software

The Air Quality Toolbook CD-ROM contains some software which allows you to view
documents, to undertake exercises and to manipulate data. Please note that the CD-ROM
contains free and non-propriatary software which are continuously updated and published
for download on the respective websites.
For all software packages, please follow the installation steps.
Acrobat Reader 5.1
For opening and viewing PDF files.
OpenOffice 1.1.4
In case that you don't have an Office Suite installed on your

computer, you can use OpenOffice. This software is free and
contains all features similar to Microsoft Office. OpenOffice
contains a spreadsheet programme which you can use for
Tools 8, 9, 10, 11 and 13.
Firefox 1.0.4
If you are tired of Microsoft Internet Explorer, use Firefox. It

is free and it is more fun.
WinZip 9
For unpacking ZIP files, please install this demo version.
Models
CALINE4 model
see TOOL 14
CAR model
see TOOL 13
IEUBK
Adult and Child Blood Lead Level (BLL) Prediction Tool

Available for download at
http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/lead/products.htm
Indoor Pollution
ver 1997; ver 2000
This is a Microsoft ACCESS database file which requires

Microsoft Office Professional (see TOOL 18)
Nairobi, 2005
163
VOLUME, MASS
AND LENGTH
C O N V E R S I O N S A N D O T H E R UN I T S
TO CONVERT
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
atmospheres
centimeters
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic feet
cubic inches
cubic meters
gallons
inches
kilograms
liters
liters
liters
microns
miles/hour
milligrams
pints
pounds
pounds of water
pounds/cubic ft
quarts
tons (metric)
tons (short)
tons (short)
watts
INTO
feet of water
inches Hg
kilogram/square meter
lb/sq inch (psi)
mm Hg
inches
cubic meters
gallons
liters
cubic centimeter
liters
liters
centimeters
pounds
cubic yards
cubic feet
ounces (fluid)
meters
feet/minute
micrograms
milliliters
grams
cubic feet water
kg/cubic meter
liters
kilograms
pounds
tons (metric)
BTU/hour
MULTIPLY BY:
33.90
29.92
10,332
14.70
760
0.3937
0.02832
7.48052
28.32
16.39
1000
3.785
2.540
2.205
1.308 E-3
0.03531
33.814
1 E10
88
1000
473.2
453.6
0.01602
16.02
0.9464
1000
2000
0.9072
3.4129
Units: Volume / Weights / Measurements

Volume
Cu cm
Cu in
Cu m
Cu ft
=
=
=
=
Capacity
Liter
=
Liter
=
Liter
=
Cu in
=
Cu ft
=
Gal
=
Weight
0.610 cu in
16.39 cu cm
35.31 cu ft
0.0283 cu m
Gram
Oz
Kg
Lb
=
=
=
=
0.0353 oz
28.3 gram
2.204 lb
454 gram
Length
2.205 lb of pure water at 4 C
0.0353 cu ft
0.2642 gal (US)
0.0164 liter
28.32 liter
3.785 liter
cm
in
meter
ft
km
mile
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.3937 in
2.540 cm
3.281 ft
0.3048 m
0.6214 mile
1.610 km
Used with permission of Dr. Jack Caravanos, as excerpted from Appendix A of "Quantitative Industrial Hygiene:
A Formula Workbook".

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AQM Toolbook

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

Tool 1: Factors Influencing Urban Air Quality

(a) Geographical Setting

(b) Climatological and Meteorological Factors

(c) City Planning and Design

urban sprawl - increases demand for commuting and generation of traffic;

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

congested low income settlements - mixed uses and activities;

industrial areas - pollution emitting factories;

(d) Human Activities in Urban Areas

Factors Influencing Urban Air Quality

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

quality problems. Municipal administrations are challenged to respond to these

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

Tool 2: City Air Quality Profile

Nature and Role of the Air Quality Profile (AQP)

To provide an overview of the citys development activities and their interaction

To identify stakeholders who contribute to or are affected by air pollution.

Structure of the Air Quality Profile

the citys development sectors,

air as a resource, and

the urban management systems.

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

Annotated outline of an Air Quality Profile

First Chapter: City Introduction

1.1 Physical Features

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

1.2 Social Aspects and Population Characteristics

1.3 Economic Setting

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

Second Chapter: The Development Setting: Activity Sectors

2.1 Characteristics of the Citys Activity Sectors

2.2 The Use of Air as an Environmental Resource by Each of the Activity

Third Chapter: The Environment Setting: Air as an Environment

3.2 Competing Interests between the Activity Sectors

The Most Affected Stakeholders

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

The Responsible Polluting Activity Sectors and the Underlying Reasons

such as industries without pollution control equipment; traffic; heating; waste

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

3.3 Specific Management Arrangements to Deal with Environmental Conflicts

Fourth Chapter: Air Quality Management

4.2 Urban Air Quality Management Structure

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit

Tool 3: Air Quality related Activity Sectors

Factors Influencing Urban Air

Open formal/informal mining pits;

Type of mining (i.e. water blasting

Quantity of minerals under

Commercial, large scale agriculture

Inner-urban backyard gardens and

Heavy industry, such as steel, cement,

Concentration of industries (number

Light industry, such as manufacturing,

Size of industry (in production

Industrial emission data

Stack heights (in meters);

Density of traffic (# of vehicles on

Urban Air Quality Management Toolbook - Toolkit