Level 3 Research Report

Author : Daniel Murr

Student ID : 33132610
Course : BSc (Hons) Music Technology
Module Tutor : Andrew Fryer

I hereby declare that all work in this report is my own,

unless referenced or cited otherwise.
Project Title : Can music of specific design invoke predictable
emotional response, and how might cultural
background/environmental factors affect our perceived emotions?

(source: http://www.brainbasedbusiness.com/uploads/amygdala-thumb.jpg 15/1/08)

Aims/Hypothesis
The aim of this report is to assess the factors which contribute to the emotional
value of a musical piece or performance. The research pertains to cultural
associations and differences from a compositional perspective, also discussing
environmental/social factors that affect the emotional content of an experience.
The report considers research in the fields of emotional response to audible
stimuli, spiritual music, culture-based emotive concepts, chemical processes of
emotion and memory, biological pre-disposition of musical preference, mental
association between music and emotive events, emotive production techniques
and non-musical compositional structuring. It is concluded that some aspects of
music are largely independent of culture although can be used as compositional
techniques. Also, that the perceived emotion by a spectator is largely based on
environmental and non-musical information as well as melodic/rhythmic content.
Speculation is offered on applications for the conclusions gathered, utilising data
from recent articles, books etc., displaying relevant research in an accessible
manner. The report begins by suggesting that musical perception is a cognitive
biological value system, and sets out research developing through the timeline of
tribal music to modern emotive analysis techniques. Topics of research are
conjoined by interpretations of the literature and how they relate to the title,
then offering the relationship and relevance to the next topic before moving on.

Introduction
Why do rhythms and melodies, which are mere sounds, resemble
dispositions, while tastes do not, nor yet colours or smells?
- Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Self-reflection and creative expression are two of the major factors that set
humans apart from the rest of the animal world. These cognitive abilities that
define us as a species have been with us since long before language, literature,
civilisation and documented history. From the earliest scholarly records, it is clear
that music, drama and other forms of creative entertainment were already at
large, and it would not be unreasonable to assume that they had been for many
thousands of years previous to that. Indeed scientific research suggests that
music may pre-date the homo-sapien dispersal from Africa(see Wallin, Brown, &
Merker, 2001). This report offers a discussion and criticism of research in the
fields of emotional response, perceptions stimulated by organised sound, and the
environmental/cultural factors which might affect our appreciation of a piece of
music.

Literature Review
Popular terms
In the interest of finer analysis it would be beneficial for me to define some
terms I will be using throughout the report. Emotion in common terms is largely
considered to be a current state of mood. When an event triggers an emotional
response, a contribution is made to ones mood. In this sense the two terms are
linked but not the same. An experience (in this context would be a sound, or
musical piece for example) that one perceives triggers an immediate cognitive
response that one interprets and appreciates according to a set of memorybased values that are largely dependant on factors like cultural background,
musical education, the environment or setting of the experience, current

psychological state etc. The appreciation of this event will loosely be referred to
as a direct emotion (or micro-emotion in the case of autonomous responses that
contribute to emotions, for example dissonance, noise etc.(see Huron, Music and
emotion: Thoughts on music and affect) as opposed to mood, which I will use
to describe the overall psychological state of the observer.
Rasa
Another term that will be under discussion is Rasa, literally translated as
flavour.2 This term originated in India and (in an experiential context) describes
the aesthetic appreciation by a spectator of a dramatic or musical performance
and the emotions provoked by it, leading to a sense of spiritual appreciation.
This concept is discussed in the earliest surviving Indian text on aesthetics - The
Nyaastra(attributed to Bharata (200500 CE) quoted in Higgins, An Alchemy
of Emotion: Rasa and Aesthetic Breakthroughs). Higgins goes on to offer a
description of this concept of transcendence of spirituality through aesthetic
appreciation:
the experience of rasa is itself an indication of a breakthrough on the part of an
audience member. The spectator optimally moves from awareness of the
emotional content of a performance (which is evident to virtually any member of
the audience of a competently performed drama) to a state of savouring the
dramas emotional character in a universalized manner (something that depends
on the particular spectators degree of spiritual development, as we shall see).
Music and Language
Language is today considered the golden medium for emotional expression, but
if music pre-dates language, it could be argued(and is by many) that music
invokes a direct emotional response on some lower level of communication:
Since all peoples of the world including the most isolated tribal groups, have a
form of music, scientists conclude that music must have been present in the
ancestral population prior to the dispersal of humans around the world13
This is not an unreasonable assumption, given that in the natural world most
animals respond to certain sounds(for example the call of the mother, mating
calls, etc) with a direct instinctive response. What is important to discern is that
the organisation of different sounds as a creative expression is a trait unique to
humans. This would suggest that music or organised sound is intrinsically linked
to our sense of self-reflection, emotional perception and artistic creativity. That is
to say that organising stimuli in order to perturb emotion is an attribute directly

linked to characteristics we consider to be human. This is emphasised in many

musical cultures with the support of language or lyrics. Given that the message
of any given lyric is largely interpretable and translatable, there is less mystery
regarding the emotional content of language, as opposed to non-linguistic
audible stimuli - this does not exclude the use of the human voice, merely the
lyrical content of a piece.
Ethnic and spiritual emotive concepts
This deep emotional connection to music is found in all cultures, in some form or
another. Indeed it is not an uncommon expression in western society to say that
a particular performance or piece of music was touching or even life-changing.
The identification with creative gestures, and their value to the self according to
memory, culture, and other factors, coupled with direct or reflexive emotions
(e.g. autonomous reactions to stimuli such as loud transients, dissonance, etc.
which can be intentional or accidental)(Huron, n.d) can trigger a very deep,
personalised appreciation of an experience.
So what can we discern regarding the understanding of this connection that
seems so natural and powerful to us? It has long been the goal of artists of all
types to discover the secret ingredient to captivating the imagination and
invoking a strong emotional link to an event. Could it be that such a factor exists
as to control the profundity of the emotional perception of the audience? Or
perhaps this rare appreciation stems from the listeners psyche as a
manifestation of their character, their cultural values, their musical education,
spiritual development and the context or setting of the experience? One could
reasonably suggest that there is room enough for both arguments.

Let us consider the most ancient peoples of the earth and their understanding of
music. In tribal communities music has always been a fundamental activity, often
with the whole congregation involved in celebration, song and dance. This sense
of group elation is arguably propagated by the psychological states induced by
the music, often utilising percussion. This tribal drumming plays on direct or
reflexive emotions (Huron, n.d) , as humans (like many other creatures)
instinctively respond to loud transient sounds. This may be because in the
natural world (and many cases in the civilised world) a transient or percussive
sound would signify a commotion or event of immediate interest (see Huron,
n.d). Utilising percussive and rhythmic patterns signifies an understanding of the
distracting properties of percussive sounds, and their use in a tribal group
context is to a specific and ancient purpose. The potential resultant perception
for the spectator is one of a trance-like state, a sense of absorption in the
rhythm and in the event. This of course is reflected in the genre of modern
dance music, with the style of trance sporting an obvious link.
Perturbation of emotional connection through intoxicants

It is often in these ancient tribal communities that this musical connection to the
mind is supplemented by intoxicants. This again is not a great leap from western
culture, and can be manifested in as simple a form as a karaoke bar. There is
however a more fundamental link to the perception of consciousness and aspects
of spiritual transcendence that are not commonly associated with popular music,
but rather ethnic, spiritual or religious music. It is with some apprehension that
one may approach the subject of intoxicants, nevertheless their relationship with
perception, emotion, spirituality and creative catalysis has long been of both
artistic and scientific interest. Since many drugs are used to control mood and
emotional states (anti-depressants etc) it seems appropriate to consider the link
between the two. In tribal cases the intoxicant of use depends largely on
location, cultural values and the local demographic of plant life. One particularly
interesting example of this is the Ayahuascaros of South America (McKenna,
1989). There, tribal communities engage in taking Ayahuasca-a combinatory
plant-based brew containing tryptamine (see Kidder, Ayahuasca : Sorcerers
Brew). In Ayahuasca the source of the visual hallucinations is DMT
(dimethyltryptamine), a metabolite endogenous to the brain and powerful
hallucinogen, produced most during heavy REM sleep (see DMT Information,
n.d) that induces visual hallucinations stimulated by sound. These communities
and practices have a strong association with the practise of shamanism. The
shamans are considered by their people to be the doctor, the priest and the
counsellor - a spiritual healer and guru - the power of sound is evident in his
practices. The shaman will take Ayahuasca in order to retrieve Icaros - magical
songs that he will use in his healing (see Kidder, Ayahuasca : Sorcerers Brew).
The measure of the shaman is his knowledge of the plant environment, and his
abilities as a spiritual healer and mentor. These are measured in that culture by
the quality of his Ayahuasca and the number and power of Icaros he knows.
Ayahuasca is also used in a group situation. The group will take turns to sing or
whistle, directing the group hallucination, literally sculpting the music in their
field of vision. McKenna(1991) describes the context of this practice with regard
to sound:
People in the Amazon insist on the importance of chanting as a vehicle of
expression when on tryptamine hallucinogens. This is a vital point, since in some
way sound can control the topology of the hallucinations.
The relation of this in the context of our problem is that from the
pharmacopoeia of the jungle to the wastelands of the desert, man has found and
utilised plant substances as a catalyst alongside musical expression to experience
this concept of emotional provocation, spiritual transcendence or Rasa.
Chemistry of Emotion

The logical implication of these relationships is that perhaps emotional response

to music or sound is controlled or influenced by a chemical balance in the brain.
It is known that sensory data is transported by the central nervous system (CNS)
to the brain. Chemical changes conducted by the synapses in the neuron via the
release of neurotransmitters (often tryptamine based3) are transferred to the
nuclei (grey matter)(see Patts,2000), where memory is said to reside. These
actions are perceived by the mind as the sensory information of the event, but
when recalled as a memory are intrinsically linked with the emotional content of
the experience. This suggests that though the chemical balance in the brain
plays a major role in the perception of an event and can be perturbed, other
various factors such as setting, emotional stability, direct or reflexive emotions,
cultural values etc. play a role in the appreciation of an aesthetic experience and
thus cannot be excluded.
Musical and non-musical compositional tools
Although the immediate features of a musical experience provide the building
blocks of our perception, our overall impression of the event is largely savoured
as a whole (one rarely defines a musical experience by a single tone or beat).
This would suggest the immediate factors of the experience are correlated in the
mind and compared against the values of the spectator, then manifested and
cognised with an emotional value. The immediate or reflexive responses can be
considered to be segmental(see Klaus R. Scherer & Marcel R. Zentner:
Emotional effects of music: Production rules, 2001). These are factors like tone,
timbre, frequency, harmonic content, volume etc. Because these factors are
more linked to instinctive responses, they can be considered largely to be
independent of cultural background (Scherer, Zentner 2001). These variables are
used in composition in structural forms to create melody, harmony, rhythm and
other identifiable emotive expressions that are based on environmental factors
(culture, musical education, setting etc)- these factors can be considered suprasegmental (Scherer, Zentner 2001). With these terms we can say that the
emotional value of an event is a resultant of supra-segmental values, which in
turn are a creative application of segmental values. The aesthetic appreciation of
the event depends on the correlation between the cultural and musical
implications of supra-segmental values, and the respective values of the
spectator. Furthermore, the event is recalled as a memory and considered in its
global structure - enabling further aesthetic appreciation of musical progression
and integration of reflections into the emotional value of the event. This can
create a strong emotional bond to a piece of music, and it is often said that one
is moved or touched by something in a performance(or that one experienced
rasa). The exact parameters of such a perception are vastly variable, but it would
be reasonable given this information to say that they are largely related to suprasegmental effects, and the identification of values therein that are a reflection of
ones own musical, cultural, mental and situational standing.

Cultural and Biological association

In order to better understand the concept of environmental factors affecting
personal taste, and the effect this has on our perception of music we must
discuss the elements that contribute to our social and cultural values. The brain
can learn by means of association, linking certain sensory data to mental triggers
that can invoke an emotional or physical response. This is also true in a social
context - exposition to cultural variations, belief systems, educational material etc
will lead to an association of values that one seeks to appreciate in a
performance. One or more of these factors being complementary to the
individuals value system enables appreciation to take place. For example, one
who has no preference for tribal music may travel abroad and experience a
profound emotional impact during a performance. This experience would not be
evidently caused by the music itself (as the spectator has no preference for it)
but rather the experience as a whole, affected by the location, the extremity of
being immersed in an unfamiliar culture etc. Strong mental associations also
exist on a smaller scale, and can greatly influence the perception of themes, for
example, hearing a siren would be associated with a police car, or a minor chord
would be associated with sadness (see Huron, n.d). Repeated and prolonged
exposure to these social and musical conventions has a direct effect on our
personal criteria for emotionally responding to a stimulus. This of course can
manifest in either a positive or negative reaction to any given piece.
Interestingly, people tend to either like or dislike a song as opposed to being
indifferent, as Scherer & Zentner (2001) describe there is little music that people find completely neutral and for which they are
impartial as to whether to listen or not, if given a choice. Judging from informal
evidence, most individuals seem to have little trouble in rating the degree of
preference or liking (or disliking) on standard scales.
It would seem that the occasion when someone responds to a given piece with a
strong emotional bond is somewhat rare. We must consider that the number of
factors contributing both to musical composition and personal aesthetic values is
vast, making it less likely for individuals to respond positively to experiences far
outside their own social or personal value systems.
Compositional use of segmental or non-musical effects
However, most emotionally evocative music does share common ground on a
segmented level. It is the use of segmented effects (I.e. tones, percussive
sounds etc) that enable supra-segmental structures to be created, and this is
where the culturally variable compositional differences occur for the most part.

There are compositional styles that rely more on segmented effects like
ambience, dissonance, dynamic effects, harmonic content and timbre(for
example minimalism)(Scherer, Zentner 2001). Because these styles focus less on
melodic structures and more on direct emotional response, the perception or
feel of the composition is of a very different nature to that of a melodic or
popular piece. Popular music generally focuses on a combination of suprasegmental effects such as melody, harmony, rhythm etc., although in the
compositional process segmental effects are used in a structural context to
enhance the emotive potential of the piece. An example of this would be the
introduction of strings in a chorus - the dynamic change and rich harmonic
content would signify structural development and focus the attention of the
spectator.
Non-musical segmental analysis - compression, frequency content etc.
There are numerous compositional uses of segmental effects - many
implemented in modern production techniques as well as traditional creative
processes. Research involving spectral analysis of music considered to be
emotive offers some interesting speculations on structural development of
segmental effects in a piece. The work of Ernest Cholakis (Anderton, Chokalis
2002) offers discussion of spectral progression in various emotive performances.
The analysis technique involves dividing the frequency spectrum of a piece into
bands, and plotting the amplitude envelope over time (Anderton, Cholakis,
2002). An example of such a graph is shown below:
U2's song 'With Or Without You' has a solid bass (upper graph) and treble (lower graph), and builds in

intensity over the course of the song, reaching a musical climax near the end. 7

(Source : http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/may02/images/chol13fig13.l.gif 10/12/07)

This technique of analysis allows the development of frequency content and

amplitude development to be displayed against time - in the above example we
can asses the segmental forms development throughout the piece, and derive

that higher frequencies ascend in amplitude as the piece develops into an

emotive climax. This supports the concept that segmental effects can be
expressed in a developing structure to emphasise the emotional progression of
the piece.
Sound graphs can illustrate production techniques as well as compositional
processes, enabling us to interpret possible effects such as compression,
filtering, equalisation etc.:
The treble envelope illustrates three 'overdrive sections' where the dynamic range narrows to less

than 6dB in the Smashing Pumpkins' song 'Bullet With Butterfly Wings'. 7

(Source: http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/may02/images/chol07fig07.l.gif 10/12/07)9

Here we can see the chorus sections outlined by the variance of dynamic range.
Again the theory that modulation or development of segmental effects can
contribute to the emotional perception of a given performance. Anderson &
Cholakis (2002) describe the effect of this technique:
Alternating between wide dynamic range and compressed passages give
a wider perceived dynamic range (as well as drama); in a sense this imitates the
experience of hearing a live performance.
The structural consideration of segmental effects in the context of production
techniques is common in modern recording. This is particularly evident in popular
rock and electronic music since production and spectral analysis techniques have

become more advanced. Segmental effects like filtering and modulation can have
an immediately noticeable effect on a phrase or passage, whereas compression
of passages can add to the audible impact of key points in the musical
arrangement that the producer may wish to emphasise.
Reflexive emotion - culturally independent?
Techniques such as this are useful in the analysis of non-musical progressions
over time. However, plotting such information necessitates that the frequency
spectrum be divided into wide bands, to avoid being affected by melody. This
precludes some segmental effects which can play an important and immediate
role in musical terms, for example dissonance. Interestingly, empirical evidence
from a number of experiments suggests that a biological pre-disposition to
emotive and physiological responses is present. Zentner & Kagan (1996,1998)
conducted a study of the reactions of infants on exposure to consonant and
dissonant versions of the same melody(Scherer & Zentner, 2001):
It was found that infants looked significantly longer at the source of
sound and were less motorically active to consonant compared with dissonant
versions of each melody. Further, fretting and turning away from the music
source occurred more frequently during the dissonant than the consonant
versionsthe human infant might possess a biological preparedness that makes
consonance more attractive than dissonance
This strongly supports the notion of segmental effects having an effect on some
intrinsic biological level. It could also be suggested that other segmental
factors(e.g. uncomfortable frequencies, harmonic content) have genetically predisposed responses. This accountability would explain culturally independent
emotive perceptions in both an immediate sense (I.e. rhythm, tempo, dynamic
effects etc.) and in a structural sense(I.e. structural development of frequency,
dynamic range, climax etc.). However, it only serves as a recognition of
segmental effects as a creative tool to emphasise or disrupt the perceived
experience of the event. Consider the above example of dissonance. Evidence
from research in both human and animal (see Borchgrevink, 1975) studies
suggests that there is a biological preference between dissonance and
consonance. However, in many popular musical progressions and sequences
dissonant chords are used to build tension, which is relieved or sustained with
further musical embellishment, developing the emotive potential of the piece.
What we must discern from this is that segmental features that are presumed to
be instinctively unattractive can be used in a compositional or situational context
to generate a positive emotional response. This response of course is subjective
to the spectator as based on their cultural, musical and personal values.

Findings
From the research discussed, certain associations must be made in order to
synthesise a useful analysis.
Music as a human value
The organisation of sound as a creative expression is a global feature of
humanity that pre-dates language and the earliest texts known. The earliest
forms of musical expression are considered to be vocal expression and
percussive expressions. Early texts document in detail aesthetic and dramatic
values (see Higgins, An Alchemy of Emotion: Rasa and Aesthetic Breakthroughs)
Music as a spiritual catalyst
Music in a traditional context has long been associated with ceremonial
proceedings, spiritual transcendence, drama and other forms of emotive
expression. (see Higgins, An Alchemy of Emotion: Rasa and Aesthetic
Breakthroughs)
Music as linguistic catalyst
Language plays a major part in the emotive content of a piece - it can
communicate a direct message that usually correlates with cultural and social
convention. This is evident in many ancient communities (see Kidder,
Ayahuasca : Sorcerers Brew, McKenna,1991 pp. 137-139)
Chemical influence
The emotive perception of the spectator is affected by chemical stimulation
derived from sensory information, personal value systems and memory. This
chemical balance can be perturbed therefore the reliability of an emotional
perception is variable, depending on mood and other psychological states. (see
Kidder, Ayahuasca : Sorcerers Brew)
Social/Cultural influence
What is consistent is that the brain makes associations between the sensory
information gathered and a memory-based value system defined by culture,
social involvement, personal preference and biological pre-disposition(see Klaus

R. Scherer & Marcel R. Zentner: Emotional effects of music: Production rules,

2001). Factors with a biological pre-disposition to emotive response can be used
in a compositional manner to enhance the emotive potential of a piece
(Anderton, Cholakis, 2002). However, segmental effects that occur outside
conventional compositional boundaries can have a detrimental effect on the
experience (factors like noise, timing errors and so on)(Scherer & Zentner, 2001).
Individual styles of music are largely related to location and local culture,
however the globalisation of various media sources has enabled many multicultural compositional aspects to appear in popular and contemporary music.

Secondary aesthetic perception

The weighting of the emotional content of the experience between segmental
and supra-segmental effects is not known(Scherer & Zentner, 2001), although in
the cases of extreme emotional response to a piece this result is commonly
associated with an emotive event, social situation or personal viewpoint of the
spectator(see Higgins, An Alchemy of Emotion: Rasa and Aesthetic
Breakthroughs).

Analysis
General subjectivity of emotional perception
There is yet to be a scientific or psychological statement that embodies the
phenomenon of the spectrum of emotional response to non-lyrical forms of
music. Fully conclusive definition of the parameters of emotional bonding with a
given piece can only be ascertained on an individual level, however this may
change with technological and psycho-analytical development. This section
attempts to discuss the current research in these areas and speculate on the
trends and differences that occur under the global umbrella of music, in order to
formulate as coherent and understandable a conclusion as possible.
Biological and reflexive emotional response
Empirical evidence from a number of studies (see Zentner & Kagan 2002,
Borchgrevink 1975) suggests that a biologically pre-disposed emotional response
to audible stimuli is present in both humans and animals. This concept correlates
with the suggestion that music and emotion have been linked to the human
psyche for far longer than language. Given that reflexive or instinctive response
to sound is present in animals as well as humans, it can only be assumed that
composition as a creative expression of emotion is a product of the unique

cognitive activity that has been with the species for millennia, that gave rise to
self-awareness, spiritual reflection, language and culture.
Mental Association
Mental association is a powerful factor when evaluating the emotive content of a
piece. Social and cultural conventions, repeated exposure or a dramatic event
can all cause mental association between music and personal
experiences/relationships that can increase the emotive connection.
it is important to recognize that not all appraisals arise from conscious thought.
Many or most appraisals are unconscious. For example, appraisals (good/bad)
have been shown to precede recognition/perception for some types of stimuli
(Posner & Snyder, 1977; Zajonc, 1980, p. 154, quoted in Huron, Emotion: A
Summary of Principal Research Findings).
This suggests that the perception of the event is directly affected by fast or
reflexive responses. The relationship between mental association and social
exposure is strong. Huron(n.d, Emotion: A Summary of Principal Research
Findings) describes the nature of emotion and describes it as valenced:
There are no neutral emotions. Emotions act as positive and negative
inducements to avoid or pursue particular courses of action.
This suggests that the autonomous appraisal of a musical performance always
results in a response of some sort. This can be a product of segmental effects,
which the reptilian (or fast) brain processes with a basic emotive profile. These
are instinctive responses used in the appraisal of possibly dangerous situations,
as Huron (n.d) describes:
Fast emotional responses appear to "assume the worst." Reflexive behaviours
often respond to innocuous stimuli as though they are life-endangering.
This suggests that musical stimuli can have a profound emotional impact on a
reflexive level. The conscious analysis of the aesthetic is a secondary process
which can inhibit certain effects if they are expected. This goes some way to
suggesting why popular music is largely based on repetition.

Non-musical perception and compositional values

There are multiple factors that can effect the perceived emotion from a musical

experience. Firstly are the reflexive or instinctive emotional responses. These can
be detrimental in many cases (for example, noise, uncomfortable amplitude) but
can also be used in a compositional context to enhance the emotive potential of
a piece(for example dissonant chords relieved by cadences etc). The use of these
effects is the result of cognitive recognition of the emotive potential of such
stimuli. That is to say that segmental effects occurring in an unprovoked or
contextually unconventional way will serve as detrimental to the perceived
emotion, whereas using the effects in the context of the musical structure to
emphasise key points can be a powerful compositional tool. Similarly, modal
scales of the same key invoke different feels which are used in musical and
harmonic composition. Even though the notes are all in the same key, the feel of
the scale is affected by the change of context (I.e. where the scale begins). The
use of these features enables a seemingly infinite combination of potential
compositional circumstances, which is represented by the variety of styles or
genres, limited only by the imagination of the composer and the human hearing
range.
Modern analysis and subjectivity
Modern analysis techniques are beneficial for mapping the development of
certain segmental effects over time, namely frequency content and dynamic
range, however the degree of emotional connectivity to such developments are
subjective and largely variable depending on the personal values of the observer
and the musical context of the effects. Culturally based uses of music vary, yet it
is unlikely that a spectator of different background will remain emotionally
indifferent on hearing a given piece of music. This suggests that the recognition
of organised sound and its aesthetic assessment is an autonomous process to
some degree, and the emotional content perceived by the conscious mind is a
result of sub-conscious processes that influence the perceived feel, mood and
personal value to the observer.

Conclusion/Application
Let us consider the title and aims of the report, and the possible applications that

could be derived from this research. The question can emotional response be
provoked from direct audible stimulus? has been considered at each stage in the
research, and the outcome seems to be that reflexive responses from the fast
brain can induce predictable neurological and physiological responses. This has
been supported by practical studies in both humans and animals. Because the
responses are a species-wide predetermination, they are largely predictable
therefore their compositional values are a fundamental of music. It has been
concluded that a biological pre-disposition to certain responses is present, but
these can be damped or overridden by the conscious mind if the stimulus is preempted. However, the predictability of stimulus is largely defined by
compositional conventions that differ according to culture and social focus. The
slow or conscious mind evaluates the aesthetic experience from a combination
of sensory information, reflexive emotional information, and memory-based
association. The manner in which culture and events affect our emotional
response to music is a resultant of the powerful associative nature of the human
learning process. The spectator develops powerful associations between cultural
values, compositional conventions and personal taste. The aesthetic of the
experience and its emotional value is relished by the spectator - a feat of
memory and awareness of context in relation to the self, suggesting that music
and creative expression have been intrinsic to the species for millennia.
Considering the question how does culture affect our perceived emotional value
of music?, it can be said that social and cultural values are as intrinsic to the
species as music - both products of self-awareness and creative expression. The
two factors propagate and support each other, acting to invoke emotional
responses based on the perception of the event and the aesthetic appreciation of
it. But is it possible to invoke a desired reaction from any given spectator?
Largely not, because personal value systems and cultures vary greatly in
compositional conventions. It is possible to invoke reflexive responses, but the
aesthetic appreciation of a piece can only be predicted if extensive information
on the character of the spectator is available, or the piece is in a socially defined
context. This is manifested in popular music with the establishment of fan bases
- a demographic of people whose values correlate to the music and thus respond
to it emotionally. Logical implications of this research are suggestive towards the
future development of powerful cross-cultural compositional techniques. As
media penetrates almost every facet of society, cultural boundaries are
dissolving, enabling the aesthetic appreciation of more and more values. In order
to fully utilise the emotive components at our disposal we must further the
development of social and psycho-analytical techniques. Current technology
allows the analysis of the development of emotive structures within a piece,
however the aesthetic appreciation of any given piece remains largely subjective.
Perhaps in the future more will be known about how the individual emotionally
connects to an experience, yet only further technological and psycho-analytical
developments can help towards this aim.

References
Anderton, C. & Cholakis, E (2002) HIT FACTORS: The Link Between Music &
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<http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/may02/articles/cholakis.asp> [Accessed
03/12/07].
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