6 Human Health and Physiology

Digestion
6.1.1 Explain why digestion of large food molecules is
essential.
There are two reasons why the digestion of large food molecules is vital.
Firstly, the food we eat is made up of many compounds made by other
organisms which are not all suitable for human tissues and therefore
these have to be broken down and reassembled so that our bodies can
use them. Secondly, the food molecules have to be small enough to be
absorbed by the villi in the intestine through diffusion, facilitated
diffusion or active transport and so large food molecules need to be
broken down into smaller ones for absorption to occur.
Summary:
1.
2.

Food needs to be broken down and reassembled.

Large food molecules need to be broken down into smaller ones.

6.1.2 Explain the need for enzymes in digestion.

Enzymes are needed in the process of digestion as they are the
biological catalysts which break down the large food molecules into
smaller ones so that these can eventually be absorbed. Digestion can
occur naturally at body temperature, however this process takes a very
long time as it happens at such a slow rate. For digestion to increase in
these circumstances, body temperature would have to increase as well.
However this is not possible as it would interfere with other body
functions.This is why enzymes are vital as they speed up this process
by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur and
they do so at body temperature.
Summary:
1. Enzymes break down large food molecules into smaller ones.
2. Speed up the process of digestion by lowering the activation
energy for the reaction.
3. Work at body temperature.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

6.1.3 State the source, substrate, products and

optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease
and one lipase.

6.1.4

Amylase

Protease

Lipase

Enzyme

Salivary
Amylase

Pepsin

Pancreatic
Lipase

Source

Salivary
Glands

Chief cells in
stomach
Pancreas
lining
Triglycerides
such as fats
and oils

Substrate

Starch

Proteins

Products

Maltose

Small
Fatty
Acids
polypeptides and Glycerol

Optimum
pH

pH 7

pH 1.5 - 2

Draw and label

digestive system.

pH 7

diagram

of

the

Figure 6.1.1 - The digestive system

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

6.1.5 Outline the function of the stomach, small

intestine and large intestine.
The stomach is an important part of the digestive system. Firstly it
secretes HCL which kills bacteria and other harmful organisms
preventing food poisoning and it also provides the optimum conditions
for the enzyme pepsin to work in (pH 1.5 - 2). In addition, the stomach
secretes pepsin which starts the digestion of proteins into polypeptides
and amino acids. Theses can then be absorbed by the villi in the small
intestine.
The small intestine is where the final stages of digestion occur. The
intestinal wall secretes enzymes and it also receives enzymes from the
pancreas. However the main function of the small intestine is the
absorption of the small food particles resulting from digestion. It
contains many villi which increase the surface area for absorption.
The large intestine moves the material that has not been digested from
the small intestine and absorbs water. This produces solid faeces which
are then egested through the anus.
Summary:
Stomach:
1.
2.
3.

Secretes HCL which kills bacteria.

HCL provides optimum pH for pepsin.
Secretes pepsin for protein digestion.

Small intestine:
1. Intestinal wall secretes enzymes
2. Receives enzymes from the pancreas.
3. Has villi for absorption of food particles.
Large intestine:
1. Moves material that has not been digested along.
2. Absorbes water.
3. Produces faeces.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

6.1.6

Distinguish between
assimilation.

absorption

and

Absorption occurs when the food enters the body as the food molecules
pass through a layer of cells and into the bodies tissues. This occurs in
the small intestine which has many villi that are specialised for
absorption. Assimilation occurs when the food molecules becomes part
of the bodies tissue. Therefore, absorption is followed by assimilation.

6.1.7

Explain how the structure of the villus is

related to its role in absorption and
transport of the products of digestion.

The structure of the villus is very specific. Firstly there is a great number
of them so this increases the surface area for absorption in the small
intestine. In addition the villi also have their own projections which are
called microvilli. The many microvilli increase the surface area for
absorption further. These microvilli have protein channels and pumps in
their membranes to allow the rapid absorption of food by facilitated
diffusion and active transport.
Also, the villi contains an
epithelial layer which is only one
cell layer thick so that food can
pass through easily and be
absorbed quickly. The blood
capillaries in the villus are very
closely associated with the
epithelium so that the distance
for the diffusion of the food
molecules is small. This thin layer
of cells contains mitochondria to
provide the ATP needed for the
active transport of certain food
molecules. Finally, there is a
lacteal branch at the centre of
the villus which carries away fats
after absorption.
Figure 6.1.2 - Intestinal villus

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

Summary:
1. Many villi increase the surface area for absorption.
2. Epithelium is only one cell layer thick and so food is quickly
absorbed.
3. Microvilli on the villi increase the surface area for absorption
further.
4. Protein channels and pumps are present in the microvilli for rapid
absorption.
5. The mitochondria in the epithelium provide ATP needed for active
transport.
6. Blood capillaries are very close to the epithelium so diffusion
distance is small.
7. The lacteal takes away fats after absorption.

The transport system

6.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing
the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves
and the route of blood through the heart.

Figure 6.2.1 - The human heart

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

6.2.2

State that the coronary arteries supply

heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients.

The coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients.

6.2.3

Explain the action of the heart in terms

of collecting blood, pumping blood, and
opening and closing of valves.

The right atrium collects blood from the superior and inferior vena cava
and the left atrium collects blood from the pulmonary veins. This blood
then flows into the right and left ventricle which pump the blood into the
arteries. The direction of the blood flow is controlled by the
atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves. When the atria contract
the blood flows through the atrioventricular valves which are open, into
the ventricle. At this stage the semilunar valves are closed so the
ventricle fills with blood. The ventricles then contract which causes a
rise in pressure. This rise in pressure first causes the atrioventricular
valves to close preventing back flow of blood into the atria. Then the
semilunar valves open allowing the expulsion of blood into the arteries.
As this happens, the atria start to fill with blood again. The ventricles
stop contracting leading to a fall in pressure which causes the semilunar
valves to close, preventing back flow of blood from the arteries. When
the ventricular pressure drops below the atrial pressure the
atrioventricular valves open again and the cycle repeats.
Summary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Atria collect blood from veins.

Atria contract, atrioventricular valves open.
Blood is pumped into ventricles.
Ventricle contracts, atrioventricular valves close and semilunar
valves open.
Blood is pumped into arteries, semilunar valves close.
Cycle repeats.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

6.2.4

Outline the control of the heartbeat in

terms of myogenic muscle contraction,
the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the
medulla of the brain and epinephrine
(adrenaline).

The heart muscle can contract by itself, without the stimulation of a

nerve. This is called myogenic muscle contraction. The region that
initiates each contraction is found in the wall of the right atrium and is
called the pacemaker. Every time the pacemaker sends out a signal, a
heartbeat results. The pacemaker is under the influence of nerves and
adrenaline. One nerve carries messages from the medulla of the brain
to the pacemaker and speeds up the beating of the heart. Another nerve
carries messages from the medulla of the brain to the pacemaker and
slows down the beating of the heart. Finally, adrenaline (epinephrine) is
carried by the blood and once it reaches the pacemaker it signals it to
increase the beating of the heart.
Summary:
1. Heart muscle can contract by itself (myogenic muscle contraction).
2. Pacemaker initiates contractions.
3. One nerve carries messages from the brain to the pacemaker to
speed up the beating of the heart.
4. One nerve carries messages from the brain to the pacemaker to
slow down the beating of the heart.
5. Adrenaline signals the pacemaker to increase the beating of the
heart.

6.2.5

Explain the relationship between the

structure and function of arteries,
capillaries and veins.

Arteries have a thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic

fibers to avoid leaks and bulges. They have a thick wall which is essential
to withstand the high pressures. They also have thick layers of circular
elastic fibres and muscle fibres to help pump the blood through after
each contraction of the heart. In addition the narrow lumen maintains
the high pressure inside the arteries.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

Veins are made up of thin layers with a few circular elastic fibres and
muscle fibres. This is because blood does not flow in pulses and so the
vein walls cannot help pump the blood on. Veins also have thin walls
which allows the nearby muscles to press against them so that they
become flat. This helps the blood to be pushed forwards towards the
heart. There is only a thin outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic
fibres as there is low pressure inside the vein and so little chance of
bursting. Finally, a wide lumen is needed to accommodate the slow
flowing blood due to the low pressure.
Capillaries are made up of a wall that is only one cell layer thick and
results in the distance for diffusion in and out of the capillary being very
small so that diffusion can occur rapidly. They also contain pores within
the wall which allow some plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid.
Phagocytes can also pass through these pores to help fight infections.
In addition, the lumen of the capillaries is very narrow. This means that
many capillaries can fit in a small space, increasing the surface area for
diffusion.
Summary:
Arteries:
1. Thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibres prevents
leaks and bulges.
2. Thick wall withstands high pressure.
3. Thick layers of circular elastic fibres and muscle fibres to pump blood.
4. Narrow lumen to maintain high pressure.
Veins:
1. Thin layer with few circular elastic fibres and muscle fibres as blood
does not flow in pulses.
2. Thin walls, nearby muscles can help push blood towards the heart.
3. Thin outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers as pressure
is low.
4. Wide lumen to accommodate the slow flowing blood.
Capillaries:
1. Wall is one cell layer thick so distance for diffusion is small.
2. Pores allow plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid. Phagocytes can
also pass through pores.
3. Very narrow lumen so that many can fit in a small space.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

6.2.6

State that blood is composed of plasma,

erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes
and lymphocytes) and platelets.

Blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and

lymphocytes) and platelets.

6.2.7

State that the following are transported by

the blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
hormones, antibodies, urea and heat.

Nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat

are all transported by the blood.

Defence against infectious disease

6.3.1 Define pathogen.
Pathogen: an organism or virus that causes a disease.

6.3.2 Explain why antibiotics are effective against

bacteria but not against viruses.
Antibiotics are produced by microorganisms to kill or control the growth
of other microorganisms by blocking specific metabolic pathways within
the cell. Since bacteria are so different to human cells, antibiotics can
be taken by humans to kill bacteria without harming the human cells.
Viruses on the other hand are different as they do not carry out many
metabolic processes themselves. Instead they rely on a host cell (a
human cell) to carry out these processes for them. Therefore viruses
cannot be treated with antibiotics as it is impossible to harm the virus
without harming the human cells.
Summary:
1. Antibiotics block specific metabolic pathways in bacteria.
2. Bacteria are very different to human cells so human cells are not
affected.
3. Viruses require host cell to carry metabolic processes for them and
so antibiotics cannot be used to treat viruses.
4. Harming the virus would harm the human cells.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

6.3.3

Outline the role of skin and mucous

membranes in defence against pathogens.

The skin forms a physical barrier that prevents pathogens from entering
the body as the outer layer is very tough. In addition the skin contains
sebaceous glands which secret lactic acid and fatty acids which creates
an acidic environment on the surface of the skin preventing the growth
of pathogens.
Mucous membranes form another type of barrier against pathogens.
Mucous membranes are soft and moist areas of skin found in the
trachea, nose, vagina and urethra. These membranes are not strong
enough to create a physical barrier but they do have mucus which
contain lysozyme enzymes that digest the phagocytes. Also, the mucus
can be sticky such as in the trachea, and trap the pathogens which are
then expelled up the trachea and out of the body by muscles within the
trachea.
Summary:
Skin:
1. Forms a physical barrier.
2. Sebaceous glands secret lactic acid and fatty acids.
Mucous membranes:
1. Mucous contains lysozyme enzymes.
2. Mucous can be sticky and trap pathogens.

6.3.4

Outline how phagocytic leucocytes

ingest pathogens in the blood and in
body tissues.

Phagocytes are found in the blood and ingest pathogens. They do so by

recognising pathogens and engulfing them by endocytosis. Enzymes
within the phagocytes called lysosomes then digest the pathogens.
Phagocytes can ingest pathogens in the blood but also within body tissue
as they can pass through the pores of capillaries and into these tissues.

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6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.

Antibodies are proteins that defend the body against pathogens by
binding to antigens on the surface of these pathogens and stimulating
their destruction. Antigens are foreign substances which stimulate the
production of antibodies. Antibodies usually only bind to one specific
antigen.

6.3.6 Explain antibody production.

Lymphocytes are a type of leukocyte which make antibodies. Each
lymphocyte makes only one specific antibody. A large amount of
different lymphocytes are needed so that the body can produce different
types of antibodies. The antibodies are found on the surface of the
plasma membrane of these lymphocytes with the antigen-combining
site projecting outwards. Pathogens have antigens on their surface
which bind to the antigen-combining site of the antibodies of a specific
lymphocyte. When this happens the lymphocyte becomes active and
starts to make clones of itself by dividing by mitosis. These clones then
start to make more of this specific antibody needed to defend the body
against the pathogen.
Summary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Each lymphocyte makes one type of antibody.

Antibodies are found on the surface of the lymphocyte.
Pathogen have antigens on their surface.
The antigens bind to the antibodies.
Lymphocyte becomes active and makes clones of itself.
The clones make more of the specific antibody.

6.3.7

Outline the effects of HIV on the immune

system.

The HIV virus (which causes AIDS) destroys a type of lymphocyte which
has a vital role in antibody production. Over the years this results in a
reduced amount of active lymphocytes. Therefore, less antibodies are
produced which makes the body very vulnerable to pathogens. A
pathogen that could easily be controlled by the body in a healthy
individual can cause serious consequences and eventually lead to death
for patients affected by HIV.

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6.3.8

Discuss the cause, transmission and

social implications of AIDS.

Cause: HIV causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). A

syndrome is a group of symptoms that are found together. HIV destroys
a type of lymphocyte which is vital for antibody production. Over the
years, less active lymphocytes are produced which leads to a fall in the
amount of antibodies. Pathogens that would normally be easily
controlled by the body in healthy individuals can cause serious
consequences and eventually lead to death for patients affected by HIV.
The immune system is considerably weakened.
Transmission: HIV is transmitted through body fluids from an infected
person to an uninfected one. This can occur through vaginal and anal
intercourse as well as oral sex if there are cuts or tears in the vagina,
penis, mouth or intestine. It can also be transmitted by hypodermic
needles that are shared by intravenous drug abusers. The small amount
of blood present on these needles after their use may contain the virus
and is enough to infect another person. Another way of transmission is
through the placenta from mother to child, or through cuts during
childbirth or in milk during breast feeding. Finally there is a risk of
transmission in transfused blood or with blood products such as Factor
VIII used to treat hemophiliacs.
Social implications: Relatives and friends suffer grief. Families can
also suffer from a loss of income as the person infected by HIV can lose
their wage if they are unable to work and are refused life insurance.
Also, HIV patients may find it hard to find partners, employment and
even housing. Finally, AIDS can cause fear in a population and reduce
sexual activity.
Summary:
Cause:
1.
2.
3.
4.

HIV causes AIDS.

HIV destroys a type of lymphocyte vital for antibody production.
Overtime there are less active lymphocytes.
The body becomes very vulnerable to pathogens.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

12

Transmission:
1. Through vaginal and anal intercourse as well as oral sex if cuts or
tears are present.
2. Through hypodermic needles shared by drug users.
3. Through placenta from mother to child.
4. Through cuts during child birth or in milk during breast feeding.
5. Through transfused blood.
6. Through blood factors such as Factor VIII used to treat
hemophiliacs.
Social Implications:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Grief suffered by relatives and friends.

Families can get poorer.
Can be hard to find a partner, employment and housing.
Can reduce sexual activity in a population.

Gas exchange
6.4.1

Distinguish between ventilation,

exchange and cell respiration.

gas

Ventilation is the process of bringing fresh air into the alveoli and
removing the stale air. It maintains the concentration gradient of carbon
dioxide and oxygen between the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries
(vital for oxygen to diffuse into the blood from the alveoli and carbon
dioxide out of the blood into the alveoli).
Gas exchange is the process of swapping one gas for another. It occurs
in the alveoli of the lungs. Oxygen diffuses into the capillaries from the
air in the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries and
into the air in the alveoli.
Cell respiration releases energy in the form of ATP so that this energy
can be used inside the cell. Cell respiration occurs in the mitochondria
and cytoplasm of cells. Oxygen is used in this process and carbon
dioxide is produced.

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6.4.2

Explain the need for a ventilation system.

A ventilation system is needed to maintain the concentration gradients

of gases in the alveoli. Diffusion of gases occurs due to the concentration
gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the
blood. The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of
cell respiration and needs to take in oxygen as it is needed for cell
respiration to make ATP. There must be a low concentration of carbon
dioxide in the alveoli so that carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the blood
in the capillaries and into the alveoli. Also there must be a high
concentration of oxygen in the in the alveoli so that oxygen can diffuse
into the blood in the capillaries from the alveoli. The ventilation system
makes this possible by getting rid of the carbon dioxide in the alveoli
and bringing in more oxygen.
Summary:
1. To maintain the concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the alveoli.
2. The body needs oxygen to make ATP via cell respiration.
3. The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of
cell respiration.
4. Oxygen needs to diffuse from the alveoli into the blood. Carbon
dioxide needs to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli.
5. To do so there must be a high oxygen concentration and a low
carbon dioxide concentration in the alveoli.
6. A ventilation system makes this possible by getting rid of the
carbon dioxide in the alveoli and bringing in more oxygen.

6.4.3

Describe the features of alveoli that

adapt them to gas exchange.

Even though alveoli are so small there are huge numbers of them which
results in a large surface area for gas exchange. Also the wall of the
alveoli is made up of a single layer of thin cells and so are the capillaries,
this creates a short diffusion distance for the gases. Therefore this allows
rapid gas exchange. The alveoli are covered by a dense network of blood
capillaries which have a low oxygen and high carbon dioxide
concentrations. This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon
dioxide to diffuse out of the blood. Finally, there are cells in the alveolar
walls which secrete a fluid that keeps the inner surface of the alveoli

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

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moist, allowing gases to dissolve. This fluid also contains a natural

detergent that prevents the sides of the alveoli from sticking together.
Summary:
1. Great numbers increase the surface area for gas exchange.
2. Wall made up of single layer of cells and so are the walls of the
capillaries so diffusion distance is small allowing rapid gas
exchange.
3. Covered by a dense network of capillaries which have low oxygen
and high carbon dioxide concentrations. This allows oxygen to
diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the
blood.
4. Some cells in the walls secret fluid allowing gases to dissolve. Fluid
also prevents the sides of alveoli from sticking together.

6.4.4 Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation

system,
including
trachea,
lungs,
bronchi,
bronchioles and alveoli.

Figure 6.4.1 - The ventilation system

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6.4.5

Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs

in terms of volume and pressure changes caused
by the internal and external intercostal muscles,
the diaphragm and abdominal muscles.

Inhalation:
- The external intercostal muscles contract. This moves the ribcage up
and out.
- The diaphragm contracts. As it does so it moves down and becomes
relatively flat.
- Both of these muscle contractions result in an increase in the volume
of the thorax which in turn results in a drop in pressure inside the
thorax.
- Pressure eventually drops below atmospheric pressure.
- Air then flow into the lungs from outside the body, through the
mouth or nose, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
- Air continues to enter the lungs until the pressure inside the lungs
rises to the atmospheric pressure.
Exhalation:
- The internal intercostal muscles contract. This moves the ribcage
down and in.
- The abdominal muscles contract. This pushes the diaphragm up,
back into a dome shape.
- Both of these muscle contractions result in a decrease in the volume
of the thorax.
- As a result of the decrease in volume, the pressure inside the thorax
increases.
- Eventually the pressure rises above atmospheric pressure.
- Air then flows out of the lungs to outside of the body through the
nose or mouth.
- Air continues to flow out of the lungs until the pressure in the lungs
has fallen back to atmospheric pressure.

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Nerves, hormones and homeostasis

6.5.1

State that the nervous system consists of the

central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral
nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons
that can carry rapid electrical impulses.

The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and
peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons which carry
rapid electrical impulses.

6.5.2 Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a

motor neuron.

Figure 6.5.1 - A motor neuron

6.5.3

State that nerve impulses are conducted from

receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons,
within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the
CNS to effectors by motor neurons.

Nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory

neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors
by motor neurons.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

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6.5.4

Define resting potential and action potential

(depolarization and repolarization).

Resting potential: the electrical potential across

membrane of a cell that is not conducting an impulse.

the

plasma

Action potential: the reversal and restoration of the electrical potential

across the plasma membrane of a cell, as an electrical impulse passes
along it (depolarization and repolarization).

6.5.5

Explain how a nerve impulse passes

along a non-myelinated neuron.

Sodium is found in greater concentrations outside of the cell while

potassium is found in greater concentrations inside the cell. Sodiumpotassium pumps exist in the plasma membrane to maintain the the
concentration gradients and the membrane potential. Nerve impulses
have a domino effect. An action potential in one part of the neuron
causes another action potential in the adjacent part and so on. This is
due to the diffusion of sodium ions between the region of the action
potential and the resting potential. It is the movement of sodium and
potassium that reduce the resting potential.
If the resting potential rises above the threshold level, voltage gated
channels open. Voltage gated sodium channels open very fast so that
sodium can diffuse into the cell down its concentration gradient. This
reduces the membrane potential and results in more sodium channels
opening. Sodium ions are positively charged and so the inside of the cell
develops a net positive charge compared to the outside of the cell. This
results in depolarization as the potential across the membrane is
reversed.
A short while after this, voltage gated potassium channels open and
potassium ions flow out of the cell down the concentration gradient.
Since potassium ions are positively charged, their diffusion out of the
cell causes a net negative charge to develop again inside the cell
compared to the outside. The potential across the membrane is
restored. This is called repolarization.
Finally, the concentration gradients of both ions are restored by the
sodium-potassium pump. Sodium is pumped out of the cell while
potassium is pumped in. The resting potential is restored and the neuron
is ready to conduct another nerve impulse.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

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Summary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Resting potential rises above threshold level.

Voltage gated sodium channels open.
Sodium ions flow into the cell, more sodium channels open.
Inside of cell develops a net positive charge compared to the
outside and results in depolarization.
Voltage gated potassium channels open.
Potassium ions flow out of the cell.
Cell develops a net negative charge compared to the outside and
results in repolarization.
Concentration gradients restored by sodium-potassium pumps.
Resting potential is restored.

6.5.6 Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.

A synapse is a junction that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or
chemical signal to another cell. At a synapse, the plasma membrane of
the signal passing neuron (presynaptic neuron) is closely related to the
plasma membrane of the target cell (postsynaptic neuron). Between the
two there is a narrow fluid filled space called the synaptic cleft. Chemical
signals called neurotransmitters pass from the presynaptic neuron to
the post synaptic neuron.
This
is
how
a
synaptic
transmission
occurs:
An action potential travels along the neuron and reaches the end of the
pre-synaptic neuron. The depolarization of the pre-synaptic membrane
results in the opening of voltage gated calcium channels. Calcium ions
flow into the presynaptic neuron and cause vesicles with
neurotransmitters inside the neuron to fuse with the plasma membrane
and release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis.
These neurotransmitters then diffuse within the synaptic cleft and some
will bind to specific receptors located on the postsynaptic plasma
membrane. The receptors are transmitted-gated ion channels which
open and let sodium and other positively charged ions into the
postsynaptic neuron when the neurotransmitters bind. As these
positively charged ions enter the postsynaptic neuron they cause its
membrane to depolarize. This depolarization results in an action
potential which passes down the postsynaptic neuron. The
neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are then quickly degraded and
the calcium ions are pumped back into the synaptic cleft from inside the
presynaptic neuron.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

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Figure 6.5.2 - Synaptic transmission

Summary:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Action potential reaches the end of a presynaptic neuron.

Voltage gated calcium channels open.
Calcium ions flow into the presynaptic neuron.
Vesicles with neurotransmitters inside the presynaptic neuron fuse
with the plasma membrane.
Neurotransmitters diffuse in the synaptic cleft and bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
The receptors are channels which open and let sodium ions into
the postsynaptic neuron.
The sodium ions cause the postsynaptic membrane to depolarize.
This causes an action potential which passes down the
postsynaptic neuron.
Neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are degraded and the
calcium ions are pumped back into the synaptic cleft.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

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6.5.7

State that the endocrine system consists

of glands that release hormones that are
transported in the blood.

The endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are
transported in the blood.

6.5.8

State that homeostasis involves maintaining the

internal environment between limits, including
blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood
glucose concentration, body temperature and
water balance.

Homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between

limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose
concentration, body temperature and water balance.

6.5.9

Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring

levels of variables and correcting changes in
levels by negative feedback mechanisms.

Homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between

limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose
concentration, body temperature and water balance. Blood and tissue
fluid (derived from blood) make up the internal environment. This
internal environment varies very little compared to the external
environment which varies greatly. Negative feed back is used to keep
the internal environment between limits. It uses the nervous and
endocrine system to do so. It has a stabilising effect as any change from
a set point level will result in an opposite change. The levels of
production of for example blood glucose, feed back to affect the rate of
production. If blood glucose levels rise above the set point, this will feed
back to decrease production and reduce the level back around the set
point. A decrease in blood glucose levels below the set point will result
in an increase in production so that the levels increase back to the set
point. Small fluctuations around the set point will not cause any
response. Negative feed back is only triggered when there are significant
increases or decreases from the set point.

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Summary:
1. Homeostasis maintains the internal environment between limits.
2. Negative feed back is used to do so. Any change from a set point
results in an opposite change.

6.5.10

Explain the control of body temperature,

including the transfer of heat in blood, and
the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands,
skin arterioles and shivering.

The hypothalamus is responsible for monitoring the temperature of the

blood which is normally close to 37 degrees. If there are significant
fluctuations from this set point, the hypothalamus sends signals
(messages carried by neurons) to different parts of the body to restore
the temperature back to the set point. This is done through negative
feedback.

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If blood temperature If blood temperature

significantly increases significantly
drops
above the set point
bellow the set point
Skin arterioles increase in
diameter so that more
blood flows to the skin. By
doing so it transfers heat
from the core of the body
to the skin and this heat is
then lost to the external
environment,
cooling
down the body in the
process.

Skin arterioles decrease in

diameter so that less
blood flows to the skin.
The diameter of the
capillaries in the skin
cannot change but less
blood flows through them.
This prevents heat loss to
the external environment
as the temperature of the
skin falls.

Shivering occurs. This is

Skeletal muscle stays when the skeletal muscle
relaxed so that more heat does many small rapid
is not generated.
contractions to generate
heat.
Sweat
glands
secrete
large amounts of sweat
which makes the surface
of the skin moist. When
water evaporates from
the moist skin it cools
down the body.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

Sweat glands to not

secrete sweat and so no
water evaporation can
occur as skin stays dry.

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6.5.11

Explain
the
control
of
blood
glucose
concentration, including the roles of glucagon,
insulin and and cells in the pancreatic islets.

Blood glucose concentration does not have a specific set point like blood
temperature. Blood glucose levels drop and rise through the day and so
the body usually tries to keep blood glucose levels around 4 to 8
millimoles per dm3 of blood. Once again, negative feedback is used to
do so. There are responses by target organs which affect the rate at
which glucose is taken up from the blood or loaded into the blood.
Response
to
glucose levels
the set point

blood Response
to
above glucose levels
the set point

cells in the pancreatic

islets produce insulin.
Insulin stimulates muscle
cells and the liver cells to
take up glucose from the
blood and convert it into
glycogen. These are then
stored in the form of
granules in the cytoplasm
of cells. Also, other types
of cells are stimulated to
take up glucose and use it
for cell respiration instead
of fat. All of these
processes lower the levels
of glucose in the blood.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

blood
below

cells in the pancreatic

islets produce glucagon.
Glucagon stimulates the
liver cells to convert
glycogen
back
into
glucose and release this
glucose into the blood.
This raises the glucose
levels in the blood.

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6.5.12 Distinguish between type I and type II

diabetes.
Type I diabetes

Type II diabetes

The onset is usually early, The onset is usually late,

sometime
during sometime
after
childhood.
childhood.
cells do not produce Target
cells
become
enough insulin.
insensitive to insulin.
Diet by itself cannot be
used
to
control
the
condition.
Insulin
injections are needed to
control glucose levels.

Insulin injections are not

usually
needed.
Low
carbohydrate diet can
control the condition.

Reproduction
6.6.1 Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and
female reproductive systems.

Figure 6.6.1 - The male reproductive system

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Figure 6.6.2 - The female reproductive system

6.6.2

Outline the role of hormones in the

menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle
stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing
hormone), estrogen and progesterone.

The menstrual cycle:

1. FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland and its levels start to rise.
This stimulates the follicle to develop and the follicle cells to secret
estrogen.
2. Estrogen then causes the follicle cells to make more FSH receptors
so that these can respond more strongly to the FSH.
3. This is positive feedback and causes the estrogen levels to increase
and stimulate the thickening of the endometrium (uterus lining).
4. Estrogen levels increase to a peak and by doing so it stimulates LH
secretion from the pituitary gland.
5. LH then increases to its peak and causes ovulation (release of egg
from the follicle).
6. LH then stimulates the follicle cells to secrete less estrogen and
more progesterone. Once ovulation has occurred, LH stimulated
the follicle to develop into the corpus luteum.
7. The corpus luteum then starts to secrete high amounts of
progesterone. This prepares the uterine lining for an embryo.

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8. The high levels of estrogen and progesterone then start to inhibit

FSH and LH.
9. If no embryo develops the levels of estrogen and progesterone fall.
This stimulates menstruation (break down of the uterine lining).
When the levels of these two hormones are low enough FSH and
LH start to be secreted again.
10.
FSH levels rise once again and a new menstrual cycle begins.

6.6.3 Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in

the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship
between changes in hormone levels and ovulation,
menstruation and thickening of the endometrium.
6.6.4 List three roles of testosterone in males.
Roles:
1. Stimulates the development of prenatal genitalia.
2. Stimulates the development of the male secondary sexual
characteristics such as growth of the skeletal muscle and pubic
hair.
3. During adulthood it maintains the sex drive.

6.6.5 Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF).

Process:
1. For a period of three weeks, the women has to have a drug injected
to stop her normal menstrual cycle.
2. After these three weeks, high doses of FSH are injected once a day
for 10-12 days so that many follicles develop in the ovaries of the
women.
3. HCG (another hormone) is injected 36 hours before the collection
of the eggs. HCG loosens the eggs in the follicles and makes them
mature.
4. The man needs to ejaculate into a jar so that sperm can be
collected from the semen. The sperm are processed to concentrate
the healthiest ones.
5. A device that is inserted through the wall of the vagina is used to
extract the eggs from the follicles.

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6. Each egg is then mixed with sperm in a shallow dish. The dishes
are then put into an incubator overnight.
7. The next day the dishes are looked at to see if fertilization has
happened.
8. If fertilization has been successful, two or three of the embryos
are chosen to be placed in the uterus by the use of a long plastic
tube.
9. A pregnancy test is done a few weeks later to find out if any of the
embryos have implanted.
10. A scan is done a few weeks later to find out if the pregnancy is
progressing normally.

6.6.6 Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF

Arguments for IVF

Arguments against IVF

Many types of infertility

are due to environmental
factors
rather
than
genetic which means that
the offspring would not
inherit the infertility.

The infertility of the

parents may be inherited
by their offspring passing
on the suffering to the
next generation.

The embryos that are

killed during the IVF
process cannot feel pain
or suffering as they do not
have a developed nervous
system.

More
embryos
are
produced than needed
and the ones that remain
are usually killed which
denies them the chance of
a life.

Suffering
caused
by
genetic diseases can be
decreases by screening
the
embryos
before
placing them into the
uterus.

Embryologists
select
which embryos will be
placed into the uterus.
Therefore they decide the
fate of new individuals as
they choose which ones
will survive and which
ones will die.

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Since the IVF process is

not
an
easy
one
emotionally
and
physically, is costly, takes
time and there are no
guarantees, parents who
are willing to go through it
must have a strong desire
to have children and
therefore are likely to be
loving parents.

IVF is not a natural

process which takes place
in a laboratory compared
to
natural
conception
which occurs as a result of
an act of love.

Infertility
can
cause
emotional suffering to
couples who want to have
children. IVF can take
away this suffering for
some of those couples.

Infertility
should
be
accepted as Gods will and
to go against it by using
IVF procedures would be
wrong.

IB Biology Notes by Adeel Ahmad

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