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Soil Stabilization
Table of Contents
Introduction to Soil Stabilization ................................................................................3
Brief History ..................................................................................................................3
Document Purpose ......................................................................................................3
Defining Soil Stabilization ............................................................................................4
What is Soil Stabilization? ............................................................................................4
Why and when is it used? ............................................................................................5
Applications ..................................................................................................................6
About Soil ......................................................................................................................7
What kind of soil is that, anyway? ................................................................................7
Standards help identify soil types ................................................................................7
USDA ........................................................................................................................8
USCS ........................................................................................................................8
AASHTO....................................................................................................................9
Chemical Soil Stabilization ..........................................................................................10
Additives ......................................................................................................................11
Portland Cement ......................................................................................................11
Quicklime/Hydrated Lime ..........................................................................................12
Fly Ash ......................................................................................................................12
Calcium Chloride ......................................................................................................12
Bitumen ....................................................................................................................12
Chemical and Bio Remediation ................................................................................13
Mechanical Soil Stabilization ......................................................................................14
Compaction ..............................................................................................................14
Soil Reinforcement ....................................................................................................14
Addition of Graded Aggregate Materials ..................................................................15
Mechanical Remediation ..........................................................................................15
The Basic Soil Stabilization Process ..........................................................................16
Assessment and Testing ..........................................................................................16
Site Preparation ........................................................................................................16
Introduce Additives ....................................................................................................17
Mixing ........................................................................................................................17
Compaction and Shaping/Trimming ..........................................................................17
Curing........................................................................................................................17
Glossary ........................................................................................................................18-21
Appendix ........................................................................................................................22
Acknowledgements/References ..................................................................................23
2
Introduction
Introduction to
Soil Stabilization
A land-based structure of any type is only as strong as its foundation. For
that reason, soil is a critical element influencing the success of a
construction project. Soil is either part of the foundation or one of the
raw materials used in the construction process. Therefore, understanding
the engineering properties of soil is crucial to obtain strength and
economic permanence. Soil stabilization is the process of maximizing the
suitability of soil for a given construction purpose.
Brief History
The necessity of improving the engineering properties of soil has been
recognized for as long as construction has existed. Many ancient
cultures, including the Chinese, Romans, and Incas, utilized various
techniques to improve soil stability, some of which were so effective that
many of the buildings and roadways they constructed still exist today.
Some are still in use.
In the United States, the modern era of soil stabilization began during the
1960s and 70s, when general shortages of aggregates and petroleum
resources forced engineers to consider alternatives to the conventional
technique of replacing poor soils at building sites with shipped-in
aggregates that possessed more favorable engineering characteristics.
Soil stabilization then fell out of favor, mainly due to faulty application
techniques and misunderstanding. More recently, soil stabilization has
once again become a popular trend as global demand for raw materials,
fuel, and infrastructure has increased. This time, however, soil
stabilization is benefiting from better research, materials and equipment.
Document Purpose
The purpose of this manual is to provide a general overview of soil
stabilization practices used in the construction and maintenance of
structures designed for supporting motor vehicle use. It is not meant as a
guidebook or to provide application advice. Only a qualified geotechnical engineer can make recommendations on the techniques and
materials required for suitable sub-base design.
3
mechanical
chemical or additive
Applications
Soil stabilization is used in many sectors of the construction industry. Roads,
parking lots, airport runways, building sites, landfills, and soil remediation all
use some form of soil stabilization. Other applications include waterway
management, mining, and agriculture.
About Soil
ABOVE: Rotary mixer adds emulsion to soil while a road grader grades the treated and compacted material
About Soil
Soil mechanics is a complicated subject, and for good reason: the
methods that are used to improve the engineering characteristics of a
soil will have a heavy influence on the success of the project. This
publication, for the sake of brevity, only touches on the subject of soil.
For in-depth information, it is recommended that you consult a geotechnical engineer.
What kind of soil is that, anyway?
Ask a person from Malaysia and a person from Texas to describe soil,
and you will get two completely different answers. And so it is in the
world of soil: a soils characteristics can not be reliably understood based
on its name. Soil types that may be similar often are referred to by
different names depending on what region you are in. Some of the names
are colloquial and only known locally. And, naturally, the opposite is
true: similar names can mean different soil types depending on where
you are.
Standards help identify soil types
About Soil
In the U.S., there are three standards that are generally the most accepted
for road construction purposes. These standards do not classify soil in
exactly the same way, but one or more of them may be used on the
average project.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil
classification system, typically used by farmers, classifies a soil by sieve
analysis to find the percentage by weight of three unique particles: sand,
clay, and silt. The percentages of the three particles are plotted on the
USDA Soil Texture Triangle (Appendix A, page 22), which determines
the classification. For example: a soil sample that contains 40% sand,
40% silt, and 20% clay is classified as Loam. Since the USDA system
only considers the particle sizes of a soil sample, it does not evaluate the
mineralogy of the clay and its potential water capacity or plasticity.
About Soil
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) classification system, used by transportation engineers, is a
soil classification system specifically designed for the construction of
roads and highways. The system uses the grain-size distribution and
Atterberg Limits, such as Liquid Limit (LL) and Plasticity Index (PI), to
classify soils. This classification system is defined by AASHTO standard
M 145-91 (1995) and consists of a symbol and group number.
The AASHTO classification system applies to soil particles smaller than
3 inches. Soils are classified into one of two general groups:
(1) Granular materials (coarse-grained) with 35% or less by weight
fines passing the #200 sieve
(2) Silts and clays (fine-grained) soils with more than 35% passing
the #200 sieve
The soil is then further classified into one of 7 sub-classifications: A1,
A2 and A3 for granular soils; A4, A5, A6, and A7 for silts and clays.
These classifications provide the engineers with very accurate
engineering property information.
ABOVE: Mixing lime slurry into the base soil of a future parking lot
4)
5)
10
Additives
There are many kinds of additives available. Not all additives work for
all soil types, and a single additive will perform quite differently with
different soil types. Generally, an additive may be used to act as a binder,
alter the effect of moisture, increase the soil density or neutralize the
harmful effects of a substance in the soil. Following are some of the
most widely used additives and their applications:
Portland Cement
Portland cement is a mechanical additive that can be used for soil
modification (to improve soil quality) or soil stabilization (to convert the
soil to a solid cement mass). The amount of cement used will dictate
whether modification or stabilization has occurred. Nearly all types of
soil can benefit from the strength gained by cement stabilization.
However, the best results have occurred when used with well-graded
fines that possess enough fines to produce a floating aggregate matrix.
11
Lime can be applied dry to the soil, but if blowing dust is of concern or
the work is being done in a populated area, the lime can be mixed with
water to form slurry. A curing time of 3 to 7 days is normal to allow the
lime to react with the soil, during which the surface of the stabilized soil
should be wetted periodically.
Fly Ash
Fly ash, a chemical additive consisting mainly of silicon and aluminum
compounds, is a by-product of the combustion of coal. Fly ash can be
mixed with lime and water to stabilize granular materials with few fines,
producing a hard, cement-like mass. Its role in the stabilization process is
to act as a pozzolan and/or as a filler product to reduce air voids. A
common application is as part of a lime/cement/fly ash mixture (LCF) to
stabilize coarse-grained soils that possess little or no fine grains. Because
it is essentially a waste product, it can be obtained rather inexpensively.
Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride is a chemical additive that has the ability to absorb
moisture from the air until it liquifies into a solution. The presence of
calcium chloride in the moisture of a soil lowers the freezing temperature
of that moisture. For this reason, calcium chloride is a proven stabilizing
additive for cold-climate applications. If the water in the soil cant
freeze, there is less soil movement (i.e., frost heaves), making it much
more stable. Calcium chloride also works well as a binder, making the
soil easier to compact and reducing dust.
12
Bitumen
Bitumen is a mechanical additive that occurs naturally or as a by-product
of petroleum distillation. It is the black pitch used to make asphalt.
Asphalt cement, cutback asphalt, tar, and asphalt emulsions are all used
to achieve bituminous soil stabilization. Soil type, construction method
and weather are all factors in choosing which bitumen to use. Bitumen
makes soil stronger and resistant to water and frost. The use of bitumen
can lead to fewer weather-related delays during construction, and makes
compaction easier and more consistent.
13
Mechanical
Soil Stabilization
Mechanical soil stabilization refers to either compaction or the
introduction of fibrous and other non-biodegradable reinforcement to the
soil. This practice does not require chemical change of the soil, although
it is common to use both mechanical and chemical means to achieve
specified stabilization. There are several methods used to achieve
mechanical stabilization:
Compaction
Compaction typically employs a heavy weight to increase soil density by
applying pressure from above. Machines are often used for this purpose;
large soil compactors with vibrating steel drums efficiently apply
pressure to the soil, increasing its density to meet engineering
requirements. Operators of the machines must be careful not to overcompact the soil, for too much pressure can result in crushed aggregates
that lose their engineering properties.
14
Soil Reinforcement
Soil problems are sometimes remedied by utilizing engineered or nonengineered mechanical solutions. Geo-textiles and engineered plastic
mesh are designed to trap soils and help control erosion, moisture
conditions and soil permeability. Larger aggregates, such as gravel,
stones, and boulders, are often employed where additional mass and
rigidity can prevent unwanted soil migration or improve load-bearing
properties.
15
ABOVE: Soil stabilization during the reclamation process can often occur without re-directing traffic
The Basic
Soil Stabilization
Process
Both new construction and rehabilitation projects are candidates for soil
stabilization. While the precise stabilization procedures will vary
depending on many factors including location, environment, time
requirements, budget, available machinery, and weather the following
process is generally practiced:
Assessment and Testing
The soils of the site are thoroughly tested to determine the existing
conditions. Based on analysis of existing conditions, additives are
selected and specified. Generally, a target chemical percentage by weight
and a design mix depth are defined for the sub-base contractor. The
selected additives are subsequently mixed with soil samples and allowed
to cure. The cured sample is then tested to ensure that the additives will
produce the desired results.
16
Site Preparation
The existing materials on site, including existing pavement if it is being
reclaimed, is pulverized utilizing a rotary mixer. Any additional
aggregates or base materials are introduced at this time. The material is
brought to the optimal moisture content by drying overly wet soil or
adding water to overly dry soil. The grade is shaped if necessary to
obtain the specified material depth.
Mixing
To fully incorporate the additives with the soil, a rotary mixer makes
several mixing passes until the materials are homogenous and wellgraded. It is crucial that the rotary mixer maintains optimal mixing
depth, as mixing too shallow or too deep will create undesirable
proportions of soil and additive. Inappropriate proportions of soil and
additive will decrease the load-bearing properties of the cured layer.
Some projects require multiple layers of treated and compacted soil.
When applying cement and fly ash, it is important to finish mixing as
soon as possible due to the quick-setting characteristics of the additives.
Compaction and Shaping/Trimming
Compaction usually follows immediately after mixing, especially when
the additive is cement or fly ash. Some bituminous additives require a
delay between mixing and compaction to allow for certain chemical
changes to occur.
Compaction is accomplished through several passes using different
machines. Initial compaction is begun utilizing a vibratory padfoot
compactor. The surface is then shaped and trimmed to remove pad marks
and provide a more suitable profile. Intermediate compaction follows
utilizing a pneumatic compactor, which provides a certain kneading
action that further increases soil density. A tandem drum roller is used on
the finishing pass to provide a smooth surface. A final shaping gives the
material a smooth finish and a proper crown and grade.
Curing
Sufficient curing will allow the additive to fully achieve its engineering
potential. For cement, lime, and fly ash stabilization, weather and
moisture are critical factors, as the curing can have a direct bearing on
the strength of the stabilized base. Bituminous-stabilized bases often
require a final membrane of medium-curing cutback asphalt or slowcuring emulsified asphalt as a moisture seal. Generally, a minimum of
seven days are required to ensure proper curing. During the curing
period, samples taken from the stabilized base will reveal when the
moisture content is appropriate for surfacing.
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Glossary
AASHTO (America Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials) Soil Classification System a set of standards that helps
transportation engineers determine soil characteristics for the purpose of
designing and building roads, highways and associated traffic-supporting
structures. It utilizes grain-size distribution and Atterberg Limits to define soils.
Additive a manufactured substance that is added to existing materials in
order to improve engineering properties.
Additive Stabilization A method of improving the engineering properties of
a material by adding chemical substances.
Aggregate the granular, load-bearing mineral component of a road structure,
usually sand, gravel, shell, slag, crushed stone or fines.
Atterberg Limits Method a set of standards that describe seven stages of
soil characteristics as it moves from a solid to a liquid. The most important
stages are the Plastic Limit and the Liquid Limit.
Base also referred to as the base course a layer of specified or selected
material of planned thickness constructed on the sub-base for the purpose of
serving one or more functions including distributing the load, providing
drainage and minimizing frost action.
Binder a material used to bind the aggregate particles together, prevent the
entrance of moisture, act as a cushioning agent, and, in some cases, waterproof
the entire road surface.
Chemical Additive a substance utilized as an additive in chemical
stabilization that chemically alters the parent soil to improve its load-bearing
properties.
Chemical Stabilization A method of improving the engineering properties of
a material by adding chemical substances or by altering the gradation of the
particles in the material.
Clay a fine-grained mineral material (soil) that uses electro-chemical surface
charges to bond well with water.
Coarse-grained Soil a USCS classification for soil comprised of particles
(grains) that lack cohesion. Sand and gravel are considered coarse-grained
soils. Coarse-grained soils are defined as well-graded or poorly-graded, which
reflect the soils ability to be compacted.
Cohesion the ability of a material to maintain its strength when unconfined;
i.e., cling together and maintain its form through changes in moisture content
or submersion.
Compaction the process of reducing voids in a material through the use of
mechanical manipulation; increasing the density.
Cure, Curing the process of allowing a chemical reaction to continue to
completion.
Cutback Asphalt asphalt residues that are blended with distillates.
18
Glossary
Cyclone Spreader a device that typically attaches to the rear of a hauling
vehicle that distributes fine-grained materials in relatively uniform patterns by
depositing specific volumes of the material on a spinning disc that disperses the
material via centrifugal force.
Density the measure of mass per volume.
Emulsion in the context of soil stabilization, an emulsion is a mixture of
water, a bitumen additive such as asphalt cement, and an emulsifier which
enables the water and bitumen additive to combine. Emulsions act as a binder
for the parent material, giving the parent material additional load-bearing
strength as well as a degree of moisture resistance.
Fines generally, materials of small particle size; defined by USCS as those
particles passing through a #200 sieve.
Fine-grained Soils soils composed predominantly of fines.
Floating Aggregate Matrix a desirable quality of a material to contain a
homogenous distribution of particles of varying size throughout its mass. In
terms of load-bearing materials, this quality produces the most strength.
Geo-textiles manufactured materials that are designed to lend reinforcement
to geological materials; i.e., prevent erosion or provide a moisture barrier.
Grade the inclination of a surface.
Gradation a reference to the level of uniformity to which a soil has been
pulverized.
Grain a mineral particle.
Grain-size Distribution the measure of the range and distribution of
different particle sizes in a soil.
Gravel a coarse-grained mineral material; defined by the USCS as those
particles less than 3 inches in diameter not passing through a #4 sieve.
Liquid Limit a highly significant Atterberg Limit; the point at which a soil
contains so much water that it is considered a liquid.
Mechanical Additive a substance utilized as an additive in chemical
stabilization that lends its own engineering properties to the parent soil, thereby
upgrading the load-bearing properties of the soil.
Mechanical Stabilization any of several methods that employ mechanical
means to improve the engineering properties of a soil.
Moisture Content the amount of liquid (water) per volume of a mass.
Padfoot Compactor A machine that applies compaction force with a
vibrating steel roller that has small pads welded to the surface of the roller that
are designed to deliver the load in small, patterned areas rather than as a static
linear load.
19
Glossary
Permeability a materials ability to allow the passage of a gas or liquid.
Plasticity the property of a fine-grain soil that allows it to deform beyond the
point of recovery without cracking or appreciable volume change. Plasticity is
a critical factor during soil stabilization.
Plasticity Index the difference between the Liquid Limit and the Plastic
Limit of a soil. This measure is used to determine the extent of soil
stabilization required for fine-grained soils.
Plastic Limit a highly significant Atterberg Limit; the point at which a soil
retains enough moisture to become plastic.
ABOVE: Rotary Mixer
Poorly-graded also referred to as uniformly-graded; the quality of coarsegrained soils to contain particles of relatively uniform size, making it difficult
to compact.
Pozzolan any of various natural or man-made substances that possess
characteristics similar to pozzolana, a volcanic ash used to make hydraulic
cement.
Pugmill a mechanical device used for mixing materials, usually with paddles
attached to rotating shafts.
Rotary Mixer a large machine, similar in operation to a garden tiller, used to
pulverize materials in place. Usually self-propelled, but sometimes towed by a
tractor.
Sand a mineral particle defined by USCS as a coarse-grained particle passing
a #4 sieve but not passing a #200 sieve.
ABOVE: Motor Grader with Scarifier
20
Glossary
Uniformly-graded also referred to as poorly-graded; the quality of coarsegrained soils to contain particles of relatively uniform size, making it difficult
to compact.
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) Soil Classification
System a soil classification system based on particle size utilized primarily
for agricultural purposes but often used for construction purposes to define
soils.
USCS (Unified Soil Classification System) widely utilized by engineers,
this soil classification system categorizes soils into groups with distinct
engineering properties, such as shear strength, permeability and settlement
potential.
Voids the space in a mass not occupied by solid mineral material. Voids are
bad for traffic structures because they allow the migration of mineral materials,
moisture or gases that can disrupt the stability of the structure. Uniformlygraded soil has many voids; well-graded soil has few voids.
Well-graded the quality of coarse-grained soils to contain particles of many
sizes, making it easier to compact.
Windrow a continuous uniform pile of material that allows for the even
distribution of materials over the length of a site.
21
Appendix
Appendix A: USDA Soil Texture Triangle
Example:
A soil sample that contains 40% sand,
40% silt, and 20% clay is classified as
Loam.
22
Sub-Base
Acknowledgements
Many thanks for your expertise and assistance to:
Stan Vitton, Ph.D, P.E.
Director, Institute for Aggregate Research
Michigan Technological University
References:
Soil Stabilization for Pavements: EM 1110-3-137. Washington DC: US Army Corps of Engineers, 1984.
Huffman, John E. Base/Subgrade Stabilization. Salina, KS: The Asphalt Institute, Kansas State University at Salina, 1995
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