Atoms

Each element is made up of one kind of atom. We can define an atom as

the smallest part of an element that can enter into combination with other
elements.
Structure of the atom
Each atom consists of
• a small, dense, positively-charged nucleus surrounded by
• much lighter, negatively-charged electrons.
The nucleus of the simplest atom, the hydrogen atom (H), consists of
• a single positively-charged proton. Because of its single proton,
the atom of hydrogen is assigned an atomic number of 1.
• a single electron.
The charge of the electron is the same magnitude as that of the proton, so
the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. Its proton accounts for almost
all the weight of the atom.
The nucleus of the atom of the element helium (He) has
• two protons (hence helium has an atomic number of 2) and
• two neutrons. Neutrons have the same weight as protons but no
electrical charge.
The helium atom has two electrons so that, once again, the atom as a
whole is neutral.
The structure of each of the other kinds of atoms follows the same plan.
From Lithium (At. No. = 3) to uranium (At. No. = 92), the atoms of each
element can be listed in order of increasing atomic number. There are no
gaps in the list. Each element has a unique atomic number and its atoms
have one more proton and one more electron than the atoms of the
element that precedes it in the list.
Electrons
Electrons are Energy Levels or
confined to Atomic
Element "shells"
relatively Number
K L M N O
discrete regions 1 Hydrogen (H) 1
around the
2 Helium (He) 2
nucleus. The two
electrons of 3 Lithium (Li) 2 1
helium, for 4 Beryllium (Be) 2 2
example, are 5 Boron (B) 2 3
confined to a 6 Carbon (C) 2 4
spherical zone 7 Nitrogen (N) 2 5
surrounding the 8 Oxygen (O) 2 6
nucleus called
9 Fluorine (F) 2 7
the K shell or K
energy level. 10 Neon (Ne) 2 8
11 Sodium (Na) 2 8 1
Lithium (At. No.
= 3) has three 12 Magnesium (Mg) 2 8 2
electrons, two in 13 Aluminum (Al) 2 8 3
the K shell and 14 Silicon (Si) 2 8 4
one located 15 Phosphorus (P) 2 8 5
farther from the 16 Sulfur (S) 2 8 6
nucleus in the L 17 Chlorine (Cl) 2 8 7
shell. Being
18 Argon (Ar) 2 8 8
farther away
from the 19 Potassium (K) 2 8 8 1
opposite (+) 20 Calcium (Ca) 2 8 8 2
charges of the 21 Scandium (Sc) 2 8 9 2
nucleus, this 22 Titanium (Ti) 2 8 10 2
third electron is 23 Vanadium (V) 2 8 11 2
held less tightly. 24 Chromium (Cr) 2 8 13 1
Each of the 25 Manganese (Mn) 2 8 13 2
following 26 Iron (Fe) 2 8 14 2
elements, in 27 Cobalt (Co) 2 8 15 2
order of
28 Nickel (Ni) 2 8 16 2
increasing
atomic number, 29 Copper (Cu) 2 8 18 1
adds one more 30 Zinc (Zn) 2 8 18 2
electron to the L 31 Gallium (Ga) 2 8 18 3
shell until we 32 Germanium (Ge) 2 8 18 4
reach neon (At. 33 Arsenic (As) 2 8 18 5
No. = 10) which 34 Selenium (Se) 2 8 18 6
has eight
35 Bromine (Br) 2 8 18 7
electrons in the
L shell. 36 Krypton (Kr) 2 8 18 8
Molybdenum
42 2 8 18 13 1
(Mo)
48 Cadmium (Cd) 2 8 18 18 2
50 Tin (Sn) 2 8 18 18 4
Sodium places its eleventh electron in a still higher energy level, the M
shell.
From sodium to argon, this shell is gradually filled with electrons until,
once again, a maximum of eight is reached.
Note that after the K shell with its maximum of two electrons, the
maximum number of electrons in any other outermost shell is eight.
As we shall see, the chemical properties of each element are strongly
influenced by the number of electrons in its outermost energy level
(shell).
This table shows the electronic structure of the atoms of elements 1 – 36
with those that have been demonstrated to be used by living things
shown in red. Four elements of still higher atomic numbers that have
been shown to be used by living things are also included.

The electronic structure of an atom plays

the major role in its chemistry.
The pattern of electrons in an atom — especially those in the outermost
shell — determines
• the valence of the atom; that is, the ratios in which it interacts with
other atoms, and to a large degree,
• the electronegativity of the atom; that is, the strength with which
it attracts other electrons.
Link to a discussion of
electronegativity.
Elements with the same number of electrons in their outermost shell show
similar chemical properties.
Example 1: Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine each have 7
electrons in their outermost shell. These so-called halogens are also quite
similar in their chemical behavior. When dissolved in water, for example,
they all produce germicidal solutions.
Example 2: Those elements with 1, 2, or 3 electrons in their outermost
shell are the metals.
Example 3: Those elements with 4, 5, 6, or 7 in their outermost shell are
the nonmetals.
Example 4: Helium (with its 2), neon, argon, and krypton (each with 8)
have "filled" their outermost shells. They are the so-called inert or "noble"
gases. They have no chemistry at all. Under normal conditions they do not
interact with other atoms. So, it is the number and arrangement of the
electrons in the atoms of an element that establish the chemical behavior
of that element.
This is how it works.
The atoms of an element interact with other atoms in such ways and
ratios that they can "fill" their outermost shell with 8 electrons (2 for
hydrogen). They may do this by
• acquiring more electrons from another atom
• losing electrons to another atom
• sharing electrons with another atom
The number of electrons that an atom must acquire, or lose, or share to
reach a stable configuration of 8 (2 for hydrogen) is called its valence.
Hydrogen, lithium, sodium, and potassium atoms all have a single
electron in their outermost shell. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine
atoms all have 7. Any atom of the first group will interact with a single
atom of any of the second group forming, HCl, NaCl, KI, etc. The result of
all of these interactions is a pair of atoms each with an outermost shell
like that of one of the inert gases: 2 for hydrogen, 8 for the others.
The elements with 2 electrons in their outermost shell interact with
chlorine and the other halogens to form, e.g., BeCl2, MgCl2, CaCl2. Again,
the result is a pair of atoms each with a stable octet of electrons in its
outermost shell.
The elements with 3 electrons in their outermost shell will interact with
chlorine in a ratio of 1:3, forming BCl3, AlCl3.
Carbon atoms, with their 4 electrons in the L shell interact with chlorine
to form CCl4.
Nitrogen, with its 5 outermost electrons, interacts with hydrogen atoms
in a ratio of 1:3, forming ammonia (NH3).
Oxygen and sulfur, with their 6 outermost electrons react with hydrogen
to form water (H2O) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
What determines whether a pair of atoms swap or share electrons?
The answer is their relative electronegativities. If two atoms differ
greatly in their affinity for electrons; that is, in their electronegativity, then
the strongly electronegative atom will take the electron away from the
weakly electronegative one.
Example: Na (weakly electronegative) gives up its single electron to an
atom of chlorine (strongly electronegative) to form NaCl. The sodium atom
now has only 10 electrons but still 11 protons so there is a net positive
charge of one on the atom. Similarly, chlorine now has one more electron
than proton so its now has a net negative charge of 1. Electrically charged
atoms are called ions. The mutual attraction of opposite electrical
charges holds the ions together by ionic bonds.
Example: Carbon and hydrogen are both only weakly electronegative so
neither can remove electrons from the other. Instead they achieve a
stable configuration by sharing their outermost electrons forming
covalent bonds of CH4.
Link to an expanded discussion of how electronegativity influences the
types of bonds that form between atoms.

Isotopes
The number of protons in the nucleus of its atoms, which is its atomic
number, defines each element. However, the nuclei of a given element
may have varying numbers of neutrons. Because neutrons have weight
(about the same as that of protons), such atoms differ in the atomic
weight.
Atoms of the same element that differ in their atomic weight are called
isotopes.
Atomic weights are expressed in terms of a standard atom: the isotope of
carbon that has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus. This atom is
designated carbon-12 or 12C. It is arbitrarily assigned an atomic weight of
12 daltons (named after John Dalton, the pioneer in the study of atomic
weights). Thus a dalton is 1/12 the weight of an atom of 12C. Both protons
and neutrons have weights very close to 1 dalton each. Carbon-12 is the
most common isotope of carbon. Carbon-13 (13C) with 6 protons and 7
neutrons, and carbon-14 (14C) with 6 protons and 8 neutrons are found in
much smaller quantities.
Isotopes as "tracers"
One can prepare, for example, a carbon compound used by living things
that has many of its normal 12C atoms replaced by 14C atoms. Carbon-14
happens to be radioactive. By tracing the fate of radioactivity within the
organism, one can learn the normal pathway of this carbon compound in
that organism. Thus 14C serves as an isotopic "label" or "tracer".
The basis of this technique is that the weight of the nucleus of an atom
has little or no effect on the chemical properties of that atom. The
chemistry of an element and the atoms of which it is made — whatever
their atomic weight — is a function of the atomic number of that
element. As long as the atom had 6 protons, it is an atom of carbon
irrespective of the number of neutrons. Thus while 6 protons and 8
neutrons produce an isotope of carbon, 14C, 7 protons and 7 neutrons
produce a totally-different element, nitrogen-14.