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Students perceptions of
problembased learning
a

Muthu Kumar & Galyna Kogut

National Institute of Education , Nanyang Technological

University , Singapore
Published online: 22 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: Muthu Kumar & Galyna Kogut (2006) Students perceptions of problembased
learning, Teacher Development: An international journal of teachers' professional development,
10:01, 105-116, DOI: 10.1080/13664530600587295
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Teacher Development
Vol. 10, No. 1, March 2006, pp. 105116

Students perceptions of problem-based

learning
Muthu Kumar* and Galyna Kogut
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
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Teacher
10.1080/13664530600587295
RTDE_A_158712.sgm
1366-4530
Original
Taylor
102006
10
kumarl@nie.edu.sg
MuthuKumar
00000March
and
&
Development
Article
Francis
(print)/1747-5120
Francis
2006Ltd
(online)

Problem-based learning has in recent times aroused keen curiosity due to its pedagogical orientation
of facilitating students active construction of knowledge. As a curriculum model it is designed
based upon the solving of either simulated or real-life problems that generally tend to be ill-structured and open-ended. In such a model students are encouraged to become independent, selfdirected learners who determine their own learning outcomes. Against the backdrop of such an
instructional setting, the teachers traditional role undergoes a paradigm shift from being authoritative to facilitative. The teacher now becomes situated as an active partner in the learning transactions by scaffolding the learning processes of the students at appropriate junctions. In this article the
authors look at a study that the first-named author conducted to elicit feedback from a class of 25
first-year polytechnic tertiary students for the module of cognitive processes and problem solving.
These students have been exposed to problem-based learning methodologies throughout their
entire curriculum for two semesters. This study identifies both the inherent strengths and limitations in implementing problem-based learning modules at institution-wide levels.

Introduction
The focus of education in general has undergone major revamps over the twentieth
century and in tandem, learning paradigms have changed course with the current
emphasis being heavily placed on constructivism. Constructivism empowers students
to become active participants in the learning interactivities and take charge of their
own intellectual development. Constructivism involves active cognitive processing
where learning is made meaningful through activities like thinking out loud, developing alternative explanations, interpreting data, participating in cognitive conflicts
(constructive arguing about phenomena under study), development of alternative
hypothesis, the design of further experiments to test alternative hypothesis, and the
selection of plausible hypotheses from among competing explanations (Saunders,
*Corresponding author. National Institute of Education, Centre for Research in Pedagogy and
Practice, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore-637616. Email: kumarl@nie.edu.sg
ISSN 1366-4530 (print)/ISSN 1747-5120 (online)/06/01010512
2006 Teacher Development
DOI: 10.1080/13664530600587295

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106 M. Kumar and G. Kogut

1992, p. 140). Through such a process of hypothesis formulation and evaluation,
negotiated meaning making and decision making, students effectively build up new
functional mental schemas and propositions of conceptual understandings by linking
up the new knowledge to existing knowledge representations. Thus, a constructivist
epistemology enables the activation of students prior knowledge gained through
earlier learning experiences and provides students with flexible cognitive scaffolds to
integrate new information within existing knowledge structures in innovative ways
(Crowther, 1997). Curriculum that is designed and organized with constructivism as
its underpinning philosophy satisfies the following desired outcomes of education
worldwide in the modern era: (1) the ability to be an independent, autonomous, lifelong learner, and (2) the development and application of higher-order thinking (Tan,
2004).
Problem-based learning (PBL) is one effective pedagogical technique that is
becoming increasingly popular in its use within educational ecologies to promote
constructivism.

Key conceptual elements

Problem-based learning is an instructional method that challenges students to learn
through working cooperatively in groups to seek solutions to real-world problems
(Duch et al., 2001). Knowledge construction through problem-based learning is
premised on the assumption that learners would experience cognitive dissonance
upon exposure to the problem scenario and attempts would be made to discover
answers to explain the dissonance (Tan, 2002). As an epistemological framework
problem-based learning essentially includes the following five key components:
1. The use of real-world or simulated problems to provide an authentic context for
students that act as motivational drivers for learners. The problems generate
patterns of deep learning, arouse learners curiosity and facilitate their exploration of a myriad of issues from multiple and often conflicting perspectives.
2. Students set their own learning objectives by analyzing what they know, what
they dont know and what they need to find out to solve the given problems. This
entails the need for students to exercise metacognition in diligently planning and
monitoring their own learning progress.
3. Multiple resources are selected and provided as well as opportunities for students
to independently access other relevant resources. These resources could be
media, electronic or print based. Access to a rich variety of resources enables
students to develop deeper understanding of both content-specific knowledge
and conceptual meaning making processes related to solving the problems.
4. A suite of recursive learning activities in problem solving that involves experimentation, data collection, reflection, critiquing and communications in attempts at
investigation of the problems.
5. The teachers role shifts from one of being a sage on the stage as in traditional
classroom dynamics to one of being a facilitator or one who functionally supports

Students perceptions of problem-based learning 107

learning engagements by providing appropriate verbal cues to create a more
student-centered learning environment where there is a willingness to reflect
critically and deepen ones own thinking (Savery & Duffy, 1995; Hmelo &
Evensen, 2000).
These five key components of a problem-based learning system are buttressed by the
development of the following foundational cognitive skills amongst students:

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actively seeking and locating new information from a variety of resources;

integrating the new information with what is already known;
organizing the new information in coherent ways through sound mental models;
explaining the newly understood knowledge to others to validate its relevance and
applicability (Watson, 2004).

Though not mentioned by Watson, collaboration through groupwork and peer

tutoring is another important skills construct in a problem-based learning model
which drives the successful implementation of a problem-based learning program.
Collaborative learning revolves around the central theme of collective inquiry consisting of iterative cycles of reflection and action in cooperation with a group of peers to
seek answers to the problems and questions posed (Bray et al., 2000). Tan (2004)
explicates that there are four vital elements in a collaborative learning environment.
Firstly, collaborative learning promotes an active engagement with the dialogue
process, in essence affirming that learning is a social act involving discussions, shared
understandings and interpretations, verbal expressions and explanations and physical
gestures. Secondly, collaborative learning involves co-construction of knowledge
within a group where the new knowledge is intrinsically considered as the common
property of the group. Thirdly, collaborative learning entails the shifting of the locus
of authority from the traditional teacher to the learning community and from rigid
authoritative classroom ecological structures to more dynamic and negotiated relationships between the members of the learning community, which includes facilitators. Lastly, collaborative learning fosters a learning environment situated in critical
openness involving stimulation of rational thinking, self-assessment and critical
appraisal of others cognitive reasoning.
Background to the study
This small-scale study was conducted in a polytechnic tertiary institution in
Singapore where Muthu Kumar facilitates problem-based learning modules for firstyear students. As a newly formed educational organization where premium is placed
on innovative and stimulating teaching practices, this polytechnic has instituted pedagogical reform measures by implementing problem-based learning methodologies for
all curriculum subjects and at all academic levels of study. A curriculum design based
upon a problem-based learning model was adopted by policy-makers in line with the
overarching goal of the polytechnic of empowering students to be reflexive, self-regulated and autonomous learners. This design was predicated on the premise that

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108 M. Kumar and G. Kogut

encouraging a pervasive learning culture of problem analysis and solving would serve
as the catalyst in provoking students to embrace new ideas, critique and question both
their own and others viewpoints, and engage in meaning making and consensus
building. Epistemologically and ontologically, problem-based learning is inherently
contextual, where assigned problems are generally anchored in real-life scenarios.
Such an instructional approach being a marked departure from traditional learning
systems of information delivery and acquisition, was not unexpectedly initially met
with consternation, apprehension and varying degrees of resistance from teachers,
students and parents. However, the management of the polytechnic made concerted
efforts in reaching out to and educating its stakeholders through generative publicity
that highlighted the benefits gained through a problem-based instructional design
approach. Chiefly, such a design enables students to make organic connections
between their prior knowledge and new knowledge being constructed through dealing
with authentic problems that mirror real-life situations. In the process, students gain
deeper conceptual understandings that aid them in better transferring and applying
the new skills and knowledge learnt to workforce situations upon graduation. Such
publicity campaigns aimed at raising stakeholders awareness have yielded increasingly positive results with the majority accepting the utility and relevance of a problem-based instructional approach, though some continue to raise concerns and
objections to implementing it on a large scale.
Students work in teams of five on a given PBL problem from the different modules
(from various disciplines) each day of the week. The assignment of members to each
team is left arbitrarily to the discretion of each facilitator who conducts the class.
Usually, team membership is periodically rotated so that each student will have
collaborated with every other student in the class by the time the semester ends. Each
PBL problem carries a set of learning outcomes, a context for learning activities and
exploration (articulated in the problem statement) and scope of assessment. The day
is typically structured with three meetings which facilitate interactions between facilitator and student groups on how best the problem can be approached and tackled.
At the third meeting students in their groups are required to present their solutions
to the entire class and have to be prepared to defend their solutions with sound arguments in the face of critiquing by both the facilitator and fellow students. At the end
of the daily class, a number of activities are carried outa quiz, a reflection journal
(Learning Log) entry, self and peer evaluation. All of these are done individually and
together with the team presentations are assessed for the cumulative grades to be
awarded for the days work. Particularly of interest to this study is the reflection journal, in which a log is kept of students personal opinions on their learning experiences
for the day, in response to the prompt (often in the form of a question) posed by the
facilitator. Students submit their written entries as part of the reflection journal and
get feedback from the facilitator. This studentfacilitator interaction is carried out via
the platform of the institutions electronic learning management system.
For the purpose of this study, the sample population of students came from a class
of 25 students for the module of cognitive processes and problem solving. The
students in the class ranged in ages from 17 to 19 and they were an even mix in terms

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Students perceptions of problem-based learning 109

of gender distribution. Though coming from different schools of disciplinary specialization such as applied sciences, engineering, and information and communications
technology, this module of cognitive processes and problem solving is a common
subject for all first-year students and thus brought the students under study together
within the same class. At the closure of the class for the day, the prompt question of
What is your understanding of problem-based learning and what do you feel about
your learning through this approach? Why? was posed to the students and they were
instructed to ponder over the many learning issues embedded in this question before
articulating their views in their reflection journals. Thereafter, Muthu Kumar gathered students electronic postings corresponding to their names and examined them
individually based upon patterns of logical reasoning and scientific thinking.
One fundamental ethical question that was involved in this study was the issue of
informed consent. Being both the facilitator for the class and the researcher for the
study, Muthu Kumar had easy access to students electronic reflection journal
entries. Ethical requirements called for voluntary participation. At the onset of the
class he explained the nature and purpose of his research study and explicitly
disclosed to the students that their reflection journal inputs for the day would be
analyzed as part of the data for the study.
Methodology of data analysis
Students personal feedback and opinions in the reflection journals were the prime
source of data that were qualitatively examined through content analysis in this study.
Engaging students in reflective learning practices and allowing them to make their
own evaluations of problem-based learning experiences align well with Williamss
(2000) participant-oriented model and Pattons (1997) user-focused approach. In
this way, participants and users (in this context students) are encouraged to express
their values and rationale for their evaluation decisions in cooperation with others.
Employing an approach of descriptive research analysis allowed Muthu Kumar as
the researcher to gain an in-depth insight into students interpretations and understandings of the principles encompassing problem-based learning. The analysis also
provided him with the bigger picture of students personal filtered version of problem
solving learning experiences. Reflection journal inputs were first scanned analytically
and then different thematic categories were jotted down on paper according to the
different strands of ideas expressed by students on how they perceived their problem
solving experiences. Codes were next created in Atlas-ti, a software for qualitative
data analysis to represent these different categories and the textual data documenting
students feedback in the reflection journal were then run through and tagged with
the appropriate labels of these codes. The body of textual data was eventually filtered
and segmented according to these various codes of thematic categories. Findings are
presented in the following sections and these have been organized and arranged
according to the defined categories. For purposes of clarity of expression and ease of
reading, comments on issues raised by student participants within each category have
been paraphrased. A few sample direct, representative quotations taken from

110 M. Kumar and G. Kogut

students reflections have also been included for each of these issues to forge a better
understanding of the thoughts generated by students. Interspersed are Muthu
Kumars own perspectives of the epistemological elements involved in a problembased learning design vis--vis students standpoints.
Findings and discussions

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Strengths of problem-based learning

Self-regulated, independent learning. A majority of the students expressed the opinion
that problem-based learning is an approach that is a marked departure from traditional classroom teaching practices, which tend to be didactic in nature with massive
amounts of information being spoon-fed by teachers to students through the
medium of textbooks. They felt that being active participants in the problem solving
activities by formulating their own strategies to seek potential solutions to the problem, exploring alternative hypotheses and weighing the merits of each hypothesis
before deciding on the best solutions, empowered them to become independent,
self-directed learners. Students need to generate questions to trigger intellectual
discussions in class and invite critical responses from facilitators to stimulate cognitive development. One student aptly described the problem solving attempts with
the analogy of being thrown into the deep sea and being asked to swim back to the
shore on his own.
Learning through this approach allows us to be more independent as we learn to think, ask
questions and look for answers before getting the right information rather than being
spoon fed straight away.
One interesting thing about the PBL system is that we are required to find all the solutions
on our own. The facilitators are there to only guide us. We, on the other hand, have to find
everything from the scratch unlike back in our secondary school days where we were literally spoon fed with all the answers.

Deep thinking and making meaning through knowledge construction. Though

cognitively more demanding, the majority of students felt that in the course of learning, the
given problem solving tasks made them ponder over issues more deeply, analytically
and from various angles of reasoning in trying to tackle problems and make decisions.
This echoes research developments that have shown that unlike behaviourist models
that consider thinking and action in learning to be separate and divisible, studentcentered constructivist perspectives on learning emphasize that the two constructs
are integral in student engagement (Wu & Forrester, 2004). Not having to sit
through a battery of examinations, which are usually modeled to test rote learning,
was repeatedly mentioned by a number of these students as an added relief in
experiencing problem-based learning.
I feel that this is a better approach for students to learn rather than the traditional method
because the traditional way requires us to memorize and sit for 2 hour long exams but PBL
is a method that allows us to make our own inferences. Since we do the learning on our

Students perceptions of problem-based learning 111

own, we will know and get it into our brain (not forcing like in traditional methods). This
approach also makes learning more interesting. It also helps us to be more aware about
how to learn so that we can be successful life long learners. These few advantages already
make me feel that I am in Heaven school!

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I understand that problem-based learning is a method of gaining knowledge without

actively receiving information from teachers and textbooks. This learning system requires
us to do our own research to solve a problem. We have to really put in our own efforts by
searching the resources and using our own creativity and thinking skills on how to solve
the problem. It is really a fresh and innovative learning approach where we, students are
given real-world problems to solve. I think learning this way helps me to really understand
the processes, rather than just memorize the facts.

Tapping the affective domain of learning. Three students highlighted the benefits
gained from an affective perspective on learning. The autonomy in controlling their
own learning progress spurred many students to conceptualize and plan more
meticulously in bridging the gap on what they already knew and what they needed
to learn to achieve their predetermined learning goals. This intrinsically motivated
them to be aware of cognitive processes and be engaged in metacognition in order
to cultivate pivotal lifelong skills. This is in line with the findings of other researchers who found that the goal of learning is to encourage students to be reflective
critical thinkers who demonstrate a consistent motivation to be aware, inquisitive,
confident, tolerant and judicious when weighing options and intellectually honest
when evaluating others perspectives (Facione et al., 1996; McCombs & Whisler,
1997).
Problem-based learning enhances my understanding through more relevant, connected
learning and taps my natural curiosity about the world around me to ignite my motivation
for learning.
At the end of the day, I feel so glad and satisfied as we have gained knowledge without the
aid of teachers and textbooks and that makes me feel that I am no longer dependent and
I believe that the quality of my understanding on that particular modules have improved
due to PBL system.

Contextual learning. A significant number of students stressed the fact that the problem solving skills they acquired in the course of deconstructing problems and exploring relevant solutions would put them in good stead in preparing for the workforce of
the future that they will be entering into when they graduate. Since real-world or
simulated complex, unstructured problems are given to students, learning becomes
embedded in meaningful contexts:
My understanding of problem-based learning is that we are given problems that we might
face in our working environment or problems that are related to the module and we learn
through solving these problems. I think learning through this approach is good as we will
remember better what weve learnt and we also learn to work in groups which is what we
might be doing when we go out into the workforce. Also learning this way makes us more
active in thinking rather than being passive.

112 M. Kumar and G. Kogut

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The demands of the knowledge economy require us to be highly flexible and responsive to
a fast changing society. PBL learning method is able to achieve a qualitative change in a
persons way of seeing and experiencing. Learning is about what and how we learn,
rather than how much we remember.

Collaborative/cooperative learning. Understandably, seven students also highlighted

the advantages of the social/collaborative aspects of learning brought about by problem-based learning. Since, in the case of the participant students, their lessons were
conducted in groups of five this unleashed high levels of cooperative intellectual and
interactive synergies. The learning experiences helped students to collectively
analyze multiple perspectives on various issues through the lens of critical openness
and identify the strengths and pitfalls of each of these viewpoints. Students also
learnt to engage in collaborative interpretations, dialogues, negotiated meaning
making and ultimately, forge shared understandings as members of a cohesive learning community:
PBL encourages me to identify learning needs and determine the resources that I will need
to use to accomplish solutions for problems. With independent learning comes considerable teamwork with other students and faculty. Collaboration is an essential skill for me to
gain as I will most likely be working as a member of teams in my respective workplaces in
the future. This improves ones communication skills.
Since the strong emphasis on PBL allows me to interact with people of different backgrounds and personalities, Ive picked up practical communication, teamwork and problem solving skills which I believe, are extremely useful for the future both in job and career
prospects.
Teammates have different prior knowledge and opinions when we are discussing and so
we learn from one another. I feel that working with different people is a good practice
because when we are working we cannot choose who to work with. We have to work with
those we dislike and this is a good time for me to learn how to get along with people and
also work in teams. Other than this, everyday we have to present our work which I feel is
a good practice for us because during secondary school life most of us did not get a chance
to present or were afraid to present. This allows me to improve on my presentation skills.

Limitations of problem-based learsning faced by students

The strengths of problem-based learning are evidently clear from the descriptions
and insights of participant students in this study and this has also been corroborated
by similar findings of other researchers. However, no one learning system is
completely perfect without any drawbacks. Most of the current literature on problem-based learning documents the pedagogical and psychological advantages of
employing a problem-based instructional methodology in curriculum design.
However, few research studies have been undertaken to study the limitations of
using a problem-based instructional approach. This study surfaced some of the
following pertinent learning obstacles students faced in engaging in problem solving
which we hope would be helpful in improving the quality of problem-based learning
design.

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Students perceptions of problem-based learning 113

Structural/operational problems. Opportunities for collaborative efforts at solving the
problems in teams at times resulted in misunderstandings and lack of interactional
cohesion when some of the team members failed to resolve conflicting perspectives
patiently through dialogue and negotiations. This problem especially plagued groups
where students were unaware of or didnt put into practice effective communication
skills. Other impediments experienced by students undergoing problem-based learning included encountering problems that were not well crafted, working with instructors with poor facilitation skills. Yet another major obstacle faced by students was
coming to terms with a different set of expectations brought about by the rather
abrupt transition from secondary school classroom instructional milieu that is traditionally teacher centered and didactic to the current one that is essentially student
centered and dialogic in texture:
Im rather satisfied and I think Im improving on my understanding on how to go about
learning and solving questions, though the resources can be quite lengthy and some of the
work is tedious. This will eventually take a toll on my concentration, I have to admit.
However, this new method of learning is very tedious as we are given very little help and
mostly required to do it ourselves.
It is rather frustrating because when we need the help of the facilitators, we are unable to
directly get any answers from them. Instead, they would question us again on what is our
motive or objective in asking them the question. It can also be irritating when some of the
group members fail to contribute anything to the presentation.
The con about PBL system is that, sometimes at the end of the day, we realize that we do
not fully understand the objective and motive of the problem.

Assessment problems. Twelve students raised concerns about the nature of the
assessment structure used to evaluate daily learning performance. Though holistic
in its outlook with its various evaluation components of team presentations, reflection journal inputs, quiz scores and self and peer assessment, the overall assessment format was deemed by these students to have a high degree of subjectivity,
thus resulting in bias. These students were unanimously emphatic in pointing out
that the assessment system allowed some students to be free-riders or those who
fail to actively participate in group meetings or contribute constructive ideas but
are awarded better grades by non-discerning facilitators due to their better and
often outspoken communication abilities. Thus, facilitators at times mistakenly
evaluate these lackadaisical students to have played a key role in leading and shaping group dynamics towards attaining the shared goal of framing an acceptable
solution. As one student aptly put it: Facilitators ought to closely observe more on
actual learning behaviors and educational achievements rather than on what it
seems to be. A few other students highlighted that a few unprincipled students
tended to plagiarize others reflection journal entries and submit them as their own
work. Thus, facilitators need to be cautious in sieving out these students and
assigning them appropriate grades. The following are the reflections of some of
these students:

114 M. Kumar and G. Kogut

We have seen how teams have had to put up with members who did not do anything,
leaving either 1 or 2 to work out the problem on their own. These people in the end will
eventually get credits since they are able to talk their way out during presentations.

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I personally think that there is a bit of injustice in the system of assessment. This is so
because from my own experience, some pupils who do not fully play their part and
responsibilities were given credits for their daily grade and worse still these pupils got
better grades than those who deserve them. Referring to the team presentation itself is
not enough, based upon my experiences since there are a number of my classmates who
do not even participate in the team discussions. Neither do they contribute voluntarily
nor do they try to cooperate with us. It is only during the presentation time, that these
people will tend to speak more especially when they are better speakers of the team, leaving an impression to the facilitator that they have done their job well when actually they
didnt.

Based upon some of the difficulties highlighted by students and Muthu Kumars own
prior experiences of facilitating problem-based learning sessions, he has expounded
on the following four areas of concern that educators working in problem-based
learning environments need to bear in mind:
1. Though problem scenarios themselves tend to be ill-structured and complex in
nature in terms of allowing for multiple solving strategies and outcomes, problem
triggers need to be crafted definitively and focused in context and scope.
2. Strategies that teachers adopt in facilitating problem solving learning activities
need to strike an even balance between giving away too much information by
providing outright correct answers, against being too guarded, elusive and
vague in responding to students questions. A preferred approach would involve
providing appropriate mediation, scaffolds and verbal cues in the form of probing
and meaningful questions that dont frustrate the students but rather provoke
cognitive discordance in their minds and fuel their thinking powers to explore an
array of possible solutions.
3. The amounts and types of resources provided if lengthy might impose unnecessary cognitive overloads due to limited curriculum time. This could result in shallow, superficial learning with students not having sufficient time to thoroughly
examine the content of a large number of resources.
4. Keen observation from facilitators during classroom interaction times in being
aware of the dynamics of learner behaviors to be able to assess students more
rigorously.
Learner characteristics and dispositions towards problem-based learning
Students who were more developed in their self-directed, self-regulated learning skills
and who focused on mastery learning and achievement strongly favored the problembased learning curricular model. These students having a keener sense of metacognition were aware of ways towards achieving their goals. Thus, these students found
goal setting and sub-task monitoringtwo important facets of problem-based learningeasier to manage.

Students perceptions of problem-based learning 115

On the other hand students with low self-reliance and awareness and a high dependence on external factors such as constant facilitator guidance and extrinsic motivational rewards found the problem-based learning methodology more challenging.
Due to a lack of skills in managing autonomous learning, these students found it
initially difficult to cope with the demands of the system. However, after a sustained
period of exposure and practice they are now better able to adapt to the system.

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Conclusion
The most difficult instructional development moment for a student is at the transition
from knowledge as a discrete entity to a conception of knowledge specific to contextual relationships (Perry, 1970). In this article, the authors have documented the
movements of the learning trajectories of students who, having exited from traditional
secondary school classroom instructional environments, now have to manage the
challenges of problem-based learning environments in their polytechnic. Problembased learning as an educational process involves the active participation of students
in interactive dialogues and discussions which are sustained by probing questions
posed by teachers to invoke purposeful thinking in students to guide them in solving
problems. These problems could either be simulated or real-life to stimulate students
cognitive and intellectual development. In the process, students are encouraged to
think both reflectively and reflexively, which in turn fosters effective communication
and social skills in students to help them make their thinking more visible. The findings of this study, based upon student feedback and comments in the reflection journals, have been consistent with the work of other researchers such as Tan (2004) and
Weissinger (2004), who evaluated the effectiveness of problem-based learning strategies. These strategies were identified as providing numerous benefits such as
promoting a student-centered learning ethos and empowering students to become
autonomous learners who are responsible for their own learning. However, this study
has surfaced a number of significant difficulties faced by students in adjusting to the
learning mechanisms embedded within problem-based learning. These difficulties
need to be taken into account by educators and instructional designers who desire to
implement PBL in order to optimize learning outcomes and improve the quality of
problem-based learning instruction.
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