Student: Armin Kotoric

Unit 4
Mechanics
The science of mehanics deals with motion, forces and the effects of
forces upon bodies at rest or in motion. It is customary to subdivide
mechanics into statics and dinamics. STATICS deals with bodies at
rest, in the equilibrium unnder the action of forces or of moments.
DINAMICS deals with the motion of systems of particles under the
influence of forces. Dynamics, then, deals with the causes of motion, as
opposed to KINEMATICS, which deals with its geometric desription i.e.
with abstract motion. Kinematics should be destinguished from
KINETICS which treats of forces or of moments (toeques) upon the
motions of material bodies.
FORCE: The term force appears in three general uses:
1. in statics, force is an action that changes the shape of the body upon
which it acts.
2. in dynamics, force is the physical agent which causes a change of
momentum.
3. in its less specific sense, the term force may be extended to denote
loosely any operating agency, such as coercive force, electromotive
force, magnetomotive force, etc.

Force can be exerted only through the action of one physical body
upon another, either in contact or at a distance. Accordingly, force may
be classified under two general headings: 1. Contacting or applied
forces (e.g. the push of steam on the piston of a steam engine), 2. Noncontacting or non-applied forces (e.g. magnetic force).
A BODY is any object, or any part of an object, which may be
considered separately. When two objects are in contact, equal and
opposite forces are produced at the contacting surface.
When acted upon by forces, a body is necessarily somewhat deformed.
In engineering practice, however, these changes may be so
insignificant that, for the purpose of force analysis, such solid bodies
may be considered to be rigid and are therefore referred to as rigid
bodies.
A force is completely described through statement of its: 1. Magnitude,
2. Direction, 3. Sense, 4. Point of application. These items are called
the charecteristics of the force.

UNIT 5
Stress and strain
The most important concepts dealt with in the science of strenght of
the materials are: stress and strain.
STRESS is defined as resistance to external force. It is mesured in term
of force exerted per init of area. Stress is usually expressed in pounds
per square inch (often abbreviated to psi) in the English system and in
N per square milimetre (N/mm2) in the SI system. Stress, then, is
produced in all bodies upon which forces act, since even, the slighteat
force to some extent changes the form of the body upon which it acts.

In practice the word stress is often given two meanings: 1. Force per
unit area, or intensity of stress, generally referred to as unit stress and
2. Total internal force within a single member, generally called total
stress.
Only two basic stresses exist: 1. Normal stresses, which always act
normal (perpendicular) to the stressed surface under consideration,
and, 2. Shearing stresses, which act parallel to the stressed surface.
Normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive. Other stresses
either are similar to these basic stresses or are a combination of them.
For example the stresses in a bent beam, in a general way referred to
as bending stresses, actually are a combination of tensile,
compressive and shearing sresses. Torsional stress, as encountered in
the twisting of a shaft, is a shearing stress.
When the external forces acting on a memmber are parallel to its
major axis and the member is of constant cross section, or
substantially so, the resulting internal stresses are likewise parallel
to that axis. Such forces are called axial forces, and the stresses are
referred to as axial stresses.
Tensile stress. When a pair of axial forcess pull on a member, and thus
tend to stretch or elongate it, they are said to be tensile forces, and
they produce axial tensile stresses internaily in the member on a
plane lying perpendicular, or normal, to its axis.
Compressive stress. When a pair of axial forces push on a member,
and thus tend to strech or elongate it, they are called compressive
forces and they produce axial compressive stresses internaily in the
member on a plane perpendicular, or normal, to its axis.
Shearing stress.This type of stress differe from tensile and
compressive stresses in that the stressed plane lies parallel with the
direction of stress rather than perpendicular to it as in the cases of
tensile and compressive stresses.

Bearing stress. Compressive stresses exerted on an external surface of

a body, as for example, when one object presses against another, is
referred to as bearing stress.
STRAIN. Strain is deformation, although the word is often used by
layman to designate the force which produces deformation in some
object. All material bodies which are subjected to external forces with
internal stresses produced as a consequence, are necessarily
deformed (streined). The deformation per unit of length is:
Unit deformation = total deformation / length
The amount of deformation produced in a given member by a given
force will vary with the stiffness of the material of which the member
is made. In some instances, a considerable deformation may not be
objectionable, in others, even small deformations may produce
serious results.

Unit 6
Some other important properties of a structural material
Some other properties of a structural material may be of great
importance for designers of structures and machines.

ULTIMATE STRESS or STRENGTH is defined as the greatest unit stress

a material can withstand without rupture. In the practical design of
structures and machines, we would not, of course, for obvious reasons
of safety, attempt to use the full strength of any material.
ALLOWABLE STRESS is that portion of the ultimate strenght which
may safely be used in design. Allowable stresses which may safely be
used in various designs are, as a rule, based upon extensive
laboratory tests made to disclose the various properties of the
materials used and upon a vast amount of accumulated experience.
FACTOR OF SAFETY is the ratio of ultimate stress to allowable stress
and is denoted ba the symbol . machines are usually designed so as to
withstand all reasonable wear and tear. A factor of safety of 2 might be
sufficient for a temporary structure subjected only to stedy loads and
endangering neither life nor property, while a factor of safety as high
as 10 might be required in a machine which is subjected to
unpredictable shock loads and whose failure would endanger life and
cause loss of other property. For steady loads, a factor of safety
between 3 and 4 is commonly used.
ELASTIC LIMIT. Technically speaking, a material is elastic only if it has
the ability to return to its original form after removal of a deforming
force. Within this meaning, steel and glass are both elastic.
In order to preserve the elastic property of a material having limited
physical strength, deformations and the stresses which accompany the
deformations must not exceed a certain limit, appropriately referred
to as its elastic limit. A material stressed beyond its elastic limit win
return only partially to its original form upon complete removal of
the deforming force. The deformation remaining is called permanent
set.
HOOKE`S LAW. MODULS OF ELASTICITY. According to Hooke`s Law
stress is proportional to strain within the elastic limit.

The proportionality of stress to strain is expressed as the ratio of unit

stress to unit strain, or deformation. In a stiff but elatic material such
as steel, we find that a given unit stresses produces a relatively small
unit deformation. In a softer, but still elastic material, such as bronze,
the deformation caused by the same intensity of stress is about twice
that of steel and in brass it is more than three times that of steel.
Consequently , the ratio of unit stress to unit strain of any given
material, which may be determined experimentally, then, gives us a
measure of its stiffness or elasticity which we call the modulus of
elasticity of the material.